Components-3e-S 06/04/07

Chapter 6
HARDWARE COMPONENTS FOR AUTOMATION AND INDUSTRIAL
CONTROL
REVIEW QUESTIONS
6.1 What is a sensor?
Answer: As defined in the text, a sensor is a dei!e that !onerts a ph"si!a# stim$#$s or aria%#e of interest
&s$!h as temperat$re, for!e, press$re, or disp#a!ement' into a more !onenient form &$s$a##" an e#e!tri!a#
($antit" s$!h as o#ta)e' for the p$rpose of meas$rin) the stim$#$s.
6.* What is the differen!e %et+een an ana#o) sensor and a dis!rete sensor?
Answer: An ana#o) meas$rin) dei!e prod$!es a !ontin$o$s ana#o) si)na# s$!h as e#e!tri!a# o#ta)e, +hose
a#$e aries in an ana#o)o$s manner +ith the aria%#e %ein) meas$red. A dis!rete meas$rin) dei!e
prod$!es an o$tp$t that !an hae on#" !ertain a#$es. ,is!rete sensor dei!es diide into t+o !ate)ories: &1'
%inar", in +hi!h the meas$rin) dei!e prod$!es an on/off si)na#, and &*' di)ita#, in +hi!h the meas$rin)
dei!e prod$!es either a set of para##e# stat$s %its or a series of p$#ses that !an %e !o$nted.
6.3 What is the differen!e %et+een an a!tie sensor and a passie sensor?
Answer: An a!tie sensor is one that responds to a stim$#$s +itho$t the need for an" externa# po+er. A
passie sensor is one that re($ires an externa# so$r!e of po+er in order to operate.
6.4 What is the transfer f$n!tion of a sensor?
Answer: A transfer f$n!tion is the re#ationship %et+een the a#$e of the ph"si!a# stim$#$s and the a#$e of
the si)na# prod$!ed %" the sensor in response to the stim$#$s. -t is the inp$t/o$tp$t re#ationship of the
sensor.
6.. What is an a!t$ator?
Answer: An a!t$ator is a hard+are dei!e that !onerts a !ontro##er !ommand si)na# into a !han)e in a
ph"si!a# parameter. An a!t$ator is a transd$!er, %e!a$se it !han)es one t"pe of ph"si!a# ($antit", s$!h as
e#e!tri! !$rrent, into another t"pe of ph"si!a# ($antit", s$!h as rotationa# speed of an e#e!tri! motor.
6.6 /ear#" a## a!t$ators !an %e !#assified into one of three !ate)ories, a!!ordin) to t"pe of drie po+er. /ame
the three !ate)ories.
Answer: 0he three !ate)ories are &1' e#e!tri!a#, &*' h"dra$#i!, and &3' pne$mati!.
6.7 /ame the t+o main !omponents of an e#e!tri! motor.
Answer: 0he t+o !omponents are the stator, +hi!h is the stationar" !omponent, and the rotor, +hi!h rotates
inside the stator.
6.1 -n a ,C motor, +hat is a !omm$tator?
Answer: !a##ed A !omm$tator is a rotar" s+it!hin) dei!e that rotates +ith the rotor and pi!2s $p !$rrent
from a set of !ar%on %r$shes that are !omponents of the stator assem%#". -ts f$n!tion is to !ontin$a##" !han)e
the re#atie po#arit" %et+een the rotor and the stator, so that the ma)neti! fie#d prod$!es a tor($e to
!ontin$o$s#" t$rn the rotor.
6.3 What are the t+o important disadanta)es of ,C e#e!tri! motors that ma2e the AC motor re#atie#"
attra!tie?
Answer: A!!ordin) to the text, the t+o important disadanta)es of ,C motors are &1' the !omm$tator and
%r$shes $sed to !ond$!t !$rrent %et+een the stator assem%#" and the rotor res$#t in maintenan!e pro%#ems,
and &*' the most !ommon e#e!tri!a# po+er so$r!e in ind$str" is a#ternatin) !$rrent, not dire!t !$rrent. -n
order to $se AC po+er to drie a ,C motor, a re!tifier m$st %e added to !onert the a#ternatin) !$rrent to
dire!t !$rrent.
6.10 4o+ is the operation of a stepper motor different from the operation of !onentiona# ,C or AC motors?
Answer: Conentiona# ,C and AC motors rotate !ontin$o$s#" %ased on a !ontin$o$s ,C or AC po+er
so$r!e. A stepper motor rotates in dis!rete an)$#ar disp#a!ements, !a##ed step an)#es. 5a!h an)$#ar step is
a!t$ated %" a dis!rete e#e!tri!a# p$#se. 0he tota# rotation of the motor shaft is determined %" the n$m%er of
p$#ses re!eied %" the motor, and rotationa# speed is determined %" the fre($en!" of the p$#ses.
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6.11 What is a so#enoid?
Answer: A so#enoid is an a!t$ator that !onsists of a moa%#e p#$n)er inside a stationar" +ire !oi#. When a
!$rrent is app#ied to the !oi#, it a!ts as a ma)net, dra+in) the p#$n)er into the !oi#. When !$rrent is
s+it!hed off, a sprin) ret$rns the p#$n)er to its preio$s position.
6.1* What is the differen!e %et+een a h"dra$#i! a!t$ator and a pne$mati! a!t$ator?
Answer: 6i# is $sed in h"dra$#i! a!t$ators, +hi#e !ompressed air is $sed in pne$mati! a!t$ators.
6.13 7rief#" des!ri%e the three phases of the ana#o)-to-di)ita# !onersion pro!ess?
Answer: 0he three phases of the A/, !onersion pro!ess are &1' samp#in), +hi!h !onsists of !onertin) the
!ontin$o$s si)na# into a series of dis!rete ana#o) si)na#s at periodi! intera#s8 &*' ($anti9ation, in +hi!h
ea!h dis!rete ana#o) si)na# is assi)ned to one of a finite n$m%er of preio$s#" defined amp#it$de #ee#s,
+hi!h are dis!rete a#$es of o#ta)e ran)in) oer the f$## s!a#e of the A,C8 and &3' en!odin), in +hi!h the
dis!rete amp#it$de #ee#s o%tained d$rin) ($anti9ation are !onerted into di)ita# !ode, representin) the
amp#it$de #ee# as a se($en!e of %inar" di)its.
6.14 What is the reso#$tion of an ana#o)-to-di)ita# !onerter?
Answer: 0he reso#$tion of an A,C is the pre!ision +ith +hi!h the ana#o) si)na# is ea#$ated. Sin!e the
si)na# is represented in %inar" form, pre!ision is determined %" the n$m%er of ($anti9ation #ee#s, +hi!h in
t$rn is determined %" the %it !apa!it" of the A,C and the !omp$ter. -n e($ation form, reso#$tion RA,C : L/
&*
n
-1', +here L : f$## s!a#e ran)e of the A,C and n : n$m%er of %its.
6.1. 7rief#" des!ri%e the t+o steps in the di)ita#-to-ana#o) !onersion pro!ess?
Answer: 0he t+o steps in the ,/A !onersion pro!ess are &1' de!odin), in +hi!h the di)ita# o$tp$t of the
!omp$ter is !onerted into a series of ana#o) a#$es at dis!rete moments in time, and &*' data ho#din), in
+hi!h ea!h s$!!essie a#$e is !han)ed into a !ontin$o$s si)na# &$s$a##" e#e!tri!a# o#ta)e' $sed to drie the
ana#o) a!t$ator d$rin) the samp#in) intera#.
6.16 What is the differen!e %et+een a !onta!t inp$t interfa!e and a !onta!t o$tp$t interfa!e?
Answer: A !onta!t inp$t interfa!e is a dei!e %" +hi!h %inar" data are read into the !omp$ter from some
externa# so$r!e &e.)., the pro!ess'. -t !onsists of a series of simp#e !onta!ts that !an %e either !#osed or open
&on or off' to indi!ate the stat$s of %inar" dei!es !onne!ted to the pro!ess. A !onta!t o$tp$t interfa!e is a
dei!e that !omm$ni!ates on/off si)na#s from the !omp$ter to the pro!ess.
6.17 What is a p$#se !o$nter?
Answer: A p$#se !o$nter is a dei!e $sed to !onert a series of p$#ses into a di)ita# a#$e.
PROBLEMS
Sensors
6.1 ,$rin) !a#i%ration, an -ron/Constantan thermo!o$p#e is 9eroed &set to emit a 9ero o#ta)e' at 0C. At
7.0C, it emits a o#ta)e of 31.1 m;. A #inear o$tp$t/inp$t re#ationship exists %et+een 0C and 7.0C.
,etermine &a' the transfer f$n!tion of the thermo!o$p#e and &%' the temperat$re !orrespondin) to a o#ta)e
o$tp$t of *3.6 m;.
Soluton: &a' E : mT 31.1 m; : m&7.0C' m : 31.1/7.0 : 0.0.173 m;/C
0ransfer f$n!tion: E ! "#"$%&' T
&%' At E : *3.6 m;, T : V/m : &0.0.173
-1
' &*3.6' : $&(C
6.* A di)ita# ta!hometer is $sed to determine the s$rfa!e speed of a rotatin) +or2pie!e in s$rfa!e ft/min.
0a!hometers are desi)ned to read rotationa# speed in re/min, %$t in this !ase the shaft of the ta!hometer is
dire!t#" !o$p#ed to a +hee# +hose o$tside rim is made of r$%%er. When the +hee# rim is pressed a)ainst the
s$rfa!e of the rotatin) +or2pie!e, the ta!hometer proides a readin) of s$rfa!e speed. 0he desired $nits for
s$rfa!e speed are ft/min. What is the diameter of the +hee# rim that +i## proide a dire!t readin) of s$rfa!e
speed in ft/min?
Soluton: Ci!$mferen!e of +hee# C : 1 ft : 1* in
C : D D : C/ : 1*/ : '#)%*& n
6.3 A di)ita# f#o+ meter operates %" emittin) a p$#se for ea!h $nit o#$me of f#$id f#o+in) thro$)h it. 0he
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Components-3e-S 06/04/07
parti!$#ar f#o+ meter of interest here has a $nit o#$me of .7.3 !m
3
per p$#se. -n a !ertain pro!ess !ontro#
app#i!ation, the f#o+ meter emitted 6413 p$#ses d$rin) a period of 3.6 min. ,etermine &a' the tota# o#$me
of f#$id that f#o+ed thro$)h the meter and &%' the f#o+ rate of f#$id f#o+. &!' What is the p$#se fre($en!"
&49' !orrespondin) to a f#o+ rate of 7.,000 !m
3
/min?
Soluton: &a' V : 6413&.7.3' : '&$+&%' ,-
'

&%' Q : 37.,713/3.6 : %".+'6$ ,-
'
/-n
&!' Q : 7.,000 !m
3
/min : 1*.0 !m
3
/se!
fp : &1*.0 !m
3
/se!' / &.7.3 !m
3
/p$#se' : *1..3 p$#se/se! : (%#$* H0
6.4 A too#-!hip thermo!o$p#e is $sed to meas$re the !$ttin) temperat$re in a t$rnin) operation. 0he t+o
dissimi#ar meta#s in a too#-!hip thermo!o$p#e are the too# materia# and the +or2pie!e meta#. ,$rin) the
t$rnin) operation, the !hip from the +or2 meta# forms a <$n!tion +ith the ra2e fa!e of the too# to !reate the
thermo!o$p#e at exa!t#" the #o!ation +here it is desired to meas$re temperat$re: at the interfa!e %et+een the
too# and the !hip. A separate !a#i%ration pro!ed$re m$st %e performed for ea!h !om%ination of too# materia#
and +or2 meta#. -n the !om%ination of interest here, the !a#i%ration !$re &inerse transfer f$n!tion' for a
parti!$#ar )rade of !emented !ar%ide too# +hen $sed to t$rn C1040 stee# is the fo##o+in): T : 11.1Etc = 1*7,
+here T : temperat$re in >, and Etc : the emf o$tp$t of the thermo!o$p#e in m;. &a' ?eise the
temperat$re e($ation so that it is in the form of a transfer f$n!tion simi#ar to that )ien in 5(. &6.3'. What
is the sensitiit" of this too#-!hip thermo!o$p#e? &%' ,$rin) a strai)ht t$rnin) operation, the emf o$tp$t of
the thermo!o$p#e +as meas$red as 3.*. m;. What +as the !orrespondin) !$ttin) temperat$re?
Soluton: &a' T : 11.1 Etc - 1*7
S : Etc s : T s : C @ m s
Aanip$#atin) the temperat$re e($ation into the form of 5(. &6.3', T @ 1*7 : 11.1 Etc
Etc : &T @ 1*7' / 11.1 : 0.0113. T @ 1.441.
-n 5(. &6.3', C : 1.441. and m ! "#"%%'$, +here m : sensitiit"
&%' T : 11.1&3.*.' = 1*7 : 11. = 1*7 : 6)) F
A,tuators
6.. A ,C seromotor is $sed to a!t$ate one of the axes of an x-y positioner. 0he motor has a tor($e !onstant of
1.7. in-#%/A and a o#ta)e !onstant of 10 ;/&1000 re/min'. 0he armat$re resistan!e is *.0 ohms. At a )ien
moment, the positioner ta%#e is not moin) and a o#ta)e of *0 ; is app#ied to the motor termina#s.
,etermine the tor($e &a' immediate#" after the o#ta)e is app#ied and &%' at a rotationa# speed of 400
re/min. &!' What is the maxim$m theoreti!a# speed of the motor?
Soluton: &a' Ia : *0/* : 10 A T : &1.7. in-#%/A'&10 A' : )&#$ n1l2
&%' Ia :
( ) *0 10 400/100'
*

: &*0 = 4' / * : 1 A T : 1.7.&1' : &" n1l2

&!' Aax N o!!$rs at Vin : KvN
Set KvN : *0 : &10/1000' N : 0.01 N N ! (""" re3/-n
6.6 A ,C seromotor has a tor($e !onstant : 0.011 /-m/A and a o#ta)e !onstant : 0.1* ;/&rad/se!'. 0he
armat$re resistan!e is *.3 ohms. A termina# o#ta)e of 30 ; is $sed to operate the motor. ,etermine &a' the
startin) tor($e )enerated %" the motor <$st as the o#ta)e is app#ied, &%' the maxim$m speed at a tor($e of
9ero, and &!' the operatin) point of the motor +hen it is !onne!ted to a #oad +hose tor($e !hara!teristi! is
proportiona# to speed +ith a !onstant of proportiona#it" : 0.011 /-m/&rad/se!'.
Soluton: &a' Ia : 30/*.3 : 13.04 A T : 0.011&13.04' : %#%.&$ N1-
&%' Aax o!!$rs at Kv : Vin
0.1* : 30 : 30/0.1* : ($" ra4/se,
&!' TL : 0.011
T :
in v
t
a
V K
K
R



: 0.011
30 0.1*
*.3



: 0.011&13.043 = 0.0.**' : 1.141 = 0.004.3
Set 0 : 0B
1.141 = 0.004.3 : 0.011
1.141 : &0.011 @ 0.004.3' : 0.01..3 ! &'#6 ra4/se,
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6.7 -n the preio$s pro%#em, +hat is the po+er de#iered %" the motor at the operatin) point in $nits of &a'
Watts and &%' horsepo+er?
Soluton: &a' P : T
: 73.6 rad/se! from preio$s pro%#em
T : 1.141 = 0.04.3 : 1.141 = 0.004.3&73.6' : 0.11 /-m
P : 0.11&73.6' : .3.. W
&%' HP : .3.6/74..7 : 0.010 hp
6.1 A o#ta)e of *4 ; is app#ied to a ,C seromotor +hose tor($e !onstant : 0.11. /-m/A and o#ta)e !onstant
: 0.037 ;/&rad/se!'. Armat$re resistan!e : 1.3 ohms. 0he motor is dire!t#" !o$p#ed to a %#o+er shaft for an
ind$stria# pro!ess. &a' What is the sta## tor($e of the motor? &%' ,etermine the operatin) point of the motor
if the tor($e-speed !hara!teristi! of the %#o+er is )ien %" the fo##o+in) e($ation: TL : KL1 @ KL*
*
, +here
TL : #oad tor($e, /-m8 : an)$#ar e#o!it", rad/se!8 KL1 : 0.00. /-m/&rad/se!', and KL* : 0.00033 /-m/
&rad/se!'
*
. &!' What horsepo+er is %ein) )enerated %" the motor at the operatin) point?
Soluton: &a' Ia : *4/1.3 : 1*.63 A T : 0.11.&1*.63' : 1.4. /-m
&%' Boad tor($e &)ien': TL : 0.00. @ 0.00033
*

Aotor tor($e: T : 0.11.
*4 0.037
1.3



: 0.11.&1*.63 = 0.0.1'
0 : 1.4.* = 0.00.17
Set T : TL
1.4.* = 0.00.17 : 0.00. @ 0.00033
*

1.4.* = 0.01017 - 0.00033
*
: 0
?earran)in), 0.00033
*
@ 0.01017 - 1.4.* : 0
So#in) the ($adrati! e($ation, : -16.47 61.3. : .1.11 rad/se! &ne)atie a#$e not feasi%#e'
&!' HP : 1.141&.1.11' / 74..7 : 0.01 hp
6.3 0he step an)#e of a !ertain stepper motor : 1.1. 0he app#i!ation of interest is to rotate the motor shaft
thro$)h 10 !omp#ete reo#$tions at an an)$#ar e#o!it" of *0 rad/se!. ,etermine &a' the re($ired n$m%er of
p$#ses and &%' the p$#se fre($en!" to a!hiee the spe!ified rotation.
Soluton: : 1.1 ns : 360/1.1 : *00 step an)#es
&a' 0o rotate 10 reo#$tions, Am : 10&360' : 3600
np : 3600/1.1 : (""" pulses
&%' 0o rotate at *0 rad/se!, fp : *0&*00' / * : 6'6#6 H0
6.10 A stepper motor has a step an)#e : 7... &a' 4o+ man" p$#ses are re($ired for the motor to rotate thro$)h
fie !omp#ete reo#$tions? &%' What p$#se fre($en!" is re($ired for the motor to rotate at a speed of *00
re/min?
Soluton: : 7.. ns : 360/7.. : 41 step an)#es
&a' 0o rotate . reo#$tions, Am : .&360' : 1100
np : 1100/7.. : (." pulses
&%' 0o rotate at *00 re/min, fp : Nns/60 : *00&41' / 60 : %6" H0
6.11 0he shaft of a stepper motor is dire!t#" !onne!ted to a #ead s!re+ that dries a +or2ta%#e in an x-y
positionin) s"stem. 0he motor has a step an)#e : .. 0he pit!h of the #ead s!re+ is 6 mm, +hi!h means that
the +or2ta%#e moes in the dire!tion of the #ead s!re+ axis %" a distan!e of 6 mm for ea!h !omp#ete
reo#$tion of the s!re+. -t is desired to moe the +or2ta%#e a distan!e of 300 mm at a top speed of 40
mm/se!. ,etermine &a' the n$m%er of p$#ses and &%' the p$#se fre($en!" re($ired to a!hiee this moement.
Soluton: : ./step ns : 360/. : 7* step an)#es
Cit!h p : 6 mm/re
x : 300 mm at : 40 mm/se!
/$m%er of reo#$tions : 300/6 : .0 reo#$tions of the motor shaft
N : &40 mm/se!'&60 se!/min'&1 re/6 mm' : 400 re/min : 6.667 re/se!
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Components-3e-S 06/04/07
&a' Am : &.0 re'&360/re' : 11,000
np : 11,000/. : '6"" pulses
&%' fp : Nns/60 : 6.667&7*' : .)" H0
6.1* A sin)#e-a!tin) h"dra$#i! !"#inder +ith sprin) ret$rn has an inside diameter of 11 mm. -ts app#i!ation is to
p$sh pa##ets off of a !one"or into a stora)e area. 0he h"dra$#i! po+er so$r!e !an )enerate $p to 3.* ACa of
press$re at a f#o+ rate of 17.,000 mm
3
/se! to drie the piston. ,etermine &a' the maxim$m possi%#e e#o!it"
of the piston and &%' the maxim$m for!e that !an %e app#ied %" the apparat$s.
Soluton: Area of !"#inder A : 0.*.&11'
*
: 601* mm
*

&a' V : Q/A : &17.,000 mm
3
/se!' / 601* mm
*
: ()#&& --/se,
&%' F : pA : &3.* //mm
*
'&601*' : %*+.6( N
6.13 A do$%#e-a!tin) h"dra$#i! !"#inder has an inside diameter : 7. mm. 0he piston rod has a diameter : 14
mm. 0he h"dra$#i! po+er so$r!e !an )enerate $p to ..0 ACa of press$re at a f#o+ rate of *00,000 mm
3
/se!
to drie the piston. &a' What are the maxim$m possi%#e e#o!it" of the piston and the maxim$m for!e that
!an %e app#ied in the for+ard stro2e? &%' What are the maxim$m possi%#e e#o!it" of the piston and the
maxim$m for!e that !an %e app#ied in the reerse stro2e?
Soluton: >or+ard stro2e area A : 0.*.&7.'
*
: 4411 mm
*

?eerse stro2e area A : 4411 = 0.*.&14'
*
: 4*64 mm
*

&a' >or+ard stro2e v : *00,000 / 4411 : .$#' --/se,
F : .&4411' : ((+"*" N
&%' ?eerse stro2e : *00,000 / 4*64 : .6#* --/se,
F : .&4*64' : (%+'(" N
6.14 A do$%#e-a!tin) h"dra$#i! !"#inder is $sed to a!t$ate a #inear <oint of an ind$stria# ro%ot. 0he inside
diameter of the !"#inder is 3.. in. 0he piston rod has a diameter of 0.. in. 0he h"dra$#i! po+er so$r!e !an
)enerate $p to .00 #%/in
*
of press$re at a f#o+ rate of 1*00 in
3
/min to drie the piston. &a' ,etermine the
maxim$m e#o!it" of the piston and the maxim$m for!e that !an %e app#ied in the for+ard stro2e. &%'
,etermine the maxim$m e#o!it" of the piston and the maxim$m for!e that !an %e app#ied in the reerse
stro2e.
Soluton: >or+ard stro2e area A : 0.*.&3..'
*
: 3.6* in
*

?eerse stro2e area A : 3.6* = 0.*.&0..'
*
: 3.4* in
*

&a' >or+ard stro2e v : 1*00 / 3.6* : %(. n/-n
F : .00&3.6*' : .)%" l2
&%' ?eerse stro2e : 1*00 / 3.4* : %(&#. n/-n
F : .00&3.4*' : .&%" l2
ADC an4 DAC
6.1. A !ontin$o$s o#ta)e si)na# is to %e !onerted into its di)ita# !o$nterpart $sin) an ana#o)-to-di)ita#
!onerter. 0he maxim$m o#ta)e ran)e is 30 ;. 0he A,C has a 1*-%it !apa!it". ,etermine &a' n$m%er of
($anti9ation #ee#s, &%' reso#$tion, &!' the spa!in) of ea!h ($anti9ation #ee#, and the ($anti9ation error for
this A,C.
Soluton: /$m%er of ($anti9ation #ee#s : *
1*
: ."*6
RADC :
60
4036 1
: "#"%.6$ 3olts
D$anti9ation error : &0.0146.'/* : "#""&'( 3olts
6.16 A o#ta)e si)na# +ith a ran)e of 9ero to 11. ;. is to %e !onerted %" means of an A,C. ,etermine the
minim$m n$m%er of %its re($ired to o%tain a ($anti9ation error of &a' . ; maxim$m, &%' 1 ; maxim$m,
&!' 0.1 ; maxim$m.
Soluton: &a' . o#ts max : 0.. RADC :
1
*
* 1
?an)e
n

*0
Components-3e-S 06/04/07
..0 :
0 . 11.
* 1
. & '
n

, &*
n
-1' : 0..&11.'/. : 11.., *
n
: 1*..
n 1n&*' : 1n&1*..' n : *..*6/0.633 : 3.64 Ese n ! .
&%' 1 o#t max : 0.. RADC :
1
*
* 1
?an)e
n

1.0 :
0 . 11.
* 1
. & '
n

, &*
n
-1' : 0..&11.'/1 : .7.. *
n
: .1..
n 1n&*' : 1n&.1..' n : 4.063/0.633 : ..17 Ese n ! 6
&!' 0.1 o#t max : 0.. RADC :
1
*
* 1
?an)e
n

0.1 :
0 . 11.
* 1
. & '
n

, &*
n
-1' : 0..&11.'/0.1 : .7..0 *
n
: .76.0
n 1n&*' : 1n&.76' n : 6.3.6/0.633 : 3.17 Ese n ! %"
6.17 A di)ita#-to-ana#o) !onerter $ses a referen!e o#ta)e of 1*0 ; d! and has ei)ht %inar" di)it pre!ision. -n
one of the samp#in) instants, the data !ontained in the %inar" re)ister : 01010101. -f a 9ero-order ho#d is
$sed to )enerate the o$tp$t si)na#, determine the o#ta)e #ee# of that si)na#.
Soluton: Vo : 1*0F0..&0' @ 0.*.&1' @ 0.1*.&0' @ 0.06*. &1' @ 0.031*.&0'
@ 0.01.6*.&1' @ 0.00711*&0' @0.003306&1'G
Vo : '*#). 3olts
6.11 A ,AC $ses a referen!e o#ta)e of 10 ; and has 6-%it pre!ision. -n fo$r s$!!essie samp#in) periods, ea!h 1
se!ond #on), the %inar" data !ontained in the o$tp$t re)ister +ere 100000, 011111, 011101, and 011010.
,etermine the e($ation for the o#ta)e as a f$n!tion of time %et+een samp#in) instants 3 and 4 $sin) &a' a
9ero-order ho#d, and &%' a first-order ho#d.
Soluton: >irst samp#in) instant: 100000, Vo : 10&0..' : 40.0 o#ts
Se!ond samp#in) instant: 011111, Vo : 10&0.*. @ 0.1*. @ 0.06*. @ 0.031*. @ 0.01.6*.' : 31.7. o#ts
0hird samp#in) instant: 011101, Vo : 10&0.*. @ 0.1*. @ 0.06*. @ 0.01.6*.' : 36.*. o#ts
>o$rth samp#in) instant: 011001, Vo : 10&0.*. @ 0.1*. @ 0.01.6*.' : 31.*. o#ts
&a' Hero order ho#d: V5t6 ! '6#($ %et+een instants 3 and 4
&%' >irst order ho#d: V&t' : 36.*. @ a t %et+een instants 3 and 4 a : &36.*. - 31.7.'/1 : -*..
V5t6 ! '6#($ 1 (#$t
6.13 -n the preio$s pro%#em, s$ppose that a se!ond order ho#d +ere to %e $sed to )enerate the o$tp$t si)na#. 0he
e($ation for the se!ond-order ho#d is the fo##o+in): E&t' : E0 @ t @ t
*
, +here E0 : startin) o#ta)e at the
%e)innin) of the time intera#. &a' >or the %inar" data )ien in the preio$s pro%#em, determine the a#$es
of and that +o$#d %e $sed in the e($ation for the time intera# %et+een samp#in) instants 3 and 4. &%'
Compare the first-order and se!ond-order ho#ds in anti!ipatin) the o#ta)e at the 4th instant.
Soluton: t : 0: V&t' : 36.*. : 36.*. @ a&0' @ &0'
t : -1: V&t' : 31.7. : 36.*. @ a&-1' @ &1'
t : -*: V&t' : 40.0 : 36.*. @ a&-*' @ &4'
Sim$#taneo$s so#$tion "ie#ds a : -3.1*. and : - 0.6*.
V&t' : 36.*. - 3.1*.t - 0.6*.t
*
At the fo$rth instant, the se!ond order ho#d "ie#ds
V&t' : 36.*. - 3.1*.&1' - 0.6*.&1' : '(#$ 3olts
At the fo$rth instant, the first order ho#d "ie#ds
V&t' : 36.*. - *..&1' : ''#&$ 3olts
0he a!t$a# o#ta)e #ee# at the fo$rth instant is 3*.. o#ts. 4en!e, the se!ond-order ho#d more a!!$rate#"
pro<e!ts the o#ta)e.
*1