Function:

Let X and Y be two non-empty subsets of R, the set of real numbers. Then a restriction
f : X → Y is said to be a function iff each element of A has a unique image under f in B.
The set X is called domain of f and Y is called codomain of f .
It is customary to call f as a single valued function. If an element of the set X possesses
more than one image in Y , then f is called a multivalued function, which is not a function
in classical sense.
Ex. The function f : R → R defined as
f (x) = x2 + 1
is a single valued function. However, the function f : [−1, 1] → R defined as
f (x) = sin−1 x
¡ ¢
is a multivalued function because sin−1 12 = 2nπ + π6 , where n is any integer.
Meaning of x → a
Let a be any fixed real number. The number closest to a cannot be obtained because
whenever we stop at a number say b closer to a, there lie infinitely many real numbers
between a and b. At the max, we can get numbers close enough to a. Now, a natural
question arises, what closeness is to be taken as close enough ? That part is left to the
reader itself. Any small separation (the absolute difference between the chosen number say
x and a) may be chosen by the reader. Let δ be an arbitrarily small positive number (reader
defined closeness). Then all x such that 0 < |x − a| < δ are said to be close enough to
the number a and we say that x tends to a, which is denoted as x → a. Here |x − a| > 0
emphasizes that x becomes very close to a but can never be equal to a.
Now, 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ −δ < x − a < δ and x 6= a
⇒ a − δ < x < a + δ and x 6= a
⇒ x ∈ (a − δ, a) or x ∈ (a, a + δ).
If x ∈ (a − δ, a), then we say that x tends to a from left, represented as x → a− .
If x ∈ (a, a + δ), then we say that x tends to a from right, denoted as x → a+ .
Ex. If x takes the values 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ..., then x approaches to 1 from left, i.e., x → 1− .
In case x assumes the values 1.1, 1.01, 1.001, ..., we can say that x approaches to 1 from
right, i.e., x → 1+ .
Limit of a function
Let f (x) be a real valued function and a be any fixed real number. Then a real number l is
said to be the limit of f (x) as x → a if given any ε > 0 (however small), there exists some
δ > 0 (depending on ε) such that
|f (x) − l| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ
⇒ f (x) ∈ (l − ε, l + ε) whenever x ∈ (a − δ, a) or x ∈ (a, a + δ).
We then write

lim f (x) = l. (1)

x→a

As discussed earlier, x → a has got two approaches, viz., x → a− and x → a+ . So the

statement (1) is equivalent to

lim f (x) = l = lim+ f (x).

x→a− x→a

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Remarks:
(1) The limit of a function may exist at a point even though the function is not defined at
that point.
Ex. Consider the function
x2 − 1
f (x) = (x 6= 1).
x−1

Then we have

lim f (x) = 2.
x→1

However, f (x) is not defined at x = 1.

(2) The limit of a function may be infinite.
Ex.
1
lim = ∞.
x→0 x2

(3) The left and right hand limits of a function may exist but need not be equal.
Ex. Consider the function

f (x) = x + 1, x<1 (2)

= x + 3, x≥1

Then

LHL = lim− f (x) = lim− (x + 1) = 2, and RHL = lim+ f (x) = lim+ (x + 3) = 4.

x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1

∴ lim f (x) does not exist.

x→1

Some theorems on limits:

If lim f (x) = l and lim g(x) = m, then

x→a x→a

(i) lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = l + m

x→a x→a x→a

(ii) lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = l − m

x→a x→a x→a
³ ´³ ´
(iii) lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) = lm
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) limx→a f (x) l

(iv) lim = = , provided g(x) 6= 0.
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x) m
Continuity:
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if given any ε > 0 (however small), there
exists some δ > 0 (depending on ε) such that
|f (x) − f (a)| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.
Comparing this definition with the definition of limit, we find that f (x) is continuous
at x = a if

2
 lim f (x) = f (a). (3)
x→a

which is equivalent to

lim f (x) = f (a) = lim+ f (x).

x→a− x→a

This equation suggests that f (x) may fail to be continuous at x = a due to one of the
following reasons:
(i) One of LHL and RHL does not exist.
(ii) Both LHL and RHL exist but are not equal.
(iii) Both LHL and RHL exist and are equal but not equal to f (a).
(iv) f (x) is not defined at x = a.
If f (x) is not continuous at x = a, then we call x = a as a point of discontinuity of f (x).
The function f (x) is said to be continuous in an open interval (α, β), if it is continuous
at each point of this interval. The continuity at end points of the closed interval [α, β] is
defined by considering one hand limit as the case may be, i.e., the continuity at x = α reads
as

lim f (x) = f (α),

x→α+

while continuity at x = β is given by

lim f (x) = f (β).

x→β −

Geometrically continuity of a function ensures a smooth graph (without break) in the

interval of continuity.
Ex. The function

f (x) = x + 1, x<1 (4)

= x + 3, x≥1

is not continuous in the interval (−5, 5) since its graph breaks at x = 1.

Differentiability:
Let y = f (x) be defined in an open interval (α, β) and a ∈ (α, β). Then f (x) is said to be
differentiable at x = a if
f (x) − f (a) f (a + δx) − f (a)
lim or lim exists finitely.
x→a x−a δx→0 δx

It is denoted by

µ ¶ · ¸
dy d
or (f (x)) or f 0 (a).
dx x=a dx x=a

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 Equivalently, because of the involvement of limit, we have
f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
lim− = lim+ = f 0 (a),
x→a x−a x→a x−a
or

f (a + δx) − f (a) f (a + δx) − f (a)

lim− = lim+ = f 0 (a).
δx→0 δx δx→0 δx
The LHL and RHL are respectively known as left hand derivative (LHD) and right hand
derivative (RHD).
The function f (x) is said to be differentiable in the interval (α, β), if it is differentiable
at each point of this interval. In case of a closed interval [α, β], the differentiability at the
end points of the interval is defined by only one limit (LHD or RHD) as the case may be.
Geometrically, the differentiability of a function f (x) at x = a ensures a unique tangent
to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)). Also, f 0 (a) gives the slope of the tangent.
If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point.
For, if f (x) is differentiable at x = a, then f 0 (a) exists finitely and we have
[f (x) − f (a)](x − a) f (x) − f (a)
lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim = lim lim (x − a) = f 0 (a).0 = 0
x→a x→a x−a x→a x−a x→a

⇒ lim f (x) = f (a),

x→a

which shows that f (x) is continuous at x = a.

Thus, differentiability implies continuity. However, converse of this result is not true,
i.e., a continuous function need not be differentiable.
Ex. f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0. But it is not differentiable at this point.
Succussive Differentiation:
dy
If y = f (x) is differentiable in an interval, its derivative denoted by f 0 (x) or y 0 or dx is called
first order derivative of f (x). If f 0 (x) is again differentiable in the interval, its derivative
d2 y
denoted by f 00 (x) or y 00 or dx 2 , is known as second order derivative of f (x). Similarly nth
dn y
derivative of f (x), if it exists, is denoted by f n (x) or y (n) or dxn . Sometimes, the symbol D
d d
is used to denote the differential operator dx , i.e., D ≡ dx . Then, we have
dy d2 y dn y
Dy = , D2 y = 2 , .... , Dn y = n .
dx dx dx

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nth derivative of some standard functions:

dn
(1) [(ax + b)m ] = m(m − 1)...(m − n + 1)an (ax + b)m−n ,
dxn
dn ax
(2) (e ) = an eax ,
dxn
dn
(3) [log(ax + b)] = (−1)n−1 an (n − 1)!(ax + b)−n ,
dxn
dn ³ nπ ´
n
(4) [sin(ax + b)] = a sin ax + b + ,
dxn 2
dn ³ nπ ´
n
(5) [cos(ax + b)] = a cos ax + b + ,
dxn 2
Ex. Find nth derivatives of eax sin(bx + c) and eax cos(bx + c).
Sol. Let y = eax sin(bx + c). Then we have
Dy = eax b cos(bx + c) + aeax sin(bx + c).
Putting a = r cos θ and a = r sin θ, we get
Dy = reax sin(bx + c + θ)
Similarly, D2 y = r2 eax sin(bx + c + 2θ) etc.
In general, Dn y = rn eax sin(bx + c + nθ),
√
where r = a2 + b2 and θ = tan−1 (b/a).

dn ax
∴ [e sin(bx + c)] = (a2 + b2 )n/2 eax sin[bx + c + n tan−1 (b/a)],
dxn

Similarly,
dn ax
[e cos(bx + c)] = (a2 + b2 )n/2 eax cos[bx + c + n tan−1 (b/a)],
dxn

Leibnitz theorem:
If u and v are any two functions of x differentiable upto order n in the same interval, then
nth derivative of the product of u and v is given by

Dn (uv) = (Dn u).v + nC1 (Dn−1 u).(Dv) + nC2 (Dn−1 u).(D2 v) + (5)
.... + nCr (Dn−r u).(Dr v) + .... + u.(Dn v)

Proof: We shall prove the theorem by mathematical induction. We know that

D(uv) = (Du)v + u(Dv).

This shows that the theorem is true for n = 1. Suppose (5) is true for n = k, i.e.,

Dk (uv) = (Dk u).v + kC1 (Dk−1 u).(Dv) + kC2 (Dk−1 u).(D2 v) + (6)
.... + kCr (Dk−r u).(Dr v) + .... + u.(Dk v)

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The result will be true for n = k + 1 if

Dk+1 (uv) = (Dk+1 u).v + k + 1C1 (Dk u).(Dv) + k + 1C2 (Dk u).(D2 v) +
.... + k + 1Cr (Dk+1−r u).(Dr v) + .... + u.(Dk+1 v)

Now, we have

Dk+1 (uv) = D[Dk (uv)]

= D[(Dk u).v + kC1 (Dk−1 u).(Dv) + kC2 (Dk−1 u).(D2 v) +
.... + kCr (Dk−r u).(Dr v) + .... + u.(Dk v)]
© ª © ª
= (Dk+1 u).v + (Dk u).(Dv) + kC1 (Dk u).(Dv) + (Dk−1 u).(D2 v) + ...
© ª
+kCr (Dk−r+1 u).(Dr v) + (Dk−r u).(Dr+1 v) + ...
© ª
+ u.Dk+1 v + (Du).(Dk v)