GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES

Geology
Jammu and Kashmir, the
northern most state of the
c o u n t r y , h a s t h e
n e i g h b o u r i n g s t a t e s
Hi machal Pradesh and
Punjab to the south and
international border with
Tibet (China), Pakistan and
Afghanistan. The state,
occupyi ng an area of
222,236 sq km, has been
classified into five distinct
geomorphic units based on
well-marked orographic and geomorphic features. Traversing from
south to north they appear as Terai Zone, Outer Himalayan Zone or
Siwalik Foothills, Lesser Himalayan Zone, Great Himalayan / Higher
Himalayan Zone and Trans-Himalayan Zone.
The state preserves almost a complete geological succession from
Proterozoic to Holocene. Most of the rocks occurring in Lesser and
Higher Himalayan terrains are Proterozoic in age. The Early
Proterozoic rocks comprise a complex suite of gneisses and schists
with interstratified bands of marble and calc-silicate rocks and
quartzite with igneous intrusives. The Middle Proterozoic rocks are
represented by carbonates, calc-arenites, slate, flaggy limestone
and stromatolitic limestone/ dolomite whereas the Neoproterozoic
rocks are mostly calcareous, arenaceous and graphitic
carbonaceous shale.
The Palaeozoic starts with Lolab Formation (Lower Cambrian) and is
followed successively by argillaceous Nutnus Formation (Middle
Cambrian) containing Trilobites Anomocare sp., Tonkinella sp. and
Conocorphe sp., argillo-calcareous Trahagam Formation, Kunzum
La Formation (Cambrian, Zanskar area), Watarkhai Formation
(Ordovician) representing volcanic flows and ash beds, Marhaum
Formation (Ordovician-Silurian) / Thango (Thaple) and Takche
Formations (Ordovician-Silurian, Zanskar area), areno-argillaceous
Aishmuqam Formation (Late Devonian) comprising plant fossils
viz., Sphenopteridium, Psyllophytalians, Paracalamites and
Rhacopteris and capped by Syringothyris Limestone and Fenestella
Shale Formations (late Carboniferous, Liddar valley), rich in plant
fossils.
The Permian rocks are classified into Agglomeratic Slate,
Nishatbagh, Panjal Volcanics, Mamal and Zewan Formations in
ascending order. The Agglomeratic Slate Formation has a complex
lithology of slate, quartzite, diamictite and pyroclastics with
charecteristic marine fauna Eurydesma, Deltopecten, gastropods
and fenestellids indicating Late Carboniferous to Early Permian in
age.
In Kashmir basin, Panjal Volcanics (Lower Permian) overlies
Agglomeratic Slate with or without the intervention of Nishatbagh
Formation. These volcanic, covering over 20% of the exposed hard
rock areas in Kashmir valley, comprise lava flows of acid,
intermediate and basic composition. In many parts of Kashmir,
Panjal Volcanics are succeeded by Gondwana plant bearing beds
('Gangamopteris beds') of Mamal Formation which comprises an
assemblage of chert, siliceous and carbonaceous shale, thinly
bedded limestone, gritty sandstone, tuffs and novaculite. The Zewan
Formation (Upper Permian) comprises marine fossiliferous
argillaceous rocks with remains of Protoreteporaampla at the basal
part and calcareous with intercalations of shale containing
Cyclolobus at the upper part.
Triassic-Jurassic rocks are represented by Lilang Group
conformably overlying Kuling Group (Late Permian). The
Cretaceous rocks are mainly confined to Indus Suture Zone and
Cretaceous - Eocene rocks are exposed in Shyok-Nubra belt of
Ladakh region in the Trans-Himalaya.
In the Inner Tertiary belt of Jammu region, Jangalgali Formation
(Cretaceous Eocene) is unconformably overlain by Subathu
Formation (Palaeocene-Eocene) which, in turn, is overlain by the
Murree Group (Upper Eocene to Lower Miocene age). The Siwalik
Supergroup is exposed in Mansar-Uttar Bani-Dughor section, east of
Jammu. It has been identified as the reference section for study of
Siwalik rocks in the Indian sub-continent. The Lower Siwalik Group
conformably overlies Upper Murree Formation. Karewa Group
represents the rocks of Pliocene-Pleistocene age in Kashmir region.
Quaternary deposits are present along the vast alluvial tracts, flood
plains, river terraces, talus, scree, fan deposits of major rivers and
their tributaries and fluvio-glacial deposits in Jammu, Kashmir and
Ladakh regions. These have been classified into Older Alluvium
(Middle to Late Pleistocene) and Newer Alluvium (Holocene).
Some basic volcanic suites present in the area are Trans-Himalayan
Basic Volcanic Suite including Dras volcanic and Shyok volcanic,
Tethyan Basic Volcanics (Lower Permian), and Window Zone Basic
Volcanics represented by Sauni Volcanics. Ultramafic rocks also
occur in Indus and Shyok-Nubra belt.
Several occurrences of metallic minerals and deposits of non-
metallic minerals and construction material are reported from the
state. Incidences of gold mineralization has been reported in quartz
veins in Kupwara district, in shear zones traversing Ladakh Granitoid
and as sporadic placers in Kargil district. Some old workings
developed for copper have been reported from Anantnag and
Baramulla districts. Stibnite mineralization has been reported from
quartz veins traversing limestone in Zanskar valley of Ladakh. Veins
and stringers containing asbestos are observed traversing Panjal
Volcanics exposed in Baramulla district. The famous sapphire mines
of the state, situated at an altitude of 4,418 m northwest of Sumjam in
the Padar area, Doda district have been investigated from time to
time. The area is snow bound for a major part of the year. The
sapphire bearing rocks classified under Padar Formation comprises
interbedded sequence of metasediments and metabasics intruded
by a number of pegmatite and quartz veins. Sapphire occurs in
syenite pegmatite veins in actinolite-tremolite rock.
Mineral Resources
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Director General, Geological Survey of India I E-mail: dg@gsi.gov.in I Visit us at: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in
Geological and Mineral Map of Jammu and Kashmir
Scale
Geology
The state of Himachal Pradesh,
sprawling over an area of 55,673
sq km is bounded in the north and
northwest by Jammu and
Kashmir, in the east by Tibet
(China), in the southeast by
Uttarakhand, in the south by
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and
in the southwest by Punjab. It's
physiography can be divided into
five distinct parallel zones.
Traversing from south to north, these are Alluvial Plains - the
southernmost zone developed at the foothills of Siwalik Range, the
Siwalik foothills or Sub-Himalayan zone, Lesser Himalayan zone,
Central Hi mal ayan/Great Hi mal ayan zone and Trans-
Himalayan/Higher Himalayan zone.
The state is covered by rocks ranging in age from Proterozoic to
Recent. Lesser Himalayan terrain is mainly of Proterozoic rocks. The
Palaeoproterozoic rocks are represented by Jeori-Wangtu Banded
Gneissic Complex, Rampur and Kulu Groups. The Kulu Group is one
of the three principal crystalline nappes of Himachal Pradesh. The
Mesoproterozoic rocks are represented by Shali (Deoban) and Larji
Groups. The Deoban Group mainly consists of carbonate rocks in
association with slate and quartzite. The Shali Group represents a
shallow stable platform type of sedimentation. The Lower
Neoproterozoic rocks are classified under Jaunsar, Simla and
Haimanta Groups. The onset of Palaeozoic age is indicated by
arenaceous sediments of Tal Group occurring in the core of Nigali
Dhar and Korgai synclines. In the Spiti/Kinnaur and Higher Himalaya,
Cambrian rocks are represented by Kunzam La and Parahio
Formations. The Sanugba Group represents the Ordovician-
Devonian suite of rocks in the Spiti area. The Devonian period is
represented by Muth Formation, comprising medium to fine grained
white to mottled, locally grey quartz-arenite. Carboniferous rocks are
represented by Kanawar Group, exposed in the Spiti Basin. It has
been divided into Lipak, Po and Ganmachidam Formations. The
Kuling Group in the Spiti / Kinnaur area is of Permian comprising
Salooni Formation in Chamba area and Kukti Formation of Tandi
Group in Chandra-Bhagha valley of Lahaul. The Linag Group
representing Triassic in Spiti valley lies over Kuling Group. The
Gushal Formation of Tandi Group represents the Triassic-Jurassic
sequence. The Lagudarsi Group of Cretaceous age is divisible into
Giumal and Chikkim Formations. The Palaeocene - Eocene
sedimentary sequence in Lesser Himalayan Tectogen is represented
by Kakra Formation and Subathu Formation, mostly occurring as
outliers over diverse pre-Palaeogene formations. The Dagshai
Formation (Late Eocene to Oligocene) overlies the Subathu
Formation. The Early Miocene Kasauli Formation exhibits normal
and transitional contact with Dagshai Formation. The Middle
Miocene to Middle Pleistocene rocks are represented by Siwalik
Supergroup which is divisible into Lower, Middle and Upper Siwalik
Groups. The Lower Siwalik Group consists of sandstone - clay
alternation and has yielded a rich mammalian fauna including
Hipparion sp., Giraffoid genera, Crocodilus sp. and Cheloniceras sp.
It succeeds to the Middle Siwalik Group with a gradational contact
and comprises a thick succession of coarse micaceous sandstone
with interbeds of earthy clay. The significant vertebrate fossils
present in these rocks include Bramapithecus sivalensis Lewis,
Dryopithecus punjabicus Pilgrim, Ramapithecus brevirostris Lewis
and Sivapithecus sivalensis Lydekker. Other fossils present are
Hipparion theobaldi, Stegodon cautleyi, Hippopotamus sp. and
Girrafokeryx sp. The Upper Siwalik Group consists of thick coarse
sandstone, grit and conglomerate with local clay beds. These have
yielded faunal assemblages Stegodon ganesa, Hypselphas sp.,
Equus cautleyi, Hexaprotodon sp., Rhinoceros platyrhinus, Hemibos
triquetricornis, Leptobos sp., Hippopotamus sp., Crocodylus
biporcatus and Gavialis browni. The fresh water Siwalik rocks were
deposited in the foredeep formed in front of the Himalayan range.
Thick pile of fluvial, fluvio-glacial, glacial, lacustrine and gravitational
sediments represents post-Siwalik Quaternary deposits, which are
divided into Older Alluvium and Newer Alluvium. The Older Alluvium
comprises multi-cyclic sequence of brown to grey silt, clay with
kankar and reddish brown to grey micaeous sand with pebbles. The
Newer Alluvium has been sub-divided into Fan Alluvium, Terrace
Alluvium and Channel Alluvium. The undifferentiated Quaternary
deposits of Spiti valley have been classified into glaciogenic, glacio-
fluvial, lacustrine and mass wasting deposits. A number of granitic
rocks ranging in age from Proterozoic to Tertiary era are widely
exposed in the Himachal Himalaya. These can be broadly grouped
as: (i) Mandi - Darla volcanics (ii) volcanic rocks of Manikaran -
Rampur area and (iii) the traps associated with the Salooni
Formation.
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
Mineral Resources
A variety of minerals are known from the Himachal Pradesh but
except for limestone / dolomite, baryte and gypsum, none has
economic significance. Small occurrences of asbestos have been
reported from Kangra and Mandi districts and in north of Shimla town.
Small occurrences of iron ore as pockets, lenses, veins and
disseminations have been reported from Kangra, Kinnaur, Kullu,
Mandi, Shimla and Sirmaur districts. Rock salt reserve of 7.5 million
tonnes has been reported from Mandi district. Stibnite reserves of
10,582 tonnes have been located in Lahaul and Spiti districts.
Angiospermous fossil flower (~4 mm), Kasauli Formation, Solan
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Geological and Mineral Map of Himachal Pradesh
Director General, Geological Survey of India I E-mail: dg@gsi.gov.in I Visit us at: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in
Scale
Geology
The state of Punjab with an area
of 50,362 sq km and the Union
Territory of Chandigarh with an
area of 114 sq km lie in Indo-
Gangetic plains. The two broad
geomorphic entities, the Siwalik
foothills in the northeastern part
of Punjab and alluvial fills
of I ndus dr ai nage basi n
physiographically characterize
t he ar ea. The domi nant
physiographic highs are Lahore-Sargodha ridge in west, Delhi-
Jagadhari ridge in east, series of Siwalik ridges in northeast and the
Delhi-Lahore ridge in south.
The area is covered by the rocks of Siwalik Supergroup (Tertiary) and
Quaternary Alluvium and Aeolian Deposit.
The Siwalik Supergroup is classified into three groups, namely Lower
Siwalik, Middle Siwalik and Upper Siwalik. The rocks of Lower and
Middle Siwalik Groups are exposed as NW-SE trending ridges in the
northeastern part of Gurdaspur district, while Upper Siwalik rocks are
exposed in Ropar, Hoshiarpur and Gurdaspur districts. The Lower
Siwalik Group, represented by the Chinji Formation, is chiefly
composed of fine to medium grained, sporadically pebbly sandstone
and chocolate to maroon claystone. The Middle Siwalik Group
comprises Dhok Pathan and Nagri Formations. The former consists
of poorly sorted massive, grey, coarse grained and micaceous
sandstone with minor conglomerate. The Nagri Formation comprises
alternating conglomerate and red clay. The Upper Siwalik Group is
made up of coarse gravel and boulder conglomerate alternating with
clay bands and sandstone. Its contact with the overlying Quaternary
sediments is unconformable.
The Quaternary sediments are about 4,500m thick pile. The basin
configuration indicates that the Punjab basin is deeper in the
northern side and shallower southward, deepest being towards NW.
The Punjab Basin is parallel to the general trend of Siwalik hills i.e.
NW-SE. The Quaternary alluvium has been divided into three
chronostratigraphic units- The Older Alluvium, formed by the
deposition of the pre-existing palaeodrainage system of Middle to
Late Pleistocene period, the Newer Alluvium, formed of
Holocene/Recent streams and the Aeolian deposits. Based on the
degree of consolidation, dunes can be divided into three categories -
stabilized and consolidated older dunes, intermediate and semi-
consolidated dunes, and mobile and reversible newer dunes.

Gold occurs as placers in the present day streams draining the rocks
of Siwalik Supergroup. Some minor occurrences of mineral deposits
viz. alkaline soil/ kallar/ reh, calc-tufa, foundry sand, glass sand,
kankar, potash, salt peter, clay and sand are also recorded.
Mineral Resources
Geotechnical Projects
The Ranjit Sagar Dam, a multipurpose project over river Ravi is a fine
embodiment of inter-state relationship and cooperation between the
states of Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. Located near Pathankot in
Gurdaspur district of Punjab, the project comprises 160m high and
600m long rockfill dam with a surface Power House of 600 MW
capacity. The association of Geological Survey of India with the
Project stems way back to the time of its conception. The foundation
gallery below the clay core running all through the dam foundation is
a unique feature and first of its kind in a rockfill dam in India.
The project is located on the southwestern limb of regional anticline
comprising 4m to 40m thick sandstone and 4m to 30m thick
claystone / siltstone bands of Lower Siwaliks in the Outer Himalaya.
The disposition of various lithounits is about 45 askew to the dam
axis with traceable continuity of different litho-bands from left to right
abutment. The lithounits are dissected by two major joint sets,
parallel to bedding and striking NE-SW with sub-vertical to vertical
dips. The rocks are traversed by two faults in the left spillway area
and by a group of more prominent, approximately WNW-ESE
trending faults, in the inlet portal area of diversion tunnels.
Development of shears and fractures in rocks, mainly parallel to the
bedding plane, are common. Rock creep was observed in the bucket
portion of the spillway.
The dam area is located in active Seismic Zone-V as per the Seismic
Zoning Map of India (ISI 1895-1970), on the western fringe of Kangra
Seismic Block, which is demarcated by Ravi Tear in the west and
Sundernagar Fault in the east. Hence, suitable seismic co-efficient
have been provided for safe design of the dam.
The project has immensely benefitted the nation, more particularly
the states of Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir by providing the much
needed electricity and water for irrigation to the farmers besides flood
moderation.
A view of Rangit Sagar Dam
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
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Geological and Mineral Map of Punjab and Chandigarh
Director General, Geological Survey of India I E-mail: dg@gsi.gov.in I Visit us at: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in
Scale
Geology
The state of Haryana, having an
area of 44,212 sq km, is bounded
by Punjab in the northwest,
Hi ma c h a l Pr a d e s h a n d
Uttarakhand in the north and
northeast, Delhi and Uttar
Pradesh i n t he east and
southeast and by Rajasthan in
the west and southwest. Three
major geomorphic units, viz.
Structural and Denudation hills,
Alluvial Plains and Aeolian Plains
have been identified. The Structural and Denudation hills are a series
of rugged parallel ridges composed of Siwalik rocks in the northern
part and widely spaced isolated ranges of Delhi Supergroup in
southern parts. The Alluvial plains representing the Late Quaternary
sediments are sub-divided into three zones, namely, piedmont,
central alluvial plains and marginal alluvial plains. The Aeolian plains
are the northeastern extension of the Thar Desert and comprise sand
dunes and sand sheets. The dunes are up to 0.410 m high, upto 5 km
long and stabilized to active in nature. The stabilized dunes are
longitudinal and oval in shape while the active dunes are transverse
and barchans type. The latter shows easterly, westerly and
southeasterly trends of sand migration. Sand sheets are present in
the dunal plain areas adjoining the Thar Desert. These very fine-
grained sand sheets are up to 0.52 m thick
Nearly 95% area is covered by Quaternary Alluvium and Aeolian
sediments and the rest represents the Proterozoic rocks by the Delhi
Supergroup and the Tertiary rocks. The Delhi Supergroup is divided
into an older Alwar Group and a younger Ajabgarh Group. The former
is dominantly arenaceous with argillaceous intercalations while the
latter is mainly argillaceous with arenaceous and calcareous
components. The Alwar Group is represented by Bayal-Pachnota
Formation comprising quartzite with well preserved sedimentary
structures like bedding, cross bedding, ripple marks and load casts.
The Ajabgarh Group comprises slate, phyllite, pelitic schist,
limestone and quartzite, grading upward from calcareous to
argillaceous facies. It is divided into five formations, viz. Golwa-
Gangutana Formation, Deota-Dantal Formation, Thanaghazi
Formation, Asarwas Formaion and Tasing Formation. The rocks of
Delhi Supergroup are intruded by acidic and basic intrusive
rocks.The acid intrusive are granite, granodiorite, tonalite, aplite,
pegmatite, hypabyssal feldspar porphyry and quartz veins while the
volcanic phase is represented by basalt, rhyolite and tuff.
Occurrences of ultrabasic rocks like albitite have also been reported.
The northeastern part of Haryana exposes rocks of Subathu,
Dagshai and Kasauli Formations and Siwalik Supergroup. The
Subathu Formation consists mainly of calcareous and argillaceous
rocks including thick beds of gritty clays. The impure limestone is
highly fossiliferous. This is succeeded by Dagshai Formation
characterising thicker beds of sandstone with purplish tint. The top of
the Dagshai Formation is marked by purple and green sandstone
and subordinate clays. It passes conformably into overlying Kasauli
Formation which comprises essentially sandstone with minor
argillaceous bands. These standstones are grey to greenish, soft,
coarse and more micaceous than the sandstone of Dagshai
Formation. The shales are soft and green. Grey clay slates also
occur in these rocks.
A tectono-stratigraphic domain comprising Neogene-Quaternary
molasses sediments, known as Siwalik Supergroup, sub-divided into
Lower, Middle and Upper Siwalik Groups, occurs in the northern part
of the state. The undifferentiated rocks of Lower Siwalik Group
collectively referred to as Nahan Formation is in contact with the
boulder conglomerate of the Upper Siwalik Group along the Nahan
Thrust. The Middle Siwalik Group, on the basis of frequency of
sandstone and mudstone deposits, has been divided into lower Nagri
Formation and upper Dhok Pathan Formation. The Upper Siwalik
rocks are represented by Saketi, Pinjor and Kalar Formations.
The Quaternary deposits thickening from south to north are mainly
alluvial with minor incursions of aeolian and lacustrine lenses. These
have been classified into Older Alluvium, comprising mainly
brownish silt-clay, clay, and grey micaceous sand, calcretised at
several levels, Newer Alluvium and Aeolian deposits. The Newer
Alluvium comprises mainly Holocene deposits consisting of gravels
and sand near mountain exits and grey micaceous sand and silt in
the downstream (Terrace Alluvium). The Aeolian deposits are brown,
fine sand dunes and sheets. The sand belongs to at least three
episodes of deposition.

Mineral occurrences include both metallic and non-metallic deposits,
but only the latter have been economically exploited so far. The tin-
tungsten mineralization occurs near Tosham, Bhiwani district in an
alteration-environ of acid magmatic rocks, viz. the granites and the
rhyolites associated with metasediments showing quartz-muscovite-
sericite assemblage of greisen type. The zone of tin mineralization
with fine dissemination of cassiterite occurs with altered rocks.
Wolframite occurs as sporadic, coarse, anhedral intergrowth with
gangue and copper-iron sulphide (chalcopyrite). Total resource of tin
Mineral Resources
Erosional Structure in Polycyclic Sequence of Sandstone and
Mudstone, Tatrot Formation, Upper Siwalik Group
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
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Quartzite occurs as good quality building material in Faridabad,
Gurgaon, Rohtak and Mahendragarh districts. It is extensively used
as rail ballast and in concrete aggregates whereas fissile quartzite is
used for roofing and as masonry blocks. The sandstone beds of
Ambala district provide large source of good quality building material.
Limestone and dolomite, found in Mahendragarh and Ambala
districts, are also suitable for building material. Unwashed samples
of quartzite from Faridabad district contain more than 95% SiO2. The
quartzite from Bhiwani district is suitable for the manufacture of
window glass and bottle glass. The foundry sand in Sonepat district
has high (79%) silica.
and tungsten are estimated to be 86,220 tonnes and 3,568 tonnes
respectively. The incidence of gold from rocks hosting sulphide
mineralization in Ajabgarh Group of rocks in Mahendragarh district
and also from Yamuna Nagar and Ambala districts have been
reported. Nitre occurs as natural efflorescence at a number of places
in the districts of Gurgaon, Faridabad, Bhiwani, Hissar, Sirsa,
Ambala, Rohtak, Jind, Sonepat and Kurukshetra. Pegmatite veins in
the rocks of Delhi Supergroup have given rise to workable clay
deposits in Faridabad and Gurgaon districts. The clay comprises
kaolinite and little amount of quartz and is of refractory type.
Geological and Mineral Map of Haryana
Director General, Geological Survey of India I E-mail: dg@gsi.gov.in I Visit us at: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in
Scale
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
Geology
Ajabgarh Group
The state of Delhi covers an area
of 1,483 sq km and is bounded on
its north, west and south by
Haryana and on its east by Uttar
Pradesh. It exhibits more or less
flat terrain except for a NNE-
SSW trending Delhi Ridge that
occurs in the southeastern part.
The flat portions are occupied by
Quaternary sediments, while
ridge comprises hard rocks. The
eastern side of ridge has an undulating topography and the area on
west is dotted with isolated sand dunes. The main drainage is
Yamuna River. A few palaeo-channel scars have been manually
canalized and drain into Yamuna River. There is considerable
anthropogenic influence on the present topography. A number of
small seasonal rivulets descending from the ridge disappear in the
plains. Geomorphologically, Delhi has been classified into following
four geomorphic units, based on dominant land forming processes
responsible for their genesis. Denudational hills or rocky surfaces are
structurally controlled relict, linear ridges and isolated hillocks
representing rocks of Delhi Supergroup whose Mehrauli-Fatehpur
Beri Ridge with trellis/sub-trellis/sub-dendritic drainage has the
overall slope towards southwest and NE-SW trending Masudpur-
Wazirabad Ridge, popularly known as Delhi Ridge, shows steep
slopes on both flanks. The Older Alluvial Plain is a gently undulatory
terrain with soft Quaternary sediments and occurs on either side of
the rocky surface except the low-lying tract along Yamuna. The Flood
Plain of Yamuna River is a low-lying belt of Khadar along Yamuna
River in the eastern part of Delhi and is marked by a 3m to 4m high
bluff. The flood plain is characterized by abandoned channels, cut-off
meanders, meander scrolls, ox-bow lakes, crevasse splays, point
bars and channel bars. Presence of a number of cut-off meanders
suggests oscillatory shifting of river. The lakes near Bhalsawa, Kondli
and Khichdipur are remnant of such large meanders. The flood plain
has been sub-divided into an older flood plain and active flood plain.
Aeolian surface is characterised by brown sediment deposits of fine
to medium grained yellowish sand with minor salt content.
The Delhi Supergroup is represented by the rocks of Ajabgarh Group
covering nearly 15% area of state mainly in the southeastern part
while the rest is covered by Quaternary to Recent sediments.

The Ajabgarh Group in Delhi is referred to as Bharkol Formation
(equivalent to Asarwas Formation in Haryana). It is essentially an
arenaceous sequence with thin argillaceous bands. This formation is
dominantly represented by quartzite with interbands of phyllites, tuffs
and schists. The quartzites are grey to light blue, massive, hard and
highly jointed assuming boulder nature because of its spheroidal
weathering. The oxidation of pyrites imparts a reddish tinge. The
primary sedimentary structures like ripple mark, cross bedding,
convolute lamination and load casts are preserved. The
asymmetrical ripple marks are the most prominent sedimentary
features. The quartzites contain very thin interbands of quartz-mica
schist, muscovite-biotite schist, staurolite-garnet schist and
garnetiferous-mica schist. At some places within the quartzites there
are bands of very fine grained, grey to greenish-grey, compact,
soapy to rough ash and tuffaceous rocks. These are interbedded with
friable feldspathic quartzites and schists. In the vicinity of pegmatite
intrusions, garnet and pyrite are found within these bands giving rise
to amygdaloidal appearance.

The pegmatites have intruded into the rocks of Ajabgarh Group along
joints of varied orientations, shears and fault zones. It comprises
quartz, K-feldspar and mica with tourmaline and rarely beryl. The
alteration of K-feldspars in pegmatites has resulted in the formation
of kaoline deposits.

Most of the area of Delhi state is covered by unconsolidated younger
Quaternary sediments, which unconformably rest over the hard
rocks of Delhi Supergroup. Based on the sediment characters, these
can be classified as Older Alluvium which is a thick sequence of
brown oxidized fluvial sediments comprising silt, clay and micaceous
sand with disseminated nodules and bands of kankar, clay and sand
are its two major components and Newer Alluvium which is about 25
m thick sequence of loose sediments deposited by Yamuna River. It
occurs as terrace deposit (Terrace Alluvium) as well as channel
deposits (Channel Alluvium). The Terrace Alluvium disconformably
lies over the Older Alluvium, and is composed of grey to light brown
silt, clay and fine to coarse-grained micaceous sand. The Channel
Alluvium occurs along the active channels of Yamuna and comprises
grey, fine to coarse-grained micaceous sand constituting point and
channel bars and overbank sediments. The Aeolian Deposits are
minor sandy deposits occurring as isolated, stabilized mounds and
humps. However, in most of the cases characteristic dune features
have been obliterated due to cultivation. The disposition of these
dunes indicates predominant wind direction from west to east.
Quartzite, occupying a fairly large area along Delhi Ridge provides a
large source of good quality building material and road metal.
Weathering of quartzite produces reddish brown morrum and
angular sand, suitable for building purposes (mortar & plaster etc.)
and is found to accumulate in the numerous rivulets traversing the
quartzite hills. The alluvial sand suitable for masonry work is being
extracted at various places from the Yamuna bed.
Post-Delhi Intrusives
Quaternary Sediments
Mineral Resources
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China clay (Kaolin) is the only major mineral produced in Delhi state.
The total resource of china clay deposits are of the order of 5289
thousand tonnes, out of which 857 tonnes are in measured category.
Kaoline found in this belt is generally high in iron oxide and is suitable
for ceramic industry. Fire clay resource available in Delhi is estimated
at 64,000 tonnes, out of which 6,000 tonnes are in measured
category. The fire clays are used in manufacturing bricks, crucibles
and the low grade variety is used in manufacturing sanitary wares,
such as pipes, bath tubs etc.
Large quantities of silica sand (white variety) are being mined at
Mahipalpur, Badarpur, Masudpur and the areas between Dhaula
Kuan and Chanakyapuri. It is used in glass industry, foundry, ferro-
alloys and refractory industries and as building material.
Director General, Geological Survey of India I E-mail: dg@gsi.gov.in I Visit us at: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in
Geological and Mineral Map of Delhi
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Geology
The Extra Peninsular Region
The states of Uttar Pradesh (UP)
and Uttarakhand (UK) together
cover an area of 294,413 sq km
and have state boundary with
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana,
Del hi , Raj ast han, Madhya
Pr a d e s h , Ch h a t t i s g a r h ,
Jharkhand and Bihar while China
and Nepal mark international
boundary. Physiographically, the
terrain has broadly been divided
into Extra-Peninsula, Gangetic
Plains, and Peninsular Uplands. The northern mountains in
Uttarakhand are a part of the Himalayan mountain chain known as
Extra Peninsular Region. Various streams have cut through deep
gorges to enter into the Ganga Plain. The higher Himalayan range is
characterized by glaciers and lofty snow-covered peaks in the
region. The Ganga Plain is the youngest Quaternary fluvial plain.
The area is made up of rocks ranging from the oldest Archaean
metamorphites / granitoids to the youngest Quaternary deposits.
Major part of Uttar Pradesh is covered by Alluvium which constitutes
the Ganga Plain.

The Himalayan tectonogene comprising Late Proterozoic and
Phanerozoic rocks has been sub-divided into four major morpho-
tectonic belts from south to north namely, Sub or Outer Himalaya,
Lesser Himalaya, Higher Himalaya and Tethys Himalaya. Higher
Himalaya and most of the Lesser Himalaya comprise mainly
Proterozoic weak- to un- metamorphosed sedimentary sequences,
which host some stromatolites and records of early life. These
metamorphic rocks and associated granite gneisses and migmatites
of Palaeoproterozoic age have been referred as 'Crystallines'.
Mesoproterozoic rocks are characterised by extensive development
of quartzite with penecontemporaneous volcanic flows and
carbonates. This sequence is succeeded by carbonate predominant
lithounits of Deoban and Garhwal Groups. The carbonate zone
passes upward into quartzite impregnated with volcanic flows
forming the Berinag Formation in Garhwal-Kumaon region and
Naugaon metavol cani cs i n Tons-Yamuna regi on. The
Neoproterozoic sequences, that constitute a major part of the outer
Lesser Himalaya, commences with the older Mandhali Formation, a
conglomerate predominant rock, overlain successively by shaly /
slaty Chandpur Formation and Nagthat Formation of quartzite with
minor shale. These three formations together constitute the Jaunsar
Group which is overlain by Neoproterozoic rocks of the Blaini-Krol-
Tal sequence.
The Palaeozoic rocks are mainly exposed in Tethyan Himalaya and
sporadically in the Lesser Himalaya. The contact of the Tethyan
sedimentaries with the underlying crystalline sequence of the Higher
Himalaya is tectonic. The beginning of Palaeozoic Era is marked by
appearance of Redlichia sp. in Milam Formation (Late Proterozoic to
Early Cambrian) that succeeds to Ralam Formation and Garbayang
Formation (Ordovician) of Martoli Group. The Variegated Formation
(Silurian) is followed by quartzite of Muth Formation (Devonian)
which has yielded brachiopod fossils viz. Pentamerus oblongus,
Pentamerifera sp. Seven metre thick white ferruginous quartzite
overlying the Muth quartzite has been assigned Late Devonian-Early
Carboniferous age. A thick sequence of predominant carbonates
overlying the Muth Formation in Kali valley has been named as Kali
Formation (early Carboniferous). This passes upward into Girthigal
Formation, which has yielded Upper Carboniferous brachiopods.
The Kuling Formation (Permian) is unconformably overlying the Kali
and Girthigal Formations and has yielded Marginifera himalayansis,
Cyclolobas oldhami of Upper Permian age. The Palaeozoic in Lesser
Himalaya is represented by the Tal Group followed by the lower Bijni
Formation or Boulder Slate Formation. The Tal Group has been sub-
divided into lower Deo-Ka-Tibba Formation and upper Dhaulagiri
Formation. On the basis of discovery of Redlichia sp., and other fossil
assemblages from upper part of the lower Tal, the Precambrian -
Cambriam boundary has been placed between chert and
arenaceous member of the Deo-ka-Tibba Formation. The
Carboniferous period is represented by the Boulder Slate Formation.
Lower part of overlying Bijni Formation has yielded fossils of Late
Palaeozoic age.
The evidence of Mesozoic life is well preserved in rock sequences
exposed in Tethyan Himalaya. The Chocolate Formation has yielded
ammonoids and some vertebrate fossils of Early Triassic age. The
argillaceous dominant facies passes upward into Kalapani
Limestone which, in turn, is succeeded by Kuti Shale. On the basis of
fossil records from underlying and overlying sequences, Late
Triassic age has been assigned to this formation. The Kioto
Limestone Formation, Laptal Formation and Spiti Shale represent
Jurassic sediments while Giumal Sandstone, Chikkim and Sangcha
Malla Formations in ascending order represent Cretaceous.
The Tertiary period is represented by two contrasting sequences
exposed in Lesser Himalaya and Sub-Himalaya. In Lesser Himalaya,
the marine facies Tertiary rocks have been grouped as Subathu
Formation (Palaeocene-Middle Eocene). The younger fluvial
sediments constitute the Siwalik Supergroup which is exposed in the
Sub-Himalaya. The rocks of Dharamshala Group (Oligocene and
Early Miocene) occupy a position between Subathus and Siwaliks
and are only exposed in the western part of Uttarakhand. The
Neogene (Middle Miocene to Lower Pleistocene), represented by a
thick sequence of claystone, sandstone and conglomerate beds is
commonly referred to as the Siwalik Supergroup, which is divisible
into a basal sandstone-claystone sequence of Lower Siwalik Group
overlain by grey coarse sandstone dominant sequence of Middle
Siwalik Group and arenaceous to pebbly-conglomeratic facies
interbedded with orange clay of Upper Siwalik Group. The upper part
of the Upper Siwalik Group is of Lower Pleistocene age. Vertebrate
fauna, larger and smaller bovideans etc. have been reported from
Siwalik rocks of eastern Uttarakhand.
Unconsolidated glacial deposits occurring as lateral and terminal
moraines of Lower Pleistocene age are present in Higher Himalaya.
The fluvial deposits are represented by Dun Gravels (Middle to Late
Pleistocene) and multi-level terraces, developed along major rivers.
Lacustrine deposits are widely developed in the outer Lesser
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
Himalaya of Kumaon region. These glacial, fluvial and lacustrine
deposits range in age from Middle Pleistocene to Holocene.
The granitoids of Uttarakhand are of foliated and nonfoliated types
and occur at different tectonic levels; and both are associated with
Central Crystalline rocks. The granitoids occur as klippe in the Lesser
Himalaya and form parts of the Almora - Ramgarh, Baijnath-Askot
and Garhwal nappes.

The Peninsular region is represented by rocks of Bundelkhand
Granitoid Complex (BGC), made of a wide variety of plutonic and
hypabyssal rocks dominated by porphyritic granite of several
generations, gneisses, migmatites and leucogranites, Dudhi
Gneissic Complex (DGC), consisting mainly of granite gneiss,
migmatites and non-foliated granite with enclaves of metamorphites
and veins of pegmatite, aplite and quartz, and Mahakoshal Group,
Bijawar Group and Vindhyan Supergroup. Rocks of Mahakoshal
Group, Bijawar Group and Vindhyan Supergroup constitute the
Proterozoic sequence. Mahakoshal Group represents the
Palaeoproterozoic period and includes metasediments with
interlayered metavolcanics and granitic
bodies intruding it. The suite of igneous
rocks was formed in the faulted troughs
within Mahakoshal Group in the Jungel
valley of Sonbhadra district and is called
Jungel Volcanics of Palaeo- to Meso-
proterozoic period. The Neoproterozoic
is represented by the rocks of the Rewa
and Bhander Groups of Vindhyan
Supergroup.
The r ocks of t he Gondwana
Supergroup occupy a small area in
Sonbhadr a di st r i ct r epr esent
Palaeozoic time.

On the basis of lithology, the Quaternary
sediments of the Gangetic plain have
been broadly classified into Older
Alluvium (Banda Alluvium and Varanasi
Alluvium) and Newer Alluvium. The
Banda Alluvium, which has provenance
in peninsular/cratonic region rests over
the Precambrian rocks. The sediments
of Varanasi Alluvium of (Middle to Late
Pleistocene age) derived from the
Himalayan provenance overlie Banda
Al l uvi um. The Newer Al l uvi um
represents the youngest sequence.
Generally, this sequence is confined
within the flood plain limits of present
day rivers.

Several gold occurrences have been
reported from peninsular region and
extra-peninsular regions as well as in
the gravels and sand of Gangetic Plain.
The Peninsular Region
The Gangetic Plain
Mineral Resources
Basemetal mineralisation is confined to the rocks of Proterozoic age.
Tungsten mineralisation is known from Almora and Chamoli districts
in Uttarakhand, and Sonbhadra and Hamirpur districts in Uttar
Pradesh. Limestone occurs in Mirzapur and Sonbhadra districts of
shield area and in almost all the districts of Uttrakhand. Important
deposits are located in Dehradun, Nainital, Pauri Garhwal,
Pithoragarh, Tehri Garhwal, Sonbhadra and Mirzapur districts.
Phosphorite deposits occur in Lalitpur and Dehradun and Tehri
Garhwal districts of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, respectively.
Silica sand, suitable for glass industry, are found to occur in
Allahabad, Banda, Chandauli, Lalitpur and Varanasi districts of UP,
and Uttarkashi district of UK. The magnesite and talc deposits are
reported from Almora, Pithoragarh and Chamoli districts. Mineable
slates occur in Almora, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Pithoragarh districts.
Graphite is reported from Almora and Pauri Garhwal districts.
Gypsum deposits are known from Dehradun, Nainital, Pauri Garhwal
and Tehri Garhwal districts. Occurrences of Barytes have been
reported from Almora, Chamoli, Dehradun, Nainital, Pauri Garhwal,
Tehri Garhwal and Pithoragarh districts. Marble is found in Dehradun
district.
Geological and Mineral Map of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand
Director General, Geological Survey of India I E-mail: dg@gsi.gov.in I Visit us at: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in
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