Physical properties of metals

Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Optical properties
Physical state
Electrical properties
Thermal properties
Thermal Conductivity
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Specific Heat Capacity
Magnetic properties
Optical properties
Optical properties
Metals reflect equally nearly all visible electro-magnetic waves. Therefore the color of the
most of the metals is white or silvery-white (except copper and gold).
Metals are lustrous due to the metallic bonding, contributing free electrons to the
metal crystal structure and providing an ability of metals to reflect light when polished.

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Physical state
Metals are solid at normal temperatures (except mercury).
Metals transform to liquid from solid and to gas from liquid at definite temperatures(melting
and boiling points), which are high for most of metals (except mercury, sodium and
potassium).
Most of metals have relatively high densities (except sodium and potassium with densities
lower, than density of water).

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Electrical properties
Metals have high electrical conductivity, provided by free electrons available in the metal
crystal structure.
Peltier effect:
When there is an electric current, passing through a junction of two different metals, one of
them evolves heat and another absorbs heat.
Thomson effect:
A current is produced in a metal conductor when there is a temperature gradient along its
length.
The Peltier and Thomson effects are widely used in thermocouples.

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Thermal properties
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity () is amount of heat passing in unit time through unit surface in a
direction normal to this surface when this transfer is driven by unite temperature gradient
under steady state conditions.
Thermal conductivity may be expressed and calculated from the Fouriers law:
Q/ t = *S *T/ x
Where
Q -heat, passing through the surface S;
t - change in time;
- thermal conductivity;
S - surface area, normal to the heat transfer direction;
T/x-temperature gradient along x direction of the heat transfer.
Fouriers law is analogue of the First Ficks law, describing diffusion in steady state.
Metals have high thermal conductivity. Heat is transferred through the metal crystal by free
electrons. Compare:
of alumina = 47 BTU/(lb*F) (6.3 W/(m*K)).
of Al = 1600 BTU/(lb*F) (231 W/(m*K)).

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Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Thermal Expansion (Coefficient of Thermal Expansion) is relative increase in length
per unite temperature rise:
= L/ (LoT)
Where
-coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE);
L length increase;
Lo initial length;
T temperature rise.
Thermal expansion of metals is generally higher, than that of ceramics.
Compare:
CTE of SiC = 2.3 F (4.0 C).
CTE of Al = 13 F (23 C).

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Specific Heat Capacity
Heat Capacity is amount of heat required to raise material temperature by one unit.
Specific Heat Capacity is amount of heat required to raise temperature of unit mass of
material by one unit:
c= Q/(mT)
Where
c -specific heat capacity;
Q amount of heat;
m material mass;
T temperature rise.
Specific Heat Capacity of metals is lower, than that of ceramics.
Compare:
c of alumina = 0.203 BTU/(lb*F) (850 J/(kg*K)).
c of steel = 0.115 BTU/(lb*F) (481 J/(kg*K)).

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Magnetic properties
Most of metals are slightly magnetic, but only few of them (iron, nickel, cobalt and their
alloys) display pronounced magnetic properties, called ferromagnetism.
Magnetically soft metals metals, which are demagnetized after the magnetic field is
removed. Magnetically soft metals are used in electric motors and transformers.
Magnetically hard metals metals, retaining their magnetization after the magnetic
field is removed.Magnetically hard metals are used for permanent magnets.
Magnetostriction effect of changing dimensions of a ferromagnetic metal when its
magnetization is changed.
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Tensile test and Stress-Strain Diagram
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Stress-Strain Diagram expresses a relationship between a load applied to a material and
the deformation of the material, caused by the load .
Stress-Strain Diagram is determined by tensile test.
Tensile tests are conducted in tensile test machines, providing controlled uniformly
increasing tension force, applied to the specimen.
The specimens ends are gripped and fixed in the machine and its gauge length L
0
(a
calibrated distance between two marks on the specimen surface) is continuously measured
until the rupture.
Test specimen may be round or flat in the cross-section.
In the round specimens it is accepted, that L
0
= 5 * diameter.
The specimen deformation (strain) is the ratio of the increase of the specimen gauge length
to its original gauge length:
= (L L
0
) / L
0

Tensile stress is the ratio of the tensile load F applied to the specimen to its original cross-
sectional area S
0
:
= F / S
0


The initial straight line (0P)of the curve characterizes proportional relationship between the
stress and the deformation (strain).
The stress value at the point P is called the limit of proportionality:

p
= F
P
/ S
0

This behavior conforms to the Hooks Law:
= E*
Where E is a constant, known as Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity.
The value of Youngs Modulus is determined mainly by the nature of the material and is
nearly insensitive to the heat treatment and composition.
Modulus of elasticity determines stiffness - resistance of a body to elastic deformation
caused by an applied force.
The line 0E in the Stress-Strain curve indicates the range of elastic deformation
removal of the load at any point of this part of the curve results in return of the specimen
length to its original value.
The elastic behavior is characterized by the elasticity limit (stress value at the point E):

el
= F
E
/ S
0

For the most materials the points P and E coincide and therefore
el
=
p
.


A point where the stress causes sudden deformation without any increase in the force is
called yield limit (yield stress, yield strength):

y
= F
Y
/ S
0

The highest stress (point Y
U
) , occurring before the sudden deformation is called upper
yield limit .
The lower stress value, causing the sudden deformation (point Y
L
) is called lower yield
limit.
The commonly used parameter of yield limit is actually lower yield limit.
If the load reaches the yield point the specimen undergoes plastic deformation it does not
return to its original length after removal of the load.

Hard steels and non-ferrous metals do not have defined yield limit, therefore a stress,
corresponding to a definite deformation (0.1% or 0.2%) is commonly used instead of yield
limit. This stress is calledproof stress or offset yield limit (offset yield strength):

0.2%
= F
0.2%
/ S
0

The method of obtaining the proof stress is shown in the picture.
As the load increase, the specimen continues to undergo plastic deformation and at a
certain stress value its cross-section decreases due to necking (point S in the Stress-
Strain Diagram). At this point the stress reaches the maximum value, which is
called ultimate tensile strength (tensile strength):

t
= F
S
/ S
0

Continuation of the deformation results in breaking the specimen - the point B in the
diagram.
The actual Stress-Strain curve is obtained by taking into account the true specimen cross-
section instead of the original value.
Other important characteristic of metals is ductility - ability of a material to deform under
tension without rupture.
Two ductility parameters may be obtain from the tensile test:
Relative elongation - ratio between the increase of the specimen length before its rupture
and its original length:
= (L
m
L
0
) / L
0

Where L
m
maximum specimen length.
Relative reduction of area - ratio between the decrease of the specimen cross-section
area before its rupture and its original cross-section area:
= (S
0
S
min
) / S
0

Where S
min
minimum specimen cross-section area.

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Hardness test methods
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Hardness is resistance of material to plastic deformation caused by indentation.
Sometimes hardness refers to resistance of material to scratching or abrasion.
In some cases relatively quick and simple hardness test may substitute tensile test.
Hardness may be measured from a small sample of material without destroying it.
There are hardness methods, allowing to measure hardness onsite.
Principle of any hardness test method is forcing an indenter into the sample surface
followed by measuring dimensions of the indentation (depth or actual surface area of the
indentation).
Hardness is not fundamental property and its value depends on the combination of yield
strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity.

Benefits of hardness test:
Easy
Inexpensive
Quick
Non-destructive
May be applied to the samples of various dimensions and shapes
May be performed in-situ
Depending on the loading force value and the indentation dimensions, hardness is defined
as a macro- , micro- or nano-hardness.
Macro-hardness tests (Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers) are the most widely used methods
for rapid routine hardness measurements. The indenting forces in macro-hardness tests are
in the range of 50N to 30000N.
Micro-hardness tests (micro-Vickers, Knoop) is applicable when hardness of coatings,
surface hardness, or hardness of different phases in the multi-phase material is measured.
Small diamond pyramid is used as indenter loaded with a small force of 10 to 1000gf.
Nano-hardness test uses minor loads of about 1 nano-Newton followed by precise
measuring depth of indentation.
Brinell Hardness Test
Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test
Vickers Hardness Test
Knoop Hardness Test
Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test

In this test a hardened steel ball of 2.5, 5 or 10 mm in diameter is used as indenter.
The loading force is in the range of 300N to 30000N (300N for testing lead alloys, 5000N for
testing aluminum alloys, 10000N for copper alloys, 30000N for testing steels). The Brinell
Hardness Number (HB) is calculated by the formula:
HB = 2F/ (3.14D*(D-(D - D
i
)))
Where
F- applied load, kg
D indenter diameter, mm
D
i
indentation diameter, mm.
In order to eliminate an influence of the specimen supporting base, the specimen should be
seven times (as minimum) thicker than indentation depth for hard alloys and fifteen times
thicker than indentation depth for soft alloys.
Rockwell Hardness Test
In the Rockwell test the depth of
the indenter penetration into the specimen surface is measured. The indenter may be either
a hardened steel ball with diameter 1/16, 1/8 or a spherical diamond cone of 120 angle
(Brale).
Loading procedure starts from applying a minor load of 10 kgf (3kgf in Rockwell Superficial
Test) and then the indicator, measuring the penetration depth, is set to zero. After that the
major load (60, 100 or 150 kgf)is applied. The penetration depth is measured after removal
of the major load.
Hardness is measured in different scales (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K) and in numbers, having
no units (in contrast to Brinell and Vickers methods).
Aluminum alloys, copper alloys and soft steels are tested with 1/16 diameter steel ball at
100 kgf load (Rockwell hardness scale B).
Harder alloys and hard cast iron are tested with the diamond cone at 150 kgf (Rockwell
hardness scale C).
An example of Rockwell test result: 53 HRC. It means 53 units, measured in the scale C by
the method HR (Hardness Rockwell).
Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test
Rockwell Superficial Test is applied for thin strips, coatings, carburized surfaces.
Reduced loads (15 kgf, 30 kgf, and 30 kgf) as a major load and deduced preload (3kgf) are
used in the superficial test.
Depending on the indenter, two scales of Rockwell Superficial method may be used: T
(1/16 steel ball) or N (diamond cone).
62 R30T means 62 units, measured in the scale 30T (30 kgf, 1/16 steel ball indenter) by
the Rockwell Superficial method (R).


Vickers Hardness Test
The principle of the Vickers Hardness method is similar to the Brinell method.
The Vickers indenter is a 136 degrees square-based diamond pyramid.
The impression, produced by the Vickers indenter is clearer, than the impression of Brinell
indenter, therefore this method is more accurate.
The load, varying from 1kgf to 120 kgf, is usually applied for 30 seconds.
The Vickers number (HV) is calculated by the formula:
HV = 1.854*F/ D
Where
F-applied load, kg
D length of the impression diagonal, mm
The length of the impression diagonal is measured by means of a microscope, which is
usually an integral part of the Vickers Tester.


Knoop Hardness Test

A diamond pyramid indenter with angles 130 and 17030 is used in this method.
The Knoop Hardness Test is applied for testing soft material and thin coating, since the
penetration depth is very small (about 1/30 of the impression length).
The loading force in the Knoop method are usually in the range of 10 gf to 1000gf (micro-
hardness range).
The Knoop number (HK) is calculated by the formula:
HK = 14.229*F/L
Where
F-applied load, kg
L long diagonal of the impression, mm
Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test
The Shore Scleroscope hardness is associated with the elasticity of the material.
The appliance consists of a diamond-tipped hammer, falling in a graduated glass tube from
a definite height. The tube is divided into 140 equal parts.
The height of the first rebound is the hardness index of the material.
The harder the material, the higher the rebound.
The Shore method is widely used for measuring hardness of large machine components like
rolls, gears, dies, etc.
The Shore scleroscope is not only small and mobile, it also leaves no impressions on the
tested surface.

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Hardness Conversion Table
(submitted by the website administration)
RA
60
Brale
RB
100
1/16
RC
150
Brale
RD
100
Brale
R15N
Brale
R30N
Brale
R45N
Brale
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB
50010mm
HB
300010mm
HV
Diamond
Pyramid
Shore
92 - 80 87 97 92 87 - - - - - 1865 -
92 - 79 86 96 92 87 - - - - - 1787 -
91 - 78 85 96 91 86 - - - - - 1710 -
91 - 77 84 96 91 85 - - - - - 1633 -
90 - 76 83 96 90 84 - - - - - 1556 -
90 - 75 83 95 89 83 - - - - - 1478 -
89 - 74 82 95 89 82 - - - - - 1400 -
89 - 73 81 95 88 81 - - - - - 1323 -
88 - 72 80 95 87 80 - - - - - 1245 -
87 - 71 80 94 87 79 - - - - - 1160 -
87 - 70 79 94 86 78 - - - - - 1076 101
86 - 69 78 94 85 77 - - - - - 1004 99
85.6 - 68 76.9 93.2 84.4 75.4 - - - - - 940 97
85 - 67 76.1 92.9 83.6 74.2 - - - - - 900 95
84.5 - 66 75.4 92.5 82.8 73.3 - - - - - 865 92
83.9 - 65 74.5 92.2 81.9 72 - - - - 739 832 91
83.4 - 64 73.8 91.8 81.1 71 - - - - 722 800 88
82.8 - 63 73 91.4 80.1 69.9 - - - - 705 772 87
82.3 - 62 72.2 91.1 79.3 68.8 - - - - 688 746 85
81.8 - 61 71.5 90.7 78.4 67.7 - - - - 670 720 83
81.2 - 60 70.7 90.2 77.5 66.6 - - - - 613 697 81
80.7 - 59 69.9 89.8 76.6 65.5 - - - - 599 674 80
80.1 - 58 69.2 89.3 75.7 64.3 - - - - 587 653 78
79.6 - 57 68.5 88.9 74.8 63.2 - - - - 575 633 76
79 - 56 67.7 88.3 73.9 62 - - - - 561 613 75
RA
60
Brale
RB
100
1/16
RC
150
Brale
RD
100
Brale
R15N
Brale
R30N
Brale
R45N
Brale
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB
50010mm
HB
300010mm
HV
Diamond
Pyramid
Shore
78.5 120 55 66.9 87.9 73 60.9 - - - - 546 585 74
78 120 54 66.1 87.4 72 59.8 - - - - 534 577 72
77.4 119 53 65.4 86.9 71.2 58.6 - - - - 519 560 71
76.8 119 52 64.6 86.4 70.2 57.4 - - - - 500 544 69
76.3 118 51 63.8 85.9 69.4 56.1 - - - - 487 528 68
75.9 117 50 63.1 85.5 68.5 55 - - - - 475 513 67
75.2 117 49 62.1 85 67.6 53.8 - - - - 464 498 66
74.7 116 48 61.4 84.5 66.7 52.5 - - - - 451 484 64
74.1 116 47 60.8 83.9 65.8 51.4 - - - - 442 471 63
73.6 115 46 60 83.5 64.8 50.3 - - - - 432 458 62
73.1 115 45 59.2 83 64 49 - - - - 421 446 60
72.5 114 44 58.5 82.5 63.1 47.8 - - - - 409 434 58
72 113 43 57.7 82 62.2 46.7 - - - - 400 423 57
71.5 113 42 56.9 81.5 61.3 45.5 - - - - 390 412 56
70.9 112 41 56.2 80.9 60.4 44.3 - - - - 381 402 55
70.4 112 40 55.4 80.4 59.5 43.1 - - - - 371 392 54
69.9 111 39 54.6 79.9 58.6 41.9 - - - - 362 382 52
69.4 110 38 53.8 79.4 57.7 40.8 - - - - 353 372 51
68.9 110 37 53.1 78.8 56.8 39.6 - - - - 344 363 50
68.4 109 36 52.3 78.3 55.9 38.4 - - - - 336 354 49
67.9 109 35 51.5 77.7 55 37.2 - - - - 327 345 48
67.4 108 34 50.8 77.2 54.2 36.1 - - - - 319 336 47
66.8 108 33 50 76.6 53.3 34.9 - - - - 311 327 46
RA
60
Brale
RB
100
1/16
RC
150
Brale
RD
100
Brale
R15N
Brale
R30N
Brale
R45N
Brale
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB
50010mm
HB
300010mm
HV
Diamond
Pyramid
Shore
66.3 107 32 49.2 76.1 52.1 33.7 - - - - 301 318 44
65.8 106 31 48.4 75.6 51.3 32.5 - - - - 294 310 43
65.3 105 30 47.7 75 50.4 31.3 - - - - 286 302 42
64.7 104 29 47 74.5 49.5 30.1 - - - - 279 294 41
64.3 104 28 46.1 73.9 48.6 28.9 - - - - 271 286 40.5
63.8 103 27 45.2 73.3 47.7 27.8 - - - - 264 279 40
63.3 103 26 44.6 72.8 46.8 26.7 - - - - 258 272 38
62.8 102 25 43.8 72.2 45.9 25.5 - - - - 253 266 37.5
62.4 101 24 43.1 71.6 45 24.3 - - - - 247 260 37
62 100.5 23 42.1 71 44 23.1 - - - - 243 254 36
61.5 100 22 41.6 70.5 43.2 22 93 82 72 201 237 248 251
61 99 21 40.9 69.9 42.3 20.7 92.5 81.5 71 195 231 243 246
60.5 98.5 20 40.1 69.4 41.5 19.6 92.4 81.2 70.5 192 228 238 243
60 98 20 - - - - 92.3 81 70 189 226 237 241
59.5 97 19 - - - - 92 80.5 69 184 222 234 236
59 96 18 - - - - 91.8 80 68 179 216 230 231
58 95 16 - - - - 91.5 79 67 175 210 222 226
57.5 94 14 - - - - 91.3 78.5 66 171 205 213 221
57 93 13 - - - - 91 78 65.5 167 200 208 216
56.5 92 11 - - - - 90.5 77.5 64.5 163 195 200 211
56 91 10 - - - - 90.8 77 63.5 160 190 196 206
RA
60
Brale
RB
100
1/16
RC
150
Brale
RD
100
Brale
R15N
Brale
R30N
Brale
R45N
Brale
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB
50010mm
HB
300010mm
HV
Diamond
Pyramid
Shore

to Next page of Hardness Conversion Table
Hardness Conversion Table (second page)
RA 60
Brale
RB 100
1/16
RC 150
Brale
RE 100
1/8
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB 500
10mm
HB 3000
10mm
HV Diamond
Pyramid
Knoop
55.5 90 9 - 90 76 62.5 157 185 192 201
55 89 8 - 89.5 75.5 61.5 154 180 188 196
54 88 7 - 89.3 75 60.5 151 176 184 192
53.5 87 6 - 89 74.5 59.5 148 172 180 188
53 86 5 - 88.5 74 58.5 145 169 176 184
52.5 85 4 - 88.3 73.5 58 142 165 172 180
52 84 3 - 88 73 57 140 162 168 176
51 83 2 - 87.5 72 56 137 159 164 173
50.5 82 1 - 87.3 71.5 55 135 156 160 170
50 81 - - 87 71 54 133 153 156 167
49.5 80 - - 86.5 70 53 130 150 152 164
49 79 - - 86.3 69.5 52 128 147 148 161
48.5 78 - - 86 68 51 126 144 144 158
48 77 - - 85.5 68 50 124 141 141 155
47 76 - - 85.3 67.5 49 122 139 139 152
46.5 75 - - 85 67 48.5 120 137 137 150
46 74 - - 84.8 66 47.5 118 135 135 147
45.5 73 - - 84.5 65.5 46.5 116 132 132 145
45 72 - - 84 65 45.5 114 130 130 143
44.5 71 - 100 83.8 64 44.5 112 127 127 141
RA 60
Brale
RB 100
1/16
RC 150
Brale
RE 100
1/8
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB 500
10mm
HB 3000
10mm
HV Diamond
Pyramid
Knoop
44 70 - 99.5 83.5 63.5 43.5 110 125 125 139
43.5 69 - 99 83 62.5 42.5 109 123 123 137
43 68 - 98 82.8 62 41.5 107 121 120 135
42.5 67 - 97.5 82.5 61.5 40.5 106 119 118 133
42 66 - 97 82 60.5 39.5 104 117 116 131
41.8 65 - 96 81.8 60 38.5 102 116 115 129
41.5 64 - 95.5 81.5 59.5 37.5 101 114 114 127
41 63 - 95 81 58.5 36.5 99 112 113 126
40.5 62 - 94.5 80.8 58 35.5 98 110 112 124
40 61 - 93.5 80.5 57 34.5 96 108 111 122
39.5 60 - 93 80.3 56.5 33.5 95 107 110 120
39 59 - 92.5 80 56 32 94 106 108 118
38.5 58 - 92 79.5 55 31 92 104 107 117
38 57 - 91 79.3 54.5 30 91 102 106 115
37.8 56 - 90.5 79 54 29 90 101 105 114
37.5 55 - 90 78.5 53 28 89 99 104 112
37 54 - 89.5 78.3 52.5 27 87 - 103 111
36.5 53 - 89 78 51.5 26 86 - 102 110
36 52 - 88 77.5 51 25 85 - 101 109
35.5 51 - 87.5 77.3 50.5 24 84 - 100 108
35 50 - 87 77 49.5 23 83 - 100 107
RA 60
Brale
RB 100
1/16
RC 150
Brale
RE 100
1/8
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB 500
10mm
HB 3000
10mm
HV Diamond
Pyramid
Knoop
34.8 49 - 86.5 76.5 49 22 82 - 99 106
34.5 48 - 85.5 76.3 48.5 20.5 81 - 98 105
34 47 - 85 76 47.5 19.5 80 - 97 104
33.5 46 - 84.5 75.5 47 18.5 79.5 - 96 103
33 45 - 84 75.3 46 17.5 79 - 95 102
32.5 44 - 83.5 75 45.5 16.5 78 - 95 101
32 43 - 82.5 74.5 45 15.5 77 - 94 100
31.5 42 - 82 74.3 44 14.5 76 - 93 99
31 41 - 81.5 74 43.5 13.5 75 - 92 98
30.8 40 - 81 73.5 43 12.5 74.5 - 91 97
30.5 39 - 80 73.3 42 11 74 - 90 96
30 38 - 79.5 73 41.5 10 73 - 90 95
29.5 37 - 79 72.5 40.5 9 72 - 89 94
29 36 - 78.5 72.3 40 8 71.5 - 88 93
28.5 35 - 78 72 39.5 7 71 - 88 -
28 34 - 77 71.5 38.5 6 70 - 87 -
27.8 33 - 76.5 71.3 38 5 69 - 87 -
27.5 32 - 76 71 37.5 4 68.5 - 86 -
27 31 - 75.5 70.8 36.5 3 68 - 86 -
26.5 30 - 75 70.5 36 2 67 - 85 -
26 29 - 74 70 35.5 1 66.5 - 85 -
RA 60
Brale
RB 100
1/16
RC 150
Brale
RE 100
1/8
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB 500
10mm
HB 3000
10mm
HV Diamond
Pyramid
Knoop
25.5 28 - 73.5 69.8 34.5 - 66 - 84 -
25 27 - 73 69.5 34 - 65.5 - 84 -
24.5 26 - 72.5 69 33 - 65 - 83 -
24.3 25 - 72 68.8 32.5 - 64 - 83 -
24 24 - 71 68.5 32 - 63.5 - 82 -
23.5 23 - 70.5 68 31 - 63 - 82 -
23 22 - 70 67.8 30.5 - 62.5 - 81 -
22.5 21 - 69.5 67.5 29.5 - 62 - 81 -
22 20 - 68.5 67.3 29 - 61.5 - 80 -
21.5 19 - 68 67 28.5 - 61 - 80 -
21.3 18 - 67.5 66.5 27.5 - 60.5 - 79 -
21 17 - 67 66.3 27 - 60 - 79 -
20.5 16 - 66.5 66 26 - 59.5 - 78 -
20 15 - 65.5 65.5 25.5 - 59 - 78 -
- 14 - 65 65.3 25 - 58.5 - 77 -
- 13 - 64.5 65 24 - 58 - 77 -
- 12 - 64 64.5 23.5 - 57.7 - 76 -
- 11 - 63.5 64.3 23 - 57.3 - 76 -
- 10 - 62.5 64 22 - 57 - 75 -
- 9 - 62 63.8 21.5 - 56.7 - 75 -
- 8 - 61.5 63.5 20.5 - 56.3 - 74 -
- 7 - 61 63 20 - 56 - 74 -
- 6 - 60.5 62.8 19.5 - 55.5 - 73 -
- 5 - 60 62.5 18.5 - 55 - 73 -
- 4 - 59 62 18 - 54.7 - 72 -
- 3 - 58.5 61.8 17 - 54.3 - 72 -
- 2 - 58 61.5 16.5 - 54 - 71 -
- 1 - 57.5 61 16 - 53.5 - 71 -
- - - 57 60.8 15 - 53 - 70 -
RA 60
Brale
RB 100
1/16
RC 150
Brale
RE 100
1/8
R15T
1/16
R30T
1/16
R45T
1/16
HB 500
10mm
HB 3000
10mm
HV Diamond
Pyramid
Knoop
Fracture Toughness
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Fracture is a process of breaking a solid into pieces as a result of stress.
There are two principal stages of the fracture process:
Crack formation
Crack propagation
Ductile fracture
Ductile materials undergo observable plastic deformation and absorb significant energy
before fracture.
A crack, formed as a result of the ductile fracture, propagates slowly and when the stress is
increased.
Plastic deformation of a multi-phase material causes formation and coalescence of voids on
the phase and inclusions boundaries. These voids are responsible for the specific
appearance of the ductile fracture surface, consisting of numerous spherical micro-cavities
(dimples), initiating formation of the crack.
Tensile specimen fractured by the ductile mechanism is characterized by the cap and
cone appearance of the fracture.
Single-phase alloys and pure metals are more ductile, than metals, containing second
phases or inclusions.
Brittle fracture

Brittle fracture is characterized by very low plastic deformation and low energy absorption
prior to breaking.
A crack, formed as a result of the brittle fracture, propagates fast and without increase of
the stress applied to the material.
The brittle crack is perpendicular to the stress direction.
There are two possible mechanisms of the brittle
fracture: transcrystalline(transgranular, cleavage) or intercrystalline
(intergranular).
Cleavage cracks pass along crystallographic planes through the grains.
Intercrystalline fracture occurs through the grain boundaries, embrittled bysegregated
impurities, second phase inclusions and other defects.
The brittle fractures usually possess bright granular appearance.
Toughness
Toughness is ability of material to resist fracture.
The general factors, affecting the toughness of a material are: temperature,strain rate,
relationship between the strength and ductility of the material and presence of stress
concentration (notch) on the specimen surface.
Fracture toughness is indicated by the area below the curve on strain-stress diagram (see
the figure):

As seen from the diagram toughness of the ductile materials is higher than toughness of
brittle materials.
Stress-intensity Factor (K) is a quantitative parameter of fracture toughness determining
a maximum value of stress which may be applied to a specimen containing a crack (notch)
of a certain length.
Depending on the direction of the specimen loading and the specimen thickness, four types
of stress-intensity factors are used: K
C
, K
IC
K
IIC
K
IIIC
.
K
C
stress-intensity factor of a specimen, thickness of which is less than a critical value.
K
C
depends on the specimen thickness. This condition is called plane stress.
K
IC
,K
IIC
, K
IIIC
stress-intensity factors, relating to the specimens, thickness of which is
above the critical value therefore the values of K
IC
K
IIC
K
IIIC
do not depend on the specimen
thickness. This condition is called plane strain.
K
IIC
and K
IIIC
stress-intensity factors relating to the fracture modes in which the loading
direction is parallel to the crack plane. These factors are rarely used for metals and are not
used for ceramics;
K
IC
plane strain stress-intensity factor relating to the fracture modes in which the loading
direction is normal to the crack plane. This factor is widely used for both metallic and
ceramic materials.
K
IC
is used for estimation critical stress applied to a specimen with a given crack length:

C
K
IC
/(Y( a))
Where
K
IC
stress-intensity factor, measured in MPa*m;

C
the critical stress applied to the specimen;
a the crack length for edge crack or half crack length for internal crack;
Y geometry factor.
Impact test

Impact test is used for measuring toughness of materials and their capacity of resisting
shock.
In this test the pendulum is swing up to its starting position (height H ) and then it is
allowed to strike the notched specimen, fixed in a vice. The pendulum fractures the
specimen, spending a part of its energy. After the fracture the pendulum swings up to a
height H.
The impact toughness of the specimen is calculated by the formula:
a = A/ S
Where
a-impact toughness,
A the work, required for breaking the specimen ( A = M*g*H
0
M*g*H),
M - the pendulum mass,
S - cross-section area of the specimen at the notch.
One of the most popular impact tests is the Charpy Test, schematically presented in the
figure below:

The hammer striking energy in the Charpy test is 220 ft*lbf (300 J).

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Fatigue
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Fatigue is a type of failure of a material, occurring under alternating loads.
Most of the failures of machine details are caused by fatigue.
Fatigue life is the number of cycling stresses, causing failure of the material.
Frequency of these stresses is not important.
Fatigue limit is the maximum value of repeatedly applied stress that the material can
withstand after an infinite number of cycles (10-20 mln. Cycles in practice).

Fatigue strength at N cycles is the load, producing the material fracture after N cycling
applications of the load.
Fatigue limit of a material is much lower, than its ultimate tensile strength.
Fatigue tests are carried out in the Whler-type machine, schematically shown in the
picture.
The rotating specimen in form of a cantilever is driven by an electric motor. The specimen is
loaded by the force F, applied to the ball bearing, mounted on the end of the specimen.
Since the force direction does not change, the direction of the stress applied to the
specimen will be reversed each 180 of the shaft rotation.
This scheme provides cycling loading of the specimen, presented in the equivalent scheme.
To find the fatigue limit the fatigue test is repeated at different loads.

The tests results are presented in form of S-N curve (stress vs. number of cycles):
Fatigue fracture is characterized by presence of two different types of the surface:
One part is smooth and discolored with ripple-like marks, indicating slow crack growth from
the center of the crack formation. Another part of the surface has coarse crystalline
appearance resulted from the final catastrophic crack propagation.
The following factors affect fatigue fracture:
Surface factor
Fatigue cracks form and initiate on the specimen surface therefore hardened and smooth
surface (without stress concentrations - notch, flaw) will increase the fatigue limit.
Compressive stress
Compressive stresses, produced in the specimen surface by Shot peening, cold work or heat
treatment result in considerable increase of fatigue limit.
Micro-structure defects
Non-metallic inclusions and other micro-defects may initiate formation of fatigue cracks.
Environmental factor
Fatigue in the presence of corrosive environment (Corrosion fatigue) occurs at lower cycling
stresses and after lower number of cycles.

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Creep
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Creep is a phenomenon of slow plastic deformation (elongation) of a metal at high
temperature under a constant load.
The creep mechanism:
At low stresses the creep is controlled by the diffusion of atoms through the grain
boundaries. At higher stresses the creep strainproceeds due to the dislocations movement.
The rate of creep is a function of the material, the applied stress value, the temperature,
and the time exposure.
Considerable creep deformation, causing damage of machines and structures occur at high
temperatures (about a half of the melting point measured in the absolute temperature
scale). Therefore this phenomenon is taken into account in design and operation of heat
exchangers, steam boilers and pipes, jet engines and other loaded equipment, working at
high temperatures.
Soft metals (lead, tin) may experience creep at room temperature.
A typical creep behavior is presented in the diagram:

The initial strain is not time dependent and it is caused mainly by elastic deformation.
The first stage creep is characterized by relatively fast plastic deformation occurring at
decreasing rate. During this stage resistance creep increases causing decrease the
deformation rate.
The second stage creep occurs at a constant and relatively low deformation rate. This
rate is used in the engineering design.
The rate of creep at the second stage depends on both the load (stress) and the
temperature.
The third stage creep is associated with accelerated strain rate caused by decrease of the
cross sectional area of the specimen (necking). This stage is finalized by the specimen
fracture.
At room temperature creep is negligible at any stress below the yield point.
The quantity, which is used in precise design of machines and structures working at
elevated temperatures, is creep strength.
Creep strength is a stress which causes a definite creep strain after a specified period of
time at a given temperature.
Creep strength of a material is much lower, than its tensile strength.
If a large amount of deformation is tolerated rupture strength is used in design.
Rupture strength is a stress which causes a fracture of a metal after a specified period of
time at a given temperature.
Creep strength and rupture strength are determined in stress-rupture tests conducted in
[Tensile test and Stress-Strain Diagram|tensile test]] machines equipped with a furnace
providing uniform heating of the tested specimens.
This machine records amount of strain at every moment after the test has started and until
the specimen failure.


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Chemical Composition Evaluation
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Spectrometry is an analytical technique used in chemistry for quantitative and qualitative
analysis of substances by means studying the electromagnetic spectra either absorbing
(absorbtion spectroscopy) or radiating (emission spectroscopy) by the substance.
Spark or arc spectroscopy is a method of metals and alloys analysis, using an electric
spark (or arc) passing through the metal sample, heating its surface and causing emission
of light by the excited atoms of the sample.
The waves of the emitted light are analyzed by spectroscopic methods.
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF, X-Ray Emission) Spectroscopy is an analytical non-
destructive spectral method, using irradiation of the sample by intensive x-rays, causing
emission of fluorescent x-rays by the sample atoms.
The emitted x-rays are detected and analyzed by a spectrometer.
The qualitative analysis is based on either wavelength or energies of the emitted x-rays.
The quantities of the sample components are determined by intensities of the emitted x-
rays.
Atomic absorption is a destructive analytical method where a light of a definite
wavelength is passed through the atomized sample.
The waves transmitted by the sample are analyzed as compared to the waves passed
through the sample. Thus the energy, absorbed by the sample is determined.
The amount of the absorbed energy is related to the concentration of the certain
component.