*Working Title*

Fundamental Fluid Physics Studies for Energy

Eciency and Sustain-ability
Richard Skifton
August 15, 2014
Abstract
-Write this last!!
The principal purpose of this study is to better understand entropy generation in a
transitional ow (that is between laminar and turbulent ow). This will provide insight into
how energy is lost in any given system and will provide pathways to reducing such losses.
This has application to a wide variety of elds. Both Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
and experimental methods will be used to achieve accurate results. I need to then put
results and conclusions here (which will probably take a couple of years).
Number of pages: [29]
Contents
1 Introduction/Background 6
2 Signicance and Relevance 8
3 Previous Work 9
3.1 Turbulence Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Hot-Wire Anemometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Uncertainty in Hot-Wire Anemometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.2 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.3 Using hot-wires to measure velocity uctuation derivatives . . . . . . 19
3.4 Particle Image Velocimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4 Needs and Justication 22
5 Preliminary Studies 23
6 Theory 23
7 Methods 23
8 Results 23
9 Conclusion and Future Work 24
1
10 References 25
11 Appendix A 26
2
List of Figures
1 Laminar to Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 High Reynolds Versus Low Reynolds Flow in a Free Shear Jet. . . . . . . . . 12
3 General Schematic of Hot Wire Anemometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4 An array of probes using multiple wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5 An Example of Matched Index of Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6 An Example of Velocity Field Found with PIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3
Nomenclature
- temperature coecient of resistance
A
S
- surface area
c

- empirical constant used in CFD

c
1
- empirical constant used in CFD
c
2
- empirical constant used in CFD
- turbulent dissipation rate g - acceleration of gravity
Gr - Grashof number
h - convective heat transfer coecient
k - turbulent kinetic energy or intensity
k
f
- thermal conductivity of uid
k
w
- thermal conductivity of wire
Ma - Mach number
- molecular (kinematic) viscosity
Nu - Nusselt number
- molecular diusivity
P,p - static pressure
Pr - Prandtl number
- temperature or concentration in the Naviar Stokes equations
- density
Q - heat transfer rate
4
R - resistance
Re - Reynolds number
r
h
- hydraulic radius
S

- entropy generation per volume

k
- empirical constant used in CFD

- empirical constant used in CFD

S - change in entropy
T - temperature
t - time
U - velocity
x,y,z - position
5
1 Introduction/Background
Some questions I asked:
- Why we study Entropy Generation?
- The need to understand it in the transitional ow
- What is entropy?
The world around us needs energy. The form of energy comes in from many directions,
but the energy itself is basically all the same. Countless amounts of BTUs are used every
day by the world, and when use of this energy is decreased even by 1% or less, billions of
dollars are saved. [needs reference].
The main objective of this thesis is to scientically obtain understanding of entropy
generation in a conned area from characteristic wall shear ows. This is due to the fact
that signicant understanding of entropy generation from ows of this kind are the principle
factors in saving energy and sustain-ability. This will in turn reduce fuel consumption, green
house gases, and/or waste. [Rose, Conf. 1998; Hill, ME 2008] The local entropy generation
rate per unit volume, S

, ascertains the localized contribution to losses. This study will give

us greater understanding of the governing sources of these loses which will help improve the
eciency and sustain-ability of energy in industry. The entropy, S

, generated from uid

friction in such ows as turbulent and laminar have had excessive study in the past [needs
6
reference], the trouble now lies in the transitional stage of uid ow. See Figure 1.
Images/Turbulent.jpg
Figure 1: Laminar to Turbulent Flow
This scientic research will help improve the understanding of entropy generation in
thermal uid ow above and beyond the current understanding. This will be very benecial,
due to its wide range of applicability in turbomachinary.
We will also be seeking the relationship of the second law of thermodynamics, which
states in simple terms:
It is impossible to construct an engine that will work in a complete cycle and
produce no other eect except to raising of a weight and the cooling of a heat
reservoir. (Max Planck)
7
One way to measure or understand the impossibility that Planck mentions, is with entropy
S =
Q
T
abs
(1)
where S is the change in entropy of a system, Q is the amount of heat added to the
system and T
abs
is the absolute temperature at which the heat was transfered. It must be
noted that the change in entropy, S, for a cyclic system must increase or stay the same,
in other words S0. The concept of entropy, S, and its generation are discussed in
great detail from Reynolds[1968], Bejan[1982a], and Gilmore[1996] among others. Entropy
in simple terms is the measurement of chaos or the unavailability of heat to perform work
in a cycle.
2 Signicance and Relevance
Entropy generation is a factor in all turbomachinary. Whenever there is heat being lost
to the surroundings and not being used as a reliable work source, this is a concern, yet is
inevitable.
This research will help push the US Department of Energy into its mission of advancing
the energy security of the United States with scientic ingenuity. Likewise, it will assist the
Idaho National Laboratorys (INL) mission of providing safe, competitive,and sustainable
energy systems.
8
3 Previous Work
Throughout the past century extensive research has been done on several dierent types of
ow systems. Yet, few have actually shown any concern for how entropy generation eects
the system. This is detrimental, because the viscous losses, when small eddies dissolve, are
lost to entropy generation or, in other words, heat. It has been touched on by Rotta [1962]
and Bejan [1982a] where they showed that viscous dissipation (which turns into entropy
generation) occurs most signicantly in the rst layer of ow from the wall, more commonly
known as the viscous layer.
3.1 Turbulence Modeling
Turbulence modeling is a means of mapping out the behavior of a uid ow at high Reynolds
numbers. It has many strengths in the sciences, but can be quite taxing on a computer
attempting the solution. Turbulence modeling is governed by three main equations which
can be expressed using tensor notation as: Mass conservation/continuity equation
U
i
x
i
= 0 (2)
Momentum conservation or Navier-Stokes equation
U
i
t
+ U
j
U
i
x
j
=
1

r
P
x
i
+

2
U
i
x
j
x
j
+ g
i

r

r
(3)
and Thermal energy or species concentration conservation

t
+ U
i

x
i
=

2

x
i
x
i
+ S

(4)
9
where U
i
is the instantaneous velocity component in the direction x
i
, P is the instantaneous
static pressure, and is a scalar quantity which stands for either temperature, T, or species
concentration c. S

is the volumetric source term which can be given as the heat from a
chemical reaction. and are the molecular (kinematic) viscosity and diusivity, respec-
tively. Together, with an equation of state relating the local density to the local quantities
of T and c, Eqs. (2) through (4) form a closed set, in other words, an exact solution.
These equations are accurately applied when grid sizes on the order of Re
9/5
are used.
This quickly brings up a red ag, in that no computer yet discovered is able to handle such
a computation. For example, a simple free shear water jet with and exit diameter of 2cm
and velocity of 0.5m/s has a Reynolds number of 10000. This means to accurately solve the
Navier-Stokes equation for this set-up a grid size on the order of 10
9
would be needed. To
further exemplify to model the ow over an airplane it would take 10
16
grid points; which
would take a computer with the power to do 10
12
oating-point operations per second it
would take several thousand years to compute the ow for one second of real time ight.
This is where turbulence modeling steps up to the plate and takes control.
Turbulence models utilize the idea of averaging Eqs. (2) through (4). Like explained in
the section on CFD. It should be noted that turbulence models are only accurate for a small
set of ows, given a certain set of empirical constants. They also only give an approximate
description of the uid ow.
The k- model is a widely used turbulence model that utilizes the ows kinetic energy,
10
k, and dissipation rate, . Where the value of k is found by twice the normal stresses
k =
1
2
_
u
2
1
+ u
2
2
+ u
2
3
_
(5)
and the value of is found to be
= c
0.75

k
1.5
l
(6)
where c

is an empirical constant and l is the turbulent length scale.

The values for k and together with a set of empirical constants (namely: c

, c
1
, c
2
,

k
, and

) make up the k- model.

3.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics
Other than the few experiments that have been done, still another few have tried to model
this phenomenon in computational uid dynamics (CFD). CFD reaches its downfall in the
need for computer memory and space. In order to solve the conservation laws for mass,
momentum, and thermal energy, one needs a grid large enough to capture the largest eddies
in turbulent ow, yet at the same time have a tightly packed grid small enough to capture
the smallest eddies and their inuence on the overall ow. Notice in Fig. 2 both ows are
relatively the same overall, but when observed closely, the eddies that make up the turbulent
ow are orders of magnitude smaller in size for the high Reynolds number.
CFD reaches its true strength in the present work as a scenario where multiple compu-
tations can be ran with minimal cost and time. Which is in stark contrast to experimental
work where 20 cases/test (at most) may be available. The results from CFD will be used to
pinpoint where the most substantial locations for reading in data will be. These locations
11
pinpointed by CFD will then be applied to experimental work saving even more time and
money.
Images/jetReynoldsNumberDiff.jpg
(a) General shape of two equivalent jets with dierent Reynolds
numbers.
Images/turbulentLengthScale.jpg
(b) Shadow graph of the same jets in a)
Figure 2: High Reynolds Versus Low Reynolds Flow in a Free Shear Jet.
12
In order to capture both the small and large eddies, the common practice of CFD, is to
use a statistical approach. By applying Reynolds decomposition, which breaks down each
parameter into is mean and uctuating parts, one can get the conservation laws into an
averaged form:
U
i
= U
i
+ u
i
, P = P + p , = + (7)
where the mean expressions are in the form
U
i
=
1
t
2
t
1
_
t
1
t
2
U
i
dt , P =
1
t
2
t
1
_
t
1
t
2
Pdt , =
1
t
2
t
1
_
t
1
t
2
dt , (8)
and the averaging time t
2
t
1
is long compared to the turbulent motions time scale. When
Eq. (7) is introduced into Eqs. (2) through (4) it yields:
Continuity Equation in the form:
U
i
x
i
= 0 (9)
momentum equation in the form:
U
i
t
+ U
j
U
i
x
j
=
1

r
P
x
i
+

x
j
_

U
i
x
j
u
i
u
j
_
+ g
i

r

r
(10)
and lastly the Temperature/concentration equation:

t
+ U
i

x
i
=

x
i
_

x
i
u
i
u
j
_
+ S

(11)
These equations pose a new problem in that they are not closed (they have more un-
knowns then they do equations). The terms in question are the term representing uctuating
velocities, u
i
u
j
, and the term representing velocity and scalar uctuations, u
i
. Physically,
u
i
u
j
, represents the transport of momentum in the direction of x
j
. It also represents a stress
13
acting on the uid and is therefore called turbulent or Reynolds stress.
All types of predictive approaches have been attempted, with some even being successful,
though their success may have been achieved on accident.
To speak of a standard that was set, one must look at the research done by ERCOFTAC
experiments at Rolls Royce [Roach and Briey, 1992; Pironneau et al., 1992] where they
used hot wire anemometry in a wind tunnel. The downfall to this method in our study is
the hot wire must be inserted into the actual free stream ow which causes reverse eects
to this study, since measurements will be done at or near the wall in the viscous sub-layer.
3.3 Hot-Wire Anemometry
Hot-Wire Anemometry is the method of using a small heated wire perpendicular to a ow
in order to measure uid velocity. This is achieved by the use of heat transfer, or more
specically forced convection, from the owing uid to the small wire cylinder. As the
uid ows past the hot wire it cools down, this cooling eect can be directly related to the
resistance in the wire. A sensor then picks up the change in resistance and is then directly
related to the velocity in the uid. All this occurs nearly simultaneously. A simple hot-
wire anemometer is shown in Fig 3. To nd the resistance, and coincidently the change in
resistance, one can use
R = R
r
[1 + (T
m
T
r
)] (12)
where R
r
is resistance at reference temperature T
r
, T
m
is average sensor temperature, and
is temperature coecient of resistance. Eq. 12 can only be used if one is to assume a
14
linear relation between temperature and resistance, which is generally the case. The most
crucial part of Eq. 12 is the value . This concept of the resistance over a metal changing
with temperature is what drives the entire family of thermal anemometers.
Two methods are available, the constant temperature method or the constant current
method.
Images/HWA.jpg
Figure 3: General Schematic of Hot Wire Anemometry
Hot-wire anemometry is more than likely to have originated in the last few decades of
the 19th century. The earliest work being that of King in 1914 (although further study
has found dated work from 1820). After this rst attempt, there have been around 2500+
publications on the topic.
15
Hot-wire anemometry has been found to compete in the following areas:
1. High-frequency response
2. Small in size for point measurements
3. Measure a wide range of velocities
4. High resolution
5. Create minimal ow disturbance
6. Low in cost
Some of HWAs weak points are as follows:
1. Measures only velocity
2. Doesnt work in a wide range of temperature, density, and composition
3. Doesnt detect ow reversal
4. Doesnt have high accuracy
Of course with these out on the table now, the good out-weigh the bad, and HWA has
been used for almost a century now with complete success.
It should be noted that HWA also does poorly when near the wall for a number of reasons.
The viscous sub layer is so small in comparison to the rest of the ow that the HW probe
obstructs the ow pattern giving erroneous data. It also receives erroneous data from the
wall itself.
When studies are in need of measurements from multiple directions, double or triple wire
assemblies can be used. By rotating each wire, either 90

for measurements in the x and y,

or 60

for measurements in the x, y, and z directions. See gure 4.

16
Images/XarrayProbes.jpg
Figure 4: An array of probes using multiple wires
In order to achieve gradients (i.e. velocity or temperature) two or more HW probes are
used, simply downstream one from another. The spacing of two or more probes depends on
how accurate a gradient is needed. There is an asymptotic behavior to the gradients though,
which means there is a limit to how close two HW probes can come together.
3.3.1 Uncertainty in Hot-Wire Anemometry
When discussing Hot-Wire Anemometry (HWA) two main equations govern the topic. One
being the convective heat exchange of the sensor to the uid
Q = hA
S
(Tm Ta) , (13)
where Q is the heat transfer rate, h is the convective heat transfer coecient between sensor
and the uid, A
S
is the surface area of the sensor, T
a
is the ambient temperature of the uid,
17
and T
m
is the mean sensor temperature. The next equation is for the change in resistance
as temperature varies in the sensor
R = R
r
[1 + (T
m
T
r
)] , (14)
where R is the sensor resistance at operating temperature, T
m
. R
r
is the sensor resistance
at a reference temperature, T
r
. is the temperature coecient of resistance, this being the
most important factor of the whole HWA concept. By relating the two, velocity can be
found hidden in the heat transfer coecient, h.
On the front end, there is uncertainty in most of the physical properties of the HWA sys-
tem. By writing the heat transfer coecient, h, in terms of the Nussult number (Nu=hd/k)
we get a dependency list of
Nu = f
_
Re, Pr, , Gr, Ma, r
h
, a
T
,
2l
d
,
k
f
k
w
_
(15)
where most of these variables have some amount of uncertainty. Fortunately, there are
relationships that some have found that eliminate most of these parameters (i.e. Kings
law)
On the back end, there is an amount of bias in the electrical hardware that does the
actual reading of the measurements. This leads to a series of problems when all these
variables come together. For this, it follows that a method of calibration be used instead.
Each calibration needs to take place to form a best t curve the is particular to the HWA
set-up at hand.
18
3.3.2 Calibration
There are four main methods used to calibrate a HW:
1) Jet
2) Carriage with known velocity
3) Vortex shedding
4) Swinging the HW at the end of a pendulum.
with each having their own strenghts and weaknesses. A table of useful calibration has been
made by the author (see Appendix).
The calibration jet. Used in relation with the Bernoulli equation to nd the velocity of the
uid. This is accomplished by the pressure being measured in the plenum chamber that
drives the jet.
3.3.3 Using hot-wires to measure velocity uctuation derivatives
In its most common use Hot Wire Anemometry is used as a single probe to measure stream
wise turbulent dissipation. Further work has shown that HWA is useful to measure gradients
in velocity or vorticity. When two or more wires are used in concordence with one another
(either downstream or roated in plane) the wires have measure the change in velocity with
respect toeh x or y axis. Alfredsson et. al. (1988) has shown the use of gradient measure-
ments with HWA in air, oil, and water with accurate success. When using the single wire
conguration, Taylors frozen theorem is assumed, which states that the turbulence disiap-
ation is too slow compared to the overall velocity feild that one can assume the turbulence
19
is constant. In contrast when two or more HW probes are used, the turbulence dissipation
can actually be seen in the aquired data.
3.4 Particle Image Velocimetry
To perform the experimental end of the study, Partical Image Velocimetry(PIV) was per-
formed in the INLs Matched Index of Refraction (MIR) facility. The main purpose of the
MIR is to visualize the ow of a uid around and through objects obstructing the ow. It is
accomplished by utilizing the matched index of refraction between mineral oil and quartz.
See Figure 5. When the quartz is submerged into the mineral oil and the entire system is
brought to a temperature of 27.954degC, the light entering the mineral oil is bent at the
same angle as when it enters the submerged quartz. This makes the quartz behave as if it
is transparent. Small particles are then incorporated into the general ow, and images are
taken of the particles interacting with the blu body.
20
Images/mirImage.jpg
Figure 5: An Example of Matched Index of Refraction
Extensive data analysis is then performed on the images taken to nd the correlations
between images taken.
Images/PIVlab_Vector_field.jpg
Figure 6: An Example of Velocity Field Found with PIV
21
4 Needs and Justication
In transitional ow the eld is patchy with a mix of turbulent with laminar spots (See Figure
1 on page 7) , two completely separate kinds of ow. An engineer then may be able to take
an average across the entire ow, but on a micro-view of the ow (just near the wall) the
spots behave very dierently from each other.
Bejan [1982], among others, have found the entropy generation rate per unit volume, S

,
to be found from the viscous dissipation function for the ow,
S

{y} =

T
=
_
U
y
+
V
x
_
2
+ 2
_
U
x
2
+
V
y
2
_
T
(16)
Later, Kock and Herwig [IJHFF 2005] added to the viscous dissipation what they called
turbulent dissipation, , which basically takes into account the turbulent kinetic energy
being transfered into thermal energy
= 2
_
_
u
x
_
2
+
_
v
y
_
2
+
_
w
z
_
2
_
+
_
_
u
y
+
v
x
_
2
+
_
v
z
+
w
y
_
2
+
_
w
x
+
u
z
_
2
_
(17)This, of course,
requires velocity gradients in all three directions.
Another, simpler way of looking at entropy generation is with Rotta [Schlichting, eqn.
23.8d, 1968]
S

_
U
y
_
2
uv
_
U
y
_
_
T
(18)
which should be noted as only being accurate within a turbulent ow, and away from the
wall. Which, unfortunately, has little to no application in the present study.
22
5 Preliminary Studies
McEligot, Walsh, and colleagues have shown that entropy generation mainly occurs in the
viscous layer of uid ow. Also, Reynolds numbers are relatively independent from ows
with minor pressure gradients [McEligot et al., 2008a,b]
6 Theory
- The use of CFD:
CFD was used in the present work to pinpoint the best case scenario of measuring data
in experiment.
- The use of experiment
7 Methods
- How CFD was set up
- How the experiment was set up using the MIR lab
8 Results
- Discuss what weve learn
23
9 Conclusion and Future Work
- The use of the MIR lab was found to be most accurate.
- The entropy generated in the viscous layer was found to generate heat at a miniscule level.
- Other conclusions, yada, yada, yada...
- To be written next to last, just before the abstract
24
10 References
- Rodi, W (1980) Turbulence Models and Their Application in Hydraulics.
- Tennekes, H and Lumley, J L (1972) A First Course in Turbulence.
- Moin, P and Kim, J (1997) Tackling Turbulence with Supercomputers.
- White, F (2006) Viscous Fluid Flow.
- Perry, A E (1982) Hot-Wire Anemometry.
- Rose, M G (1998) What should we measure? An aero-engine turbine aero-dynamic per-
spective. XIV Bi-annual Symp. Meas. Techniques in Transonic and Supersonic Flow in
Cascades and Turbomachines, Limerick
- Hill, J L (2008) Sustainable? Says Who? Mech. Engr (September), pg. 10
- Reynolds, W C (1968) Thermodynamics, 2nd Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill
- Bejan, A (1982) Entropy Generation Through Heat and Fluid Flow. New York: Wiley.
- Gilmore, R. (1996) The Shadow of Entropy. Scrooges Cryptic Carol, New York: Coperni-
cus, Ch. 2
- Rotta, J C (1962) Trubulent boundary layers in incompressible ow. Progress in Aeronouti-
cal Sciences, Vol. 2 Pg 1-219, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
- Roach, P E and Brierly, D H (1992) Teh inuence of a turblent free-stream on transitional
baoundary layer development. Numerical simulation of Unsteady ows and transition to
turbulence. Cambridge: Univ. Press, pp. 319-347
25
11 Appendix A
Place extemporaneous data/tables/gures here...
26
Table 1: Reported Uncertainties in HWA
Reported
Uncertainty
Range Comments Reference
1% 4m/s Air / 1mm H
2
O / 0

C / Cali-
bration Jet
Bruun, Khan, Al-
Kaylem, and Fardad
(1987)
0.1% 13m/s Air / 10mm H
2
O / 0

C / Cal-
ibration Jet
Bruun, Khan, Al-
Kaylem, and Fardad
(1987)
0.01% 40m/s Air / 100mm H
2
O / 0

C / Cal-
ibration Jet
Bruun, Khan, Al-
Kaylem, and Fardad
(1987)
4.1% 0 to 15 cm/s Air / Normal atmospheric con-
ditions / Rotating Carriage
Al-Garni(2007)
5% 0.05 to 1.05 m/s Air / Normal atmospheric con-
ditions / Rotating Carriage
Ozahi, Garpinlioglu, and
Gundogdu(2010)
0.03 m/s 1 to 6 m/s Air / Normal atmospheric con-
ditions / Pendulum
Bruun, Farrar, and Wat-
son(1989)
1.5 cm/s 15 to 95 cm/s Air / Laminar pipe ow and
Vortex shedding
Lee and Budwig(1991)
27