Mechanical Properties

of Gray Iron
M
icroscopically, all gray
iron contains flake graph-
ite dispersed in a silicon-iron
matrix. How much graphite is
present, the length of the flakes
and how they are distributed in
the matrix directly influence the
properties of the iron.
The basic strength and hard-
ness of the iron is provided by
the metallic matrix in which the
graphite occurs. The properties
of the metallic matrix can range
from those of a soft, low-carbon
steel to those of hardened, high-
carbon steel. The matrix can be
entirely ferritic for maximum
machinability, but the iron will
have reduced wear resistance
and strength. An entirely pearl-
itic matrix is characteristic of
high-strength gray irons, and
many castings are produced
with a matrix microstructure of both fer-
rite and pearlite to obtain intermediate
hardness and strength. Alloy additions
and/or heat treatment can be used to pro-
duce gray iron with very fine pearlite or
with an acicular matrix structure.
Graphite has little strength or hard-
ness, so it decreases these properties of the
metallic matrix. However, graphite pro-
vides several valuable characteristics to
cast iron. These include:
the ability to produce sound castings
economically in complex shapes such
as water-cooled engine blocks;
good machinability, even at wear-resist-
ing hardness levels and without burring;
dimensional stability under differential
heating, such as in brake drums and disks;
high vibration damping as in power
transmission cases;
borderline lubrication retention as in
internal combustion engine cylinders.
Composition
The properties of gray iron primarily
depend on its composition. The lower
strength grades of gray iron
can be produced consistently
by simply selecting the proper
melting stock. Iron castings in
the higher strength grades re-
quire close control of their
processing and composition.
The majority of the carbon
(C) in gray iron is present as
graphite. Increased amounts
of graphite result from an in-
creased total C content in the
iron. This decreases the
strength and hardness of the
iron, but increases other desir-
able characteristics.
An appreciable silicon (Si)
content also is necessary in
gray iron because this element
causes the precipitation of the
graphite in the iron. The Si also
contributes to the distinctive
properties of gray iron. It
maintains a moderate hardness level, even
in the fully annealed condition, and thus
assures excellent machinability. Also, Si
imparts corrosion and elevated tempera-
ture oxidization resistance to gray iron.
The effects of C, Si and phosphorus (P)
on the tensile properties of gray iron are
combined into a number called the car-
bon equivalent (C.E.), as defined by the
following equation:
% Si + % P
% Total C
When the C.E. is 4.3, the alloy is a eutec-
tic. This equation also, in effect, indi-
cates that, on the basis of percent by
weight, the Si and P contents of gray
iron influence its tensile properties in
the same manner as its total C con-
tent but only by one-third as much.
Other characteristics, such as thermal
shock resistance, do not follow this
relationship.
Gray iron can be alloyed to increase
its strength and hardness as-cast or its
response to hardening by heat treat-
ment. The metal also can be annealed
to a low hardness to increase machin-
ability, but this decreases its strength.
Section Thickness
A very important influence on
gray iron properties is the effective
The excellent vibration damping characteristics of gray iron make it an
ideal metal for automotive casting applications, like these block and
head castings produced by Navistar Internationals Indianapolis Cast-
ing Corp., Indianapolis.
C.E. = + 3
Table 1. Grades of Automotive Gray Iron Castings Designated by Brinell Hardness (Bhn) as in Speci-
fication SAE J431
SAE Specified Minimum Tensile Other
Grade Hardness (Bhn)* Strength Requirements
(for design purposes)
psi MPa
G1800 187 max 18,000 124
G2500 170-229 25,000 173
G2500a** 170-229 25,000 173 3.4% min. C and
microstructure specified
G3000 187-241 30,000 207
G3500 207-255 35,000 241
G3500b** 207-255 35,000 241 3.4% min. C and
microstructure specified
G3500c** 207-255 35,000 241 3.5% min. C and
microstructure specified
G4000 217-269 40,000 276
*hardness at a designated location on the castings
**for applications such as brake drums, discs and clutch plates to resist thermal shock
213
Close metallurgical controls at the foundry can provide a
consistent, tight-grained, easily machined gray iron appli-
cation, like these gray iron class 35 and class 40 sheaves
cast at Dotson Co., Inc., Mankato, Minnesota.
Table 2. Hardness Ranges for Gray Irons
Type of Matrix Microstructure Brinell
Gray Iron Around Flake Graphite Hardness
Soft-Annealed All Ferrite 110-140
Ordinary Pearlite and Ferrite 140-200
Higher Strength Fine Pearlite 200-270
Alloyed-Acicular Bainite 260-350
Austenitic (Ni-Resist) Austenite 140-160
Heat Treat Hardened Martensite 480-550
Hardened and Tempered Tempered Martensite 250-450
Chilled (White Iron) Pearlite and Carbides 400-500
section thickness in which it is cast. The
thicker the metal and the more compact
the casting, the slower the liquid metal will
solidify and cool in the mold. As with all
metals, slower solidification causes a
larger grain size to form during solidifi-
cation. In gray iron, slower solidification
produces a larger graphite flake size. The
cooling of a casting from red heat is, in
effect, a heat treatment. A slower cooling
of the casting will produce a lower hard-
ness in the metallic matrix.
Alternately, iron that is cast into a sec-
tion that is too thin will solidify very rap-
idly. A casting with separate sections that
are appreciably different in thickness can
have differences in graphite size and ma-
trix hardness between the thick and thin
sections, even though the entire casting
was poured with the same iron. These dif-
ferences in structure produce differences
in mechanical properties.
Classes of Gray Iron
Gray iron is classified commonly
by its minimum tensile strength. A
class 30 gray iron indicates that it has
a nominal tensile strength of 30,000
psi. In the International Standard, or
Sl System, a similar iron would be
grade 220 with a tensile strength of 220
megapascals (MPa) or 220 newtons/sq
mm. A class designation may be used to
indicate a grade of iron, even when ten-
sile strength is not an important con-
sideration and may not be specified or
tested. However, when the class desig-
nation is used in conjunction with a
standard specification that requires a
minimum tensile strength, actual ten-
sile tests are made to determine if the
metal meets this requirement.
In a particular size or type of casting,
gray iron also can be satisfactorily desig-
nated by its Brinell hardness (see Table 1).
This designation has the advantage of us-
ing a nondestructive test that can be
applied in routine inspection.
The common engineering proper-
ties of gray iron can be related to its
strength and hardness. The chemical
composition of gray iron is not com-
monly specified because it does not
assure obtaining specific mechanical
properties. However, for special appli-
cations, some aspect of chemical com-
position may be specified to assure the
suitability of the iron for a specific
need. For example, an alloy content
range may be specified to assure an ad-
equate response to heat treatment or to
provide strength or oxidization resistance
in service at a red heat. A minimum C
content may be specified to provide ad-
equate thermal shock resistance.
Hardness
Hardness is the most commonly de-
termined property of metal because it is
a simple test and many useful properties
of metal are directly related to its hard-
ness. Within a class or type of gray iron,
hardness is a good indicator of its engi-
neering properties, but this relation is not
useful between types of gray iron because
differences in graphite structure have
more of an effect on tensile properties
than on hardness.
Specifying the hardness at a designated
area on each casting is an excellent method
of establishing consistency of castings in
production. Compression strength does
correlate very well with hardness for all
types of iron because hardness is essen-
tially a compression test. Hardness usu-
ally gives a good indication of tool life in
machining, however, the presence of free
carbides in the microstructure will reduce
the machinability much more than it in-
creases the hardness.
The typical hardness ranges avail-
able in gray iron are listed in Table 2.
The Brinell hardness test is used for all
irons because the Brinell test impression
is large enough to average the hardness
of the constituents in the microstruc-
ture. Rockwell hardness B or C scale
tests can be used satisfactorily on ma-
chined surfaces where the supporting
surface al so i s machi ned. Several
Rockwell tests should be averaged, but
extreme values should be discarded be-
cause of inordinate influence by a
graphite flake or a hard constituent.
A conversi on chart between
Rockwell and Brinell hardness values
can be accurate for steel, but deviations
occur with gray iron, and deviations
increase with high C. E. irons. The
amount of flake graphite present influ-
ences the two tests differently. This is
evi dent from a compari son of
microhardness test results on the ma-
trix of gray irons compared to standard
Rockwell C values of the same irons. The
microhardness impressions do not in-
clude the graphite flakes that are present
under the Rockwell C hardness indenter.
For this reason the hardness of gray
iron should not be compared directly to
the hardness of other metals for an indi-
cation of properties such as machinabil-
ity or wear resistance. However, some ef-
fective hardness conversions can be made
between selective types of hardness.
The hardness is affected by processing
and composition of gray iron because
these factors influence the microstructure.
Tensile Properties
The tensile properties of gray iron
(tensile strength, yield strength, ductil-
ity and modulus of elasticity) can
be established by a conventional
test, as specified by the ASTM2.
Although yield strength and duc-
tility may be measured, they are
seldom determined or specified.
The modulus of elasticity of gray
iron is not constant, as in the case
of steel, and varies with the class
of iron and type of loading.
Factors Affecting
Strength
The mechanical properties of
gray iron are determined by the
combined effect of its chemical
composition, processing technique
in the foundry, and the solidifica-
tion and cooling rates. Thus, the
214
mechanical properties of the metal in a
casting will depend on its shape, size and
wall thickness as well as on the iron that
is used to pour it.
Base Chemical Composition
The tensile strength of gray iron is in-
fluenced by both the normal elements
present in plain iron, such as C, Si, P, sul-
fur (S) and manganese (Mn), and the
presence of alloying additions and trace
elements. In gray iron, C and Si are im-
portant elements and are combined, usu-
ally with P, in a C.E. expression.
Hypereutectic iron (having a C.E. of
more than 4.3) usually contains coarse
graphite. It is of lower strength but is ex-
cellent in thermal shock applications and
for vibration damping. Hypoeutectic gray
iron (having a C.E. less than 4.3) is of
higher strength because the amount and
size of the graphite flakes decrease with
the C.E. value.
A higher C.E. value reduces strength
due to the formation of larger amounts
of coarser graphite and, commonly, more
ferrite. Mn, S and P are present in plain
gray irons and influence the tensile
strength to some extent. Because it exerts
marked effects on the solidification behav-
ior of iron, S is a significant element. For
this reason, the S content in iron usually
is controlled within limits and with a se-
lected ratio to the Mn content, since S
combines chemically with Mn to form
manganese sulfide. The minimum Mn
content in iron is generally 1.7 times the S
content plus 0.12% Mn. This assures that
all of the S will combine with Mn rather
than with iron.
Mn in excess of this amount is a mild
carbide stabilizer, refining the pearlite and
increasing the hardness and tensile strength.
An excess of Mn or P can cause dispersed
internal porosity in heavier sections,
such as bosses. For this reason, P is
kept as low as practical except for spe-
cial-purpose irons. Increasing P pro-
vides a somewhat higher tensile
strength, but contents over 0.20% re-
duce machinability, particularly in
drilling operations.
Fatigue Properties
Metals that are subjected to re-
peated or fluctuating loads, such as
alternating between tension and
compression, can break after a large
number of loading cycles, even
though the maximum stress was
well below the static strength of the
metal. This type of fracture is called
a fatigue failure, although the rate
of load application or the length of
time over which the cycles occur are
not significant. The occurrence of a fa-
tigue crack is directly influenced by the
maximum unit stress and the cumulative
number of times it is applied.
A fatigue crack starts in an area of high
stress concentration after a large number
of loading cycles. It is always a brittle type
of fracture even when occurring in duc-
tile metals. As the crack progresses, it in-
creases the stress concentration, and the
rate of propagation under the cyclic load-
ing increases. When the cross-section of
the remaining metal becomes insufficient
to support the maximum load, complete
failure occurs as it would under an exces-
sive steady stress.
The number of stress applications that
will induce a fatigue failure is fewer at
higher maximum stress values, and, con-
versely, a larger number of stress cycles can
occur at a lower maximum stress level
before a fatigue crack is initiated. When
the number of cycles without failure ex-
ceeds 10 million, the endurance life is con-
sidered infinite for body-centered-cubic
ferrous metals. The maximum stress that
will allow this number of cycles is estab-
lished as the endurance limit or the fatigue
strength (fatigue limit).
Damping Capacity
The relative ability of a material to ab-
sorb vibration is evaluated as its damp-
ing capacity. The quelling of vibration by
converting the mechanical energy into
heat can be important in structures and
devices with moving parts. Components
made of materials with a high damping
capacity can reduce noise such as chatter,
ringing and squealing and minimize the
level of applied stresses. Because it can
cause unsatisfactory operation or even
failure, vibration can be a critical factor
in machinery operation.
Due in part to its affordability and easy castability, gray
iron remains one of the most widely cast metals. Shown is a
212-lb gray iron case manufactured by Neenah Foundry,
Neenah, Wisconsin.
In addition, an accumulation of vibra-
tional energy without adequate dissipa-
tion can result in an increasing amplitude
of vibration. Excessive vibration can re-
sult in inaccuracy in precision machinery
and in excessive wear on gear teeth and
bearings. Mating surfaces normally con-
sidered in steady contact can be caused to
fret by vibration.
The exceptionally high damping ca-
pacity of gray cast iron is one of the
most valuable qualities of this material.
For this reason, it is ideally suited for
machine bases and supports, engine cyl-
inder blocks and brake components.
The damping capacity of gray iron is
considerably greater than that of steel
or other kinds of iron. This behavior is
attributed to the flake graphite structure
of the gray iron, along with its unique
stress-strain characteristics. The relative
damping capacity of several different
metals is illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3. Relative Damping Capacity
Material x 10-
4
*
White Iron 2-4
Malleable Iron 8-15
Ductile Iron 5-20
Gray Iron, Fine Flake 20-100
Gray Iron, Coarse Flake 100-500
Eutectoid Steel 4
Armco Iron 5
Aluminum 0.4
*natural log of the ratio of successive
amplitude
Damping capacity decreases with in-
creasing strength since the larger amount
of graphite present in the lower strength
irons increases the energy absorbed.
Thicker cast sections increase damping ca-
pacity, and inoculation usually decreases
it. Heat treating also can have an appre-
ciable effect on damping capacity.
Fracture Toughness
The fracture toughness of a ma-
terial is a measure of the work re-
quired to fracture it. This required
work is related to the materials re-
sistance to crack initiation and
growth. The work or energy dissi-
pated in fracturing a material is as-
sociated with the elastic and plastic
deformation of the material and/or
crazing (microcracking) that pre-
cedes final fracture. The fracture
toughness will generally vary with
temperature, state of stress and
strain rate, all of which influence the
amount of deformation that pre-
cedes fracture.
For more information, see Resources for Cast-
ing Designers & Buyers, p. 67.
215