Atomic Structure

Sec 3 Chemistry Notes

Candidates should be able to:
a. Identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative charges and
relative masses
b. Deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in both electric and
magnetic fields
c. Describe the distribution of mass and charges within an atom
d. Deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms and ions given
proton and nucleon numbers (and charge)
e. i. Describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in terms
of proton number and nucleon number
ii. Distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of neutrons
present
f. Describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for the principal quantum
numbers , ! and " and also the #s and #p orbitals.
g. Describe the shapes of s and p orbitals
h. $tate the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton number (and charge)
i. i. %&'plain the factors influencing the ioni(ation energies of elements
ii. %&'plain the trends in ioni(ation energies across a period and down a group
of the )eriodic *able
+. %Deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive ioni(ation energy data
,. %Interpret successive ioni(ation energy data of an element in terms of the position of that
element within the )eriodic *able
% denotes enhanced curriculum of $-*)
References:
. . C /ill 0 1 $ /olman : Chemistry of Conte't (2
th
&dition)
!. & 3 4amsden : 5 6evel Chemistry
". - 7reemantle : Chemistry in 5ction
#. 1 . 4 8riggs : 6ongman 5 6evel .uide
2. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.c.us/webdocs/AtomicStructure/AtomicStructure.htm!
9. http://!ibrry.think"uest.or#/3$%&/structures/
:. http://www.chem#uide.co.uk/tommenu.htm!
;. http://web.''y.cuny.edu/(crpi/NSC/inde).htm
<. http://www.webe!ements.com/webe!ements/scho!r/inde).htm!
=. http://!ibrry.think"uest.or#/1&$$2/!ow/en#/i mproved*bohr.htm!
. http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essenti!chemistry/f!sh/ruther1+.swf
,n!ine resource
http://sec3chemistrypehyk.wiki.hci.edu.s#/
Atomic Structure
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 1
An tom cn be represented by the fo!!owin# di#rm:
5n atom is defined as the smallest part of an element that can ta,e part in a chemical change.
5toms are very small. *hey are measured in nanometers (=. nm).
5n atom is made up of three subatomic particles: protons3 e!ectrons nd neutrons.
*he nucleus consists of protons ( positively charged ) and neutrons (neutral). )rotons and
neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
*he electrons move around the nucleus in definite energy levels or electron shells.
*he relative masses and charged of the particles are as follows:
Sub*tomic
1rtic!es
Re!tive /ss Re!tive Chr#e
)roton (p) >
3eutron (n) =
&lectron (e)
?;#= ( = )
@
*he nucleus is very dense since it provides all the mass, but very little of the volume of an atom.
*he electrons are attracted electrostatically by the protons.
Protons (positively charged) and electrons (negatively charged) are deflected by both electric and
magnetic fields, but in opposite directions. Neutrons are uncharged and are not deflected at all.
The deflection of the three types of atomic particles in an electric field is shown below:

neutron
proton
electron
magnetic field into
plane of paper
source

>
force (motion)
field
current
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x
x x
x x
x

)rotons are deflected towards negative potential.
&lectrons are deflected towards the positive potential.
$i(e of deflection depends on relative masses of the particles. *he lighter particles are
deflected more than the heavier ones. /ence electrons are deflected more than protons. (i.e
angle of deflection for electron is larger).
In a neutral atom, number of protons A number of electrons.
&.g. In a neutral carbon atom, no. of protons A 9 B no. of electrons A 9.
*he atom is said to be e!ectric!!y neutr!.
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 2
Nuc!eus continin#
protons nd
neutrons
e!ectrons
444
X
A
z
*he proton number is also ,nown as the tomic number. It refers to the number of protons
in the atom.
Mass number, also ,nown as the nucleon number, A number of protons > number of neutrons.
In the )eriodic *able, the structure of an atom is written in symbol form as
5)mp!e 1.
6ithium, symbol has " protons, " electrons and :@" A # neutrons and
mass number is :.
3ote:
i. 5ny atomic species of which the proton number and the nucleon number are specified is
,nown as a nuclide.
ii. )articles, ions, atoms or groups of atoms having the sme tot! number of e!ectrons are
isoelectronic .
7or e'ample, a fluoride ion, 7
@
is isolectronic with a 3e atom as both have = electrons.
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 3
6i
7
3
S-/8,6
,9
565/5N0
N:C65,N
N:/85R
1R,0,N
N:/85R
,R
where C is the symbol of the elementB
5 A mass no. or nucleon no.
D A no. of protons
;sotopes
;sotopes re toms of the sme e!ement hvin# the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons. Isotopes have same chemical properties but slightly different physical
properties such as boiling points and density. &'ample, the three isotopes of hydrogen all burn in
air to form water but they have different boiling points and density.
&'amples:
a) /ydrogen has three isotopes:
b) Chlorine has two isotopes:
5)mp!e on c!cu!tion of re!tive tomic msses #iven bundnce
The mass spectrum of chlorine is shown below, calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
4elative atomic mass of Cl A 5 . 35 37
100
5
35
100
75
= + x x
3ote:
i) 3aturally occurring elements often consist of a mi'ture of isotopes and this results in
relative atomic mass which is not close to whole number.
ii) *he relative atomic mass is a weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of the
different isotopes (weighted i.e. in the proportions in which they occur).
iii) *he relative atomic mass of a single isotope is called its re!tive isotopic mss.
*ypes of isotopes (enrichment and self@study)
Isotopes can be divided into two types @ radioactive and non@radioactive. 4adioactive
isotopes give out radiation. -ost isotopes in the air and the ground are non@radioactive.
-ost radioactive isotopes are artificial.
;sotope :ses
Cobalt@9= Esed in cancer therapy
Eranium@!"2 Esed in nuclear reactor to generate energy.
Carbon@# Esed in archaeological age dating
)lutonium@!"< Esed in nuclear weapon
5!ectronic Confi#urtion
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 +
<
2
1
<
1
1
<
3
1
37
17
C! C!
3%
17
Abundnce
=>?
3% 37
mss
7%
2%
5n atom can be pictured as a small nucleus surrounded by a much larger volume of e'tranuclear
space in which electrons are rapidly moving.
*hese electrons then occupy certain available energy levels. *hese energy levels are also
referred to as princip! "untum she!! or simply electron shells.
&ach shell is given a principal quantum number, n. *he shells are numbered , !, " etc., starting
from the nucleus. (e.g. the first shell has principal quantum number A ). *he larger the value of
n, the further from the nucleus we are Fli,ely to findF the electron.
*he closer the quantum shell to the nucleus, the #reter the attraction between the electrons
occupying it and the nucleus, the lower the energy of the electrons. *hat is, when
n A , quantum shell has the lowest energy.
&ach shell consists of a number of subshells, labelled s3 p , d and f. *he number of subshells in
each shell equals the shell number. /ence the first shell has one subshell, the second shell has
two subshells, etc.
She!! number Number of subshe!!s

! !
" "
*he subshells within the shell are associated with different energies:
s subshell G p subshell G d subshell G f subshell
&.g. energy of #s G #p G #d G #f.
&ach subshell contains a number of orbitals, in which the electrons are placed. *he number of
orbitals in each subshell depends on the type of subshell:
0ype of subshe!! Number of orbit!s
s
p "
d 2
f :
&lectrons in atoms do not occupy fi'ed positions in an orbital. 5n orbital is defined as the
region within which there is a 9! probability of locating a particular electron in a free atom.
Hn this model, the electron is not described as revolving in an orbit. *he electron is said to
occupy a three dimensional space around the nucleus called an atomic orbital.
*he nucleus is described as being surrounded by a three dimensional Icloud of chargeJ or
electron cloud.
*he three types of orbitals have shapes shown below:
5ll s orbitals are spheric! in shape. *hey only differ in si(e. *he "s orbital is bigger than !s,
which is bigger than s.
p orbitals are dumb*be!! shped but have different orientations in space and are designated
p', py and p(.
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 %
s orbit!
p orbit!s
!
x
z
!
!
z
z
x
x
9i!!in# order is therefore:
444444444444444444444444444444444444444

p
)
orbit! p
y
orbit! p
@
orbit!
In an atom, the orbitals have definite amounts of energy called energy levels. *he relative
energies of the orbitals of atoms up to atomic number !=, is shown below.
Aeductions from the di#rm:
a. *he further away an orbital from the nucleus, the KKKKKKKKKKK its energy
s orbital (nA) is closest to the nucleus and has the KKKKKKKKKKKK energy among all the
orbitals.
b. Hrbitals in the same subshell have equal energy. *hey are also ,nown as LKKKKKKKKKKKM
orbitals. e.g. !p', !py and !p( have equal energies.
c. &nergy of a "d orbital is slightly KKKKKKKKKKK than that of a #s orbital.
Britin# e!ectronic confi#urtion
&lectronic configuration of an element describes how the electrons of its atoms are arranged in their
shells, KKKKKKKKKKKKKK and KKKKKKKKKKKKK.
In an atom, the orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy (starting from s) according to the
following rules:
. *he added electron will always occupy the orbital with the lowest energy first. *his is ,nown as
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK )rinciple. *o remember the order of filling, remember this
diagram:
!. &ach orbital can hold a ma'imum of two electrons of opposite spins *his is ,nown as
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK )rinciple.
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 $
1 2 3 +
ener#y
1rincip!
ener#y !eve!
". Nhen filling a sub@shell, each orbital must be occupied singly (,eeping electron spins the
same) before they are occupied in pairs. *his is ,nown as
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK.
#. &lectrons have spin. 5n electron can spin in two different directions @ shown as KKKKKKKKK or
KKKKKKKKKKK.
*wo electrons in the same orbital have opposite spins.
i.e and not
$ingle electrons in the same subshell have the same spin.
i.e
*here are three ways of writing electronic configuration @ using the F&lectrons@in@bo'esF
representation, using s, p, d, f notation or using a noble gas core.
1rctice
. a) Nrite the electronic configuration of first != elements using electron in bo'es
representation and s,p, d, f notation.
Element proton no Electron in boxes representation s, p, d, f notation
< 1 444444444444444444
<e 2 444444444444444444
6i 3 444444444444444444
8e + 444444444444444444
8 % 444444444444444444
C $ 444444444444444444
N 7 444444444444444444
, C 444444444444444444
9 & 444444444444444444
Ne 12 444444444444444444
N 11 444444444444444444
/# 12 444444444444444444
A! 13 444444444444444444
Si 1+ 444444444444444444
1 1% 4 44444444444444444
S 1$ 444444444444444444
C! 17 444444444444444444
Ar 1C 444444444444444444
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 7
0he bo) represents orbit!
and not
. 1&

C 22
! *he spdf notation representing the electronic configuration of a potassium atom is
s
!
!s
!
!p
9
"s
!
"p
9
#s

.Esing nob!e #s core, write the electronic configuration of the

potassium atom.
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
Note:
&lectronic configuration should be written in order of increasing principal quantum no (i.e. in
numerical order), N,0 in the order in which they are filled.
&'ample: Nrite the electronic configuration of -n (proton no. !2)
7illing order using 5ufbau principle : KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
&lectronic configuration is written as: KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
5!ectronic Confi#urtion of 5)cited Atoms nd ;ons
Nhen the electrons of atom or ion are in orbitals of lower energy, the atom or ion is said to be in
their ground state. 5ll the electronic structures described in page :@; are ground state structures.
&'ample: .round state of o'ygen atom

Nhen one or more electrons of an atom or ion absorb energy and move from their ground
state orbitals into higher energy orbitals, the electrons are said to be promoted and the atoms
e'cited.
&'ample:
.round state of a sodium atom:
&'cited state of sodium atom:
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 C
spdf nottion for potssium: 44444444444444444444444444444
spdf nottion for c!cium: 44444444444444444444444444444
Atomic Structure =D;oni@tion 5ner#y ?
*he first Ioni(ation energy is the amount of energy required to remove one electron from each atom
in a mo!e of #seous atoms.
7or e'ample, the
st
and !
nd
ioni(ation energy of a sodium atom can be represented by the following
equation:

st
I&: 3a =#? O 3a
>
=#? > e
@
!
nd
I&: 3a
>
=#? O 3a
!>
=#? > e
@
9ctors inf!uencin# ioni@tion ener#ies:
. si(e of atom?ion
*he electron lost in ioni(ation is always removed from the outer shell. *he bigger the atom is,
the further this electron is from the nucleus. /ence the wea,er the attractive force of the
nucleus and so the less the energy required to remove the electron.
!. si(e of the positive nuclear charge
The nuclear charge is the total charge of all the protons in the nucleus.
*he greater the nuclear charge, the greater the attractive force of the nucleus on the electrons.
/ence the greater the energy required to remove an electron to produce ioni(ation.
". screening (shielding) effect of inner electrons.
*he outermost electron is screened (shielded) from the attraction of the nucleus by the
repelling effect of the inner electrons. 5s shielding increases, the attraction of the positive
nucleus for the negative electron decreases and less energy is required to remove an electronB
i.e. ioni(ation energy decreases.
Nhen more than one electron is removed from an atom, the energy required to remove the first
electron is called the first ioni(ation energy. *he energy required to remove the second electron is
called the second ioni(ation energy. *he second ioni(ation energy is larger than the first ioni(ation
energy, because more energy is required to pull an electron away from a positive ion.
*he number of ioni(ation energies that an element can have equal to its proton number.
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 &
As si@e of tom/ion increses3 ioni@tion ener#y decreses.
As nuc!er chr#e increses3 ioni@tion ener#y increses.
As shie!din# increses3 ioni@tion ener#y decreses.
0rends in ;oni@tion 5ner#y
Aown #roup, ioni(ation energy
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK.
Down a group, atomic radius KKKKKKKKK due to the increasing number of shells of electrons.
$hielding effect KKKKKKKKKK as there now more shells of core electrons shielding the valence
electrons from the nucleus.
3uclear charge KKKKKKKKKKKKKK as atom has more protons lower down the group.
*he effect of the increase in atomic radius and shielding effect KKKKKKKKKK the effect due to increase
in nuclear charge.
*hus the valence electron becomes KKKKKKKKKKKKKK strongly attracted by the positive nucleus and
so KKKKKKKKKK energy is required to remove the electron.
Across the period, ioni(ation energy KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK due to KKKKKKKKKKKKKKK nuclear
charge , KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK atomic radius and almost KKKKKKKKKKKKKK shielding effect as the
number of inner shells remain the same.
/ence the valence electrons are KKKKKKKKK strongly attracted by the positive nucleus and so,
KKKKKKKKK energy is required to remove an electron.
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 12
5lternative e'planation
Down the group, I& decreases.
4eason:
Down the group, nuclear charge increases (no. of protons increases).
Palence electrons are further away from the nucleus.
$hielding effect increases as there are now more shells of core electrons shielding the valence
electrons from the nucleus.
Hverall decrease in effective nuclear charge
=5ffective nuc!er chr#e is the resu!tnt ttrction of the nuc!eus towrds the v!ence
e!ectrons. Effective Nuclear Charge = Nuclear Charge Shielding Effect )
In summary,
&'ceptions to the trend:

st
I& of 8 G
st
I& of 8e (I& stands for ioni(ation energy)
8e s
!
!s
!
8 s
!
!s
!
!p

*his is because less energy is required to remove a !p electron in boron than a !s electron in
beryllium since the !p electron is KKKKKKKKKKKKKK away from the nucleus and it also
e'periences slightly better shielding.

st
I& of H G
st
I& of 3
3 H
In o'ygen, the two electrons occupying the same orbital give rise to KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
repulsion. *hus less energy is required to remove an electron from the paired !p electron in
o'ygen.
*he above ! anomalies are repeated in )eriod " (-g to 5l and ) to $)
6arge decrease in I& from 3e to 3a
3e s
!
!s
!
!p
9
3a s
!
!s
!
!p
9
"s

*he valence electron of sodium is in the third shell and is further away from the nucleus than the
valence electron of neon.
*hus, in sodium the valence electron is KKKKKKKK effectively shielded by the inner shells of
electrons and KKKKKKKKK energy is required to remove the "s electron.
3oble gases have the highest ioni(ation energy in each period because of a KKKKKKKK octet
configuration.
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 11
1rctice
. *he ioni(ation energies of all the electrons of an atom is shown in the diagram
below.
!. *he first eight ioni(ation energies of an element are as follows (in ,1 mol
@
):
"= "#== 2"== :2== === "=== :"== ;#==
*o which group does this element belongQ &'plain your answer briefly.
*he element belongs to .roup KKKKK.
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
Addition! Redin# =5nrichment?
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 12
a) Nhat is the proton no of this atomQ
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
b) /ow many electron shells?energy levels
does this atom haveQ
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
c) Deduce the electronic structure of the
atom using spdf notation.
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
-odel of the atom
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 13
.raphics from 5nn 0 )atric, 7ullic,, "hemistry, /einemann, H'ford, <<#
0echerEs copy =5nrichment?
Discoveries That Led to Our Model of the Atom
;=; DaltonFs 5tomic *heory
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 1+
-atter is made up of fundamental particles called atoms which combine to form
compounds.
;<: *homson discovered the negatively charged particles called electrons.
< 4utherford discovered positively charged particles called protons
<" 8ohr proposed that electrons move around atom in specific orbit li,e solar system
<" Chadwic, discovered that neutral particles called neutrons.
Eses of 4adio active isotopes
) Cobalt@9=
Irradiate cancer patients. *he dose must be carefully calculated, so that only the cancerous cells are
destroyed, leaving the healthy cells. It is also used to sterili(e surgical instruments used in operation.
4adiation can ,ill germs and bacteria.
!) Eranium@!"2
Eranium@!"2 constitiutes =.: R of natural uranium.
Nhen neutron is added to atom of E@!"2, it becomes unstable and divides into ! unequal parts.
*hese ! parts are slightly different in mass and heat is emitted according to the eqn & A mc
!
*his process is called nuclear fission and it is a chain reaction.
3uclear energy is harnessed in nuclear reaction in nuclear power station
3uclear energy is not common because of difficulty in disposing the nuclear waste and possible
nuclear melt down.
") Carbon@#
Esed to calculate age of plants and animals remains. )lants and animals ta,e in carbon which
contains a small percentage of carbon@#. Nhen animals and plants die, they do not ta,e in any
more carbon. *he carbon@# already present there starts decaying, as the rated decay reduces over
the years, the remaining activity of carbon@# is used to calculate the age of plants and animals.
*homsonJs video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RW_zfKOU9uM&feature=relate!! #hom$o%
S-./Sec 3 S/01 Chemistry/2212 1%