ZOOLOGY 100 NOTES (6)

Tissues
aggregates of cells of a particular kind together with their associated intercellular materials.

Four Basic Tissues

• Epithelial tissue
– exists as a cellular membranous
tissue that covers a free surface or lines a tube or cavity.
– function in protection, secretion, excretion, and absorption.
• Connective tissue
– exists as abundant intercellular substance (such as fibers) with few cellular
aggregations.
– function in providing structural support (such as a tendon), transporting materials (such
as blood ), and storing energy (such as adipose).
• Muscle tissue
– three types:
1. skeletal
2. cardiac
3. smooth (visceral).
– Muscle cells have abundant contractile proteins that allow the cells to function in
contraction. Contraction produces movement and heat for the maintenance of body temperature.
• Neural tissue
– the tissue of the nervous system.
– The nervous system controls the body’s activities by electrical conduction and
neurochemical messengers.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
form
cellular membrane surfaces by
covering other tissues.

• Locations
– form cellular membrane surfaces by covering other tissues.
– Epithelia are found:
1. lining the body (the skin)
2. lining cavities and tubes of the body
3. form some glands (glandular epithelium).
• Functions
– directly related to their locations:
(1) Protection (2) absorption (3) secretion
(4) diffusion (5) filtration (6) movement of materials
at their surface.

Epithelial Modifications for Functions

• Number of cell layers and shape of cells:
1) protective epithelium is 2) Epithelia that consists
usually structured as a thick of only one layer of thin
layer of many cells. cells are ideal to
support diffusion and
filtration.
• Surface modifications of epithelial cells :
1) Microvilli are plasma membrane projections designed to increase the cellular surface
area.

2) Cilia function in the movement of materials (such as mucus) over the surface of the cells.

Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity
– refers to the existence of cells. Epithelia have a high degree of cellularity with very little
extracellular material between the cells.
Cell Junctions
– The cells are joined closely together by membrane junctions such as desmosomes and tight
junctions.
Membrane Organization
– The cells are organized into membranes (or sheets).
Polarity
– refers to the epithelial tissue (or cells) having opposite properties in opposite parts. An
epithelium always has at least two different structural and functional surfaces. Thus, epithelia
structurally exhibit polarity due to the different opposing surfaces.
Basement Membrane
– are always attached to an underlying connective tissue layer at a thin region called the
basement membrane.
- Is noncellular and consists of extracellular materials produced by both the epithelial cells
and the adjacent connective tissue.
Avascular
– The membranes do not have blood vessels (avascular) within their structure. The cells depend
upon the vascular supply in the underlying connective tissues.
Regeneration
– Most epithelial cells are rapidly replaced when they are abraded or die.

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA
according to:
1. structure :
based upon:
a) shape of the cells at the free surface
b) number of cell layers of the epithelial membrane
2. their location: based upon the specific location of the epithelial membranes (covering and
lining).
3. organization into glands (glandular epithelia.): Glandular epithelium forms the secretory
portion of many glands.

STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIA
Shape of the Cells at the Free Surface
(1) squamous: flat and thin
(2) cuboidal: same height & width
(3) columnar: taller than wide

Number of Cell Layers

(1) a single layer: simple epithelia
- cells of pseudostratified epithelia: are of different height
(2) two or more layers: stratified epithelia

SIMPLE EPITHELIA
Simple Squamous Epithelium:
- formed by a single layer of flat, thin cells
Locations: stratum corneum, inner cheek, peritoneum
(1) lining (endothelium) of the cardiovascular system (inner lining of the heart and blood vessels)
(2) capillaries
(3) lining of the air sacs (called alveoli) of the lungs
(4) surface lining called mesothelium of body cavities that do not open to the body’s exterior (the
serosae)
(5) outer lining of the filtration unit of the kidney, the glomerulus
Functions: filtration, diffusion, and secretion

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

- consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells
Structure : formed by a single layer of cuboidal cells. Depending upon the location of the tissue,
microvilli may be present.
Locations
(1) lines most of the tubules in the kidney
(2) lines the excretory duct and forms the secretory portion of many glands
(3) lines the ovary.
Functions: secretion and absorption.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

- consists of a single layer of columnar cells
Structure: consists of a single layer of columnar cells.
- Depending upon the location of the tissue, microvilli and goblet cells may be present.
Locations
Forms the lining of:
(1) the digestive tract from the stomach to the anus
(2) the excretory ducts of some glands
(3) the interior of the gallbladder
Functions: secretion and absorption.

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

- consists of a single layer of columnar cells of different heights.
Structure: consists of a single layer of columnar cells of different heights.
- All cells are in contact with the basement membrane.
- taller cells form the free surface and overlap the shorter cells resulting in the appearance of
stratification.
Locations:
(1) lines most of the nasal cavity
(2) lines the trachea,
(3) lines the bronchi, and
(4) lines some of the male reproductive tract.
Functions:
(1) protection
(2) secretion
(3) the movement of substances (mucus) over the surface by cilia
STRATIFIED EPITHELIA: consists of two or more cell layers
Stratified Squamous Epithelium: formed by many layers of cells with the surface cells being
squamous.
Structure: with the surface cells being squamous.
(1) may contain keratin (a protein) (2) may be dead
Locations:
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium: in the skin (epidermis).
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium:
(1) lining of the oral cavity
(2) esophagus
(3) anus
(4) vagina
Functions: protection from abrasion by the sloughing of surface cells.
- The keratinized variety of the epidermis also protects the body from water loss.

Classification of Epithelia According to Location

(1) endothelium: consists of a sheet of simple squamous epithelium and its associated basement
membrane.
(2) epithelial membranes: consist of a sheet of epithelial tissue and an associated layer of
connective tissue.
Locations:
(1) mucous membranes: line body cavities that open to the exterior; reproductive,
digestive, & respiratory tracts
(2) serous membranes: line body cavities that do not open to the exterior; pleura,
pericardium, & peritoneum
(3) cutaneous membrane: lines the body, the skin; cutaneous membrane that covers
the body
GLANDULAR EPITHELIA: one or more cells which produce and secrete a product called a
secretion
Glands:
1) exocrine: into a duct that opens to a surface; sweat, sebaceous, & salivary glands
2) endocrine: into the surrounding interstitial fluid (then directly enters the circulation; ductless
gland; hormones (secretions); thyroid, pancreas, pituitary & adrenal glands
Glandular Secretion: The release of the secretion from
the gland is by the activity of the glandular cells.
- under the control of the N.S. &/or endocrine system
- Glands classification:
(1) merocrine glands: release products/materials in secretory vesicles from golgi, fuse with
plasma membrane by exocytosis; parotid salivary glands
(2) apocrine glands: by shedding of apical portions of the cells; apocrine sweat glands &
mammary glands
(3) holocrine glands: cells undergo growth & production of large quantities of secretory
product & is released due to cell death; sebaceous gland (sebum) associated with hair follicle

Connective Tissues
LOCATIONS: widely distributed tissues of the body.
Examples: bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, blood, and the abundant
loose connective tissues (such as adipose) located in and around other
tissues.
FUNCTIONS:
(1) framework(2) support (3) binding (4) protection
(5) insulation (6) transportation (specifically for blood).
CHARACTERISTICS: having extracellular material called matrix, relatively few cells, and varying
degrees of vascularity.
- Tissue vascularity ranges from:
1) avascular (no blood vessels): in cartilage
2) high vascularity: in the loose connective tissue (such as areolar tissue and adipose).
Components:
1. Matrix: constitute the non-living extracellular material; responsible for the nature of the specific
connective tissue:
a. ground substance
b. fibers
2. Cells

Components:
1. Matrix: constitute the non-living extracellular material; responsible for the nature of the specific
connective tissue:
a. ground substance: homogenous material consisting largely of complex mixture of
proteins produced by connective tissue cells
b. fibers: distinctive protein threads embedded in the ground substance
2. Cells: commonly named after the tissue type (used as a prefix) & its activity (used as suffix)
Example: osteo (bone), blast (cell) = osteoblast (actively dividing &/or
building cell of the bone)
cyte (nondividing suffix)

Classification
based upon three structural characteristics of the matrix:
– (1) the types of fibers,
– (2) the type of ground substance, and
– (3) the structural arrangement.
According to the characteristics of the matrix, connective tissues are classified into four types:
(1) connective tissue proper
(2) cartilage
(3) bone
(4) blood

Connective Tissue Proper

- The matrix proper is characterized:
(1) by being flexible
(2) by having a viscous ground substance
(3) by having abundant fibers
- The structural cells are called fibroblasts.
- The two subclasses of connective tissue proper:
(1) loose connective tissue: characterized by having a loose arrangement of fibers. It includes the
following three tissues:
(a) areolar (b) adipose (c) reticular
(2) dense connective tissue: characterized by having a dense arrangement of fibers. It includes
the following three tissues:
(a) regular (b) irregular (c) elastic
Connective Tissue Proper
(1) loose connective tissue:
(a) areolar: abundant collagenous, elastic & reticular fibers,
dispersed in abundant viscuous ground substance; has fibroblast,
mast cells (histamines), macrophages (phagocytosis)
- attach skin to underlying tissue, supports organs
(blood vessels & glands)
(b) adipose: has small quantity of matrix; collagenous &
elastic fibers; has fibroblast, adipocytes (dominating
cells)
- subcutaneously & around internal organs
 - energy source reserve, insulator fm heat loss, support structures, cushion organs
(c) reticular: thin, delicate, highly branched reticular fibers
with small ground substance;
- liver, lymph nodes, spleen, & bone marrow
- support framework of soft organs

(2) dense connective tissue:

(a) regular: dense parallel collagenous fibers with fibroblasts;
- tendons (attach muscle to bone)
- ligaments (attach bone to bone)
- provides: attachment & tensile strength

(b) irregular: irregularly arranged collagenous fibers;

with small ground substance
- dermis, fascia (connective tissue sheets surrounding
muscles, liver & lymph node
- for structural support, organization, & strength
(c) elastic

(c) elastic: special type of dense regular; densely arranged elastic fibers with scattered
collagenous fibers in small spaces & fibroblast
- vocal cords, large arteries, walls of bronchi, trachea, ligamentum nuchae
- for strength, stretch, & recoil

Cartilage
- The matrix of cartilage is characterized
(1) by being semisolid and flexible
(2) by having abundant collagenous fibers.
- Elastic cartilage also has elastic fibers.
- The structural cells are named according to their activity are chondroblasts or chondrocytes.
- According to the characteristics of the matrix, cartilage is divided into three types:
(1) hyaline
(2) elastic
(3) fibrocartilage
• thickness is limited because it is avascular.
• The matrix is semisolid and slightly flexible and consists mostly of collagen fibers embedded
in a protein ground substance.
• The structural cells of mature cartilage are chondroblasts.
• A membrane of dense irregular connective tissue, called the perichondrium, forms the
surface of most cartilage.

Cartilage
(1) hyaline: matrix is firm & resilient, with abundant
collagenous fibers embedded in ground substance;
appears to have no form (amorphous), with chondroblast
- ribs, ends of long bones (articular cartilage), tip of the
nose, framework of large respiratory air way
 - for support, structural framework, & cushioning
(2) fibrocartilage: dense, compact, collagenous fiber bundles
with little ground substance
- intervertebral discs, knee joint, symphysis pubis
- provide strength & resists compressions

(3) elastic cartilage: abundant collagenous & elastic fibers embedded

in small ground substance
- matrix provide strength & resist compression
- chondroblast are distributed among fibers
- lacunae (small cavities) surround the cells
- external ear & epiglottis
- for support, framework & flexibility

Bone
• The matrix of bone is characterized by being
(1) rigid
(2) strong
(3) calcium salts: make bone tissue hard
(4) collagen fibers: give strenth
- consists of 1/3 collagenous fibers, 2/3 calcium salts
- osteocyte: mature bone cell
- osteoblast: bone forming cell
- central (haversian) canal: surrounded by lamellae (concentric rings of matrix
separated by osteocytes)
- canaliculi: small canals piercing the matrix
• The structural cells are named according to their activity, osteoblasts or osteocytes.
• According to the characteristics of the matrix, bone is divided into two types:
(1) compact:
(2) spongy (cancellous) organized into trabeculae (plates)

Function:
(1) providing protection
(2) serving as attachment sites for muscles and connective tissues
(3) providing reserves for minerals
(4) blood cell production (marrow)
(5) providing a site for fat deposit (yellow marrow)