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Film, Screens, and Cassettes

Principles of Imaging Science I (RAD 119)
Radiographic Image Production
X-ray photons emitted from the x-ray tube interact with the
body, exit the patient (exit beam) and interact with the image
receptor (image forming x-rays)
PE Absorption
Compton Scatter
Radiographic Image Production
Image receptor converts the exit beam into a latent image
through fluorescence of intensifying screen phosphors

X-ray film is one medium that captures the diagnostically
useful information to render a diagnosis
Image intensifier and associated TV monitor
Laser imaging (CT, MRI, CR)


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Photosensitive Film
First image receptor chosen by Rntgen
No longer most common image receptor because of
predominance of digital imaging in 21
st
century
Knowledge of film/screen technology still required of
radiographers
Radiographic Film Construction
Base
Adhesive layer
Emulsion
Supercoat (overcoat)
Radiographic Film Base
Foundation of radiographic film
Flexible, yet durable
Uniformly radiolucent
Film must retain its size and shape throughout use and
processing
Thickness ranges from 150-200 micrometers
Modern base is thin sheet of polyester
Dimensional stability to minimize distortion
Semi-rigid for viewbox placement
Blue tint
Reduces eyestrain
Increases diagnostic accuracy
Crossover
Light from one screen exposed opposite emulsion



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Film Emulsion (3-5 um)
Latent image produced by energy deposited in silver halide
crystals
Distribution of exposed and unexposed crystals in
undeveloped film
Double layer

Film Emulsion
Gelatin
Provides support for silver halide crystals
Permits crystals to be suspended evenly
Radiolucent, low Z#
Allows processing chemicals to penetrate through
Silver halide crystals
Silver (+), Bromine (-), Iodine (-) combine in crystal lattice structure
Silver Bromide (@98%)
Silver Iodide or Silver Chloride (@2%)
Energy deposited in silver halide crystals represents anatomy
Processing
Latent image converted to manifest image
LATENT IMAGE FORMATION
Latent image: Invisible image; distribution of exposed and
unexposed crystals in undeveloped film

Gurney-Mott Theory
X-rays cause ionization of the of AgBr crystal
Free electrons gravitate to the sensitivity speck
Positive Ag+ crystals attracted to negatively charged sensitivity
speck
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LATENT IMAGE FORMATION
Supercoat/Overcoat
Protective layer of gelatin
Provides sturdiness to unexposed radiographic film
Antistatic
Reduces damage from scratches, pressure, or contamination
during storage, handling, and processing
Film Storage and Handling
Prior to exposure:
Storage
On end
Age
Expiration dates
Rotate stock
Heat
Below 68F (20C)
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Film Storage and Handling
Prior to exposure:
Humidity
30-60%
Light
Radiation
Film Identification
Each exposure must include medical record
information
Date of exposure
Full name of patient
Name of institution
Name of ordering physician
Patient identification number
Type of exam
Screen Film
Most widely used type of film
Placed between intensifying
screens in a cassette
Other Types
Direct Exposure
Mammography
Laser
Duplicating
Spot
English Unit
(inches)
SI Unit
(cm)
18 X 43
8 X 10 20 X 25
24 X 30
10 X 12 28 X 35
14 X 14 35 X 35
14 X 17 35 X 43
Standard Screen Film Sizes
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Screen Film Characteristics
Speed based upon sensitivity of x-ray & light for Image Receptor
(IR)
Film speed has limitations, due to ideal thickness of emulsion
layer. Light is absorbed quickly on outermost layer and will not
expose portion closest to base if too thick
Double emulsion increases speed
Contrast
High, Medium, Low
High: Sm silver crystals, uniform size
Low: Lg silver crystals, non-uniform size
Multiple Latitude available (inversely related to contrast)
Screen Film Characteristics
Spectral Matching
Response to spectrum of light emitted by screen
Rare earth phosphors Z# 57 71
Emit UV, blue, green and red
Screen film responds to UV & blue, not green, yellow,
or red unless spectral dye is added
Radiographic film is either blue-sensitive or green
sensitive
Proper matching avoids technique error
Spectral Matching
Blue Sensitive Film
Blue or UV emitting screens
If used with Green emitting
screens, IR speed is reduced
Green Sensitive Film
Green emitting screens

Radiographic films are either blue-
sensitive or green-sensitive and they
require amber-and red-filtered
safelights, respectively.

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Screen Film Characteristics
Safelight Filters
Used in darkroom processing to prevent exposure to
white light
15 watt bulb, > 5 feet from work surface
Provides sufficient illumination to process film
Incandescent bulb with colored filter
Amber filter: Blue sensitive film
Fog a green sensitive film
Red filter: Blue or green sensitive film
(orthochromatic)
Screen Film Characteristics
Crossover
Light from intensifying screens crosses the base and exposes the
opposite side emulsion.
Image blur results
Screen Film Crossover
Minimized by:
Tablet or cubic silver halide crystals
Crossover control layer between base and
emulsion
Absorbs crossover light
Remains as separate, distinct layer
Removed during processing
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Screen Film Characteristics
Reciprocity Law
Short or long exposure times reduce speed due to
exposure from intensifying screen light
Increases patient exposure due to increase in mAs needed
Relative speed ratings
1 ms = 95%
10 mS = 100%
100 mS = 100%
1 sec = 90%
10 sec = 60%
Intensifying Screens
Used to reduce patient radiation dose
without compromising anatomic detail
Converts image forming x-ray photon
energy to light energy forming the
latent image through amplification
99% of image comes from light conversion
1% of image comes from direct interaction
between x-rays and film
Screen-film is placed between two
intensifying screens within the cassette
Cassette is light tight film holder
Open 2 3 to retrieve or replace film
Screen Artifacts
Construction
Base
Reflective layer
Phosphor layer
Protective coat
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Screen Construction
Protective Coating
Thin plastic outer layer
Protects phosphor layer from
abrasion
Resists abrasion, eliminates static
build-up
Artifact on film

Phosphor Layer
Emits light when exposed with x-ray energy
Active layer
High atomic # (Y, La, Gd)
Reflective Layer
- Magnesium oxidide, titanium dioxide
Redirects isotopic light photons back to film
Base
Polyester support inner layer
Supports phosphor layer
Intensifying Screen Reflective Layer
Screens without reflective layers are not as efficient as
those with reflective layers because fewer light
photons reach the film.
Allows for reduction of patient dose
Luminesence
Luminescence occurs when an outer-shell electron is raised to an
excited state and returns to its ground state with the emission of a light
photon
Types
Fluorescence
Visible light is emitted only while the phosphor is stimulation
Phosphorescence
Visible light continues to be emitted after stimulation
Screen lag or afterglow

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Screen Characteristics
Speed
Quantifiable value used to denote the conversion efficiency of x-ray
energy to light energy
Phosphor type
Calcium Tungstate (RSS 50 200)
5% conversion efficiency
o Blue emission
Rare Earth (RSS 80 1200)
15% - 20% conversion efficiency
o Ytrium, lanthanum, gadolinium
o Blue or green emission
Phosphor size
Phosphor layer thickness
Reflective layer
CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES OF RARE
EARTH AND CALCIUM TUNGSTATE
Beam Absorption
Calcium tungstate
Absorb 20-40% of beam
Rare earths
Absorb 50-60% of beam
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Film/Screen Contact
Cassette
Front surface (x-ray tube
side) made of low atomic #
material (Carbon fiber Z#6)
Back surface made of high
atomic # material to absorb
backscatter radiation


Cross-sectional view of cassette containing front and
back screens and loaded with double-emulsion film.