Integration Questioned: The More the Merrier in Belgium?

Catholic University of Leuven

M.A. in European Studies
2006/07, Leuven, BELGIUM
Ozge BURGUT
Prof. Johan LEMAN

Abstract: The initial wave of Turkish guest-workers, who have been present in Belgium for more
than 40 years, and the latter generations, have been experiencing difficulties in adapting to life in
Belgium, largely due to the deferment of integration policies. This article aims to examine the much-
belated integration policies' impact on the two regions: Saint Josse-ten-Noode in Brussels and
Beringen in Limbourg. I have attempted to add to the understanding of the complicated issue of
integration, with a survey study of the community and through interviews/questionnaires of influential
Turkish representatives. The questionnaires have been conducted on 20 subjects in Beringen, and 20
subjects in Saint Josse-ten-Noode. As a result of the surveys in these two communities, I concluded
that Turkish immigrants seem to be in the right direction towards integration, yet merely at the
beginning, and that Turkish immigrants in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode have a slightly longer road ahead of
them, compared to their co-patriots in Beringen.

A Comparison of the Impact of Integration Policies on the Turkish Minority in Beringen and Saint-
Josse-ten-Noode

World War II had serious impact throughout the globe, however first and foremost, it took its toll
on Europe. There were significant amounts of displaced persons, forced migrants and around 60
million casualties many of whom were civilians. However, as Phalet and Swyngedouw point out, "ever
since the 1920s, Belgium has known a positive migration balance and the country attracted labor
migrants from Central and Southern Europe, who were contracted by the metal and mining industries.
Later on, economic recession of the 1930s put an end to labor recruitment until after World War II"1
Nonetheless, Europe experienced its first non-European (non-E.U) immigration only in the 60s,
following this devastation and the resultant shortage of manpower due to significant amounts of death.
Hansen points out, Europe's demand for labor could no longer be satisfied domestically2. This was the
reason why labor migration and "contracts" with certain countries were initiated. Basic idea behind the
guest-worker schemes was simple: The workers would remain so long as there were jobs for them, and
they would return home once the economy soured3. Workers were "invited" and considered purely
from an economical, statistical, demographic point of view, and their human character has been
overlooked. Furthermore, they were accepted as immigrants in a continent that lost all its values that it
once cherished, that was characterized by hatred and confusion with very little sense of direction, if
any. Turkish workers were invited to work, by a number of European countries, such as Germany,
France, the Netherlands, Austria, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, and finally, Belgium.

Belgium, in this context of confusion and tremendous loss of everything once cherished, welcomed
its labor migrants, based on the bilateral agreements with Turkey, for the first time in 1964 (4). The
Turkish migrant population largely emigrated from the rural parts of the country during a period of
1 Phalet, Karen and Marc Swyngedouw. Center for European Studies, Bosphorus University. "Measuring Immigrant
Integration: The Case of Belgium" http://www.ces.boun.edu.tr/2/2/Immigrant_Integration_SE.pdf (July 3, 2007)

2Hansen, R. (2003). Migration to Europe since 1945: Its History and Its Lessons. In S. Spencer, The Politics of Migration.
Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. (P. 25)

3Hansen, R. (2003). Migration to Europe since 1945: Its History and Its Lessons. In S. Spencer, The Politics of Migration.
Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing (P.26)

2
time that in-migration from less educated, less qualified, rural regions was very common due to
urbanization, economic boom and better standards of life in bigger cities of Turkey. Additionally, the
guest-workers who appeared to emigrate purely for economic reasons, thought their life in Belgium to
be of temporary nature initially, however, later on, this turned out not to be the case. They made use of
transnational networking, chain migration and family reunification opportunities over time, thus,
finally deciding not to return to the country of origin, stayed in Belgium and increased their
population. However, because on both sides, the Turkish migration was not thought to be of permanent
nature, significant delays in integration policies occurred, with severe consequences on the lives of the
Turkish immigrants.

Thus, this article will examine the extent to which related integration policies and their relevant
competence areas, as presented via questionnaires, impact the Turkish minority in Saint-Josse-ten-
Noode and Beringen, followed by a comparison of the degree to which integration has been successful
in the two municipalities, which will be determined via surveys.

THE EUROPEAN UNION (E.U) VISION ON INTEGRATION

A number of Western European countries experienced delays in their integration policies, including
Belgium, which initiated its policies in the 80s. Furthermore, due to the fact that integration policies
for the third-country nationals in Europe turned out to be generally ineffective, the E.U has been
prioritizing the immigration issues, taking actions that may be fruitful, trying to rectify the general
situation that was created by the unfortunate deferment. Efforts to find a remedy have been
progressing, especially during the recent years despite the problematic, subjective, divergent definition
of integration.

The E.U was founded upon principles such as solidarity, respect for diversity, rule of law, human
rights and freedom, values that are also expected to be respected by all living in the E.U area. Thus,
keeping these values in perspective, the community has been working on the enhancement of
integration of the non-E.U immigrants. Correspondingly, in 2003, a Communication on Integration,
Immigration and Employment was adopted by the European Commission Directorate-General of

3
Justice and Home Affairs (JHA), which included two principle perspectives. First vision states the
necessity of migration flows in the context of demographic aging and decline throughout Europe,
pointing out to the Lisbon goals. Second perspective states that full potential and contribution of
immigrants depend on their full integration to the labor market and into the life and society of the host-
country. Additionally, "following the request of the JHA Council in 2002 to establish National Contact
Points on integration, the European Council of June 2003 invited the Commission to present Annual
Reports on Migration and Integration. Through the Thessaloniki European Council in 2003 and with
the assistance of the Commission in setting out a holistic approach to integration in late 2004, the first
edition of a handbook on integration for policy-makers and practitioners was published. The JHA, at
the same time adopted 11 Common Basic Principles (CBPs) to underpin a coherent European
framework on integration of third-country nationals. Furthermore, the handbook was based on the
outcomes of a series of technical seminars held in Copenhagen, Lisbon and London in 2004. Later on,
in September 2005, the Commission adopted a Communication on 'A Common Agenda for
Integration' putting forward a 'framework for the integration of third-country nationals' in the E.U that
contained actions for putting in practice"4.

The handbook focused on importance of benchmarking; prepared a catalogue that included a

collection of best, promising integration practices; stressed the importance of a holistic approach to
integration that includes and aims for the participation of non-E.U immigrants in all aspects of life:
social, political, cultural, civic, etc. Benchmarking was especially pointed out, considering the
problematic definition and measurement of integration. In fact, a working definition of integration by
the JHA was offered: A two-way process that is based on mutual rights and obligations, which
involves the responsibility of the host country in granting rights that are equivalent to its citizen rights
so that the holistic approach to integration can be realized. On the other side of the coin, the definition
requires that immigrants respect the laws, norms and values of the host-society and the E.U, without
having to "sacrifice" from their own identity. Taking into account the diversity in terms of identity
within the non-E.U immigrants themselves, an important question that arises is up to what extent is
integration without "sacrifice" possible? However, it is important to point out that a more specific,
detailed definition was offered by Bosswick and Heckmann that "stressed social integration as divided

4 "The Challenge of Integration." Directorate-General Freedom, Justice and Security. CD-ROM. Bruxelles, 2006

4
into a few important branches: Structural integration, cultural integration, interactive integration, and
identificational integration"5. Nevertheless, definitions remain to a great extent subjective and as such
interpreted.

It is important to stress that traditionally, non-E.U immigrant integration into the labor market has
been prioritized, considering that it would have a domino effect in other domains of integration, for
instance, employment opening up new opportunities and horizons for the immigrants, such as learning
languages, being able to afford for housing, taking part in aspects of life that were not available before.
However, it has been realized that focus on labor market integration is simply not enough. Attention to
all aspects of life is needed so that the immigrant is involved and integrated as a whole into the life in
the country. Integration is a two-way, multi-dimensional process and every dimension needs to be
carefully taken into account. Civic, political and social participation, religious dialogue, accessibility
of services to all, electoral rights, naturalization are indeed indicated as factors that will enhance
integration. Introduction programmes and language-teaching courses are given great importance.
Openness and inclusiveness are values that are cherished and reinforced through various domains of
integration. Furthermore, "the E.U supports member states’ integration policies through a number of
financial instruments. Under the financial perspectives 2007-2013, the Commission has proposed new
solidarity instruments, among them a European Fund for the Integration of third-country nationals,
based on the CBPs. It includes a specific focus on reinforcing the social inclusion of people at a
disadvantage and works for prevention of labour market discrimination of migrants. The European
Regional Development Fund also supports certain integration measures"6.

The European Parliament has also been involved in integration policies, making recommendations,
publishing documents and statements. In addition, in their study, it has been found out by Lahav and
Messina that "attitudes of the members of the European Parliament (MEPs) have become more
nationally oriented even as the E.U formally and incrementally progresses towards a common

5European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. "Integration of Migrants: Contribution of
Local and Regional Authorities" http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2006/22/en/1/ef0622en.pdf (July 5, 2007)

6 "The Challenge of Integration." Directorate-General Freedom, Justice and Security. CD-ROM. Bruxelles, 2006

5
immigrant integration policy"7. However, at the same time, Lahav and Messina mention that "if the
Constitutional Treaty is ever ratified, competence over immigration will further migrate from the
national to the E.U level"8. Developments remain to be seen and possibly a common policy will prove
to be a remedy at least partially.

Nevertheless, for now, what is stipulated under various domains of integration is, at the end, under
individual governments' and states' control. It is a matter and concern of state sovereignty.
Responsibility and what states do with measures and policy recommendations suggested herein are left
to the states' discretion and initiatives. Additionally, at this point it is worthwhile to note that "in
comparison with other North-West-European host countries, Belgium stands out by the belated
adoption and diffuse implementation of formal integration policies. Only after the electoral
breakthrough of the Extreme Right in Flanders in 1991, with a campaign that successfully exploited
anti-immigrant feelings and in direct response to the highly exposed urban riots involving immigrant
youth in Brussels, the Belgian government and parliament finally agreed on the need for national
integration policies."9

The Target Population and Its Characteristics:

Belgium has a very young and diverse population of Turkish immigrants, who have emigrated to
the country from different regions, cities, lifestyles and even from different ethnic backgrounds. It is at
this point that Islam, which is the second-fastest growing religion in Belgium, serves as a harbor to all
these diverse sub-groups of immigrants. This, most importantly, creates the feeling of belonging and
cooperation. A. Manco notes that "one-third of the Turkish population in Belgium is from Emirdag"10.
There is also a group, called "the Suryoye", who are of Christian background in Southeast region of
Turkey and who try to keep alive their most distinct culture and traditions among the Turkish
immigrants here. However, this is beyond the scope of this article, and it requires a separate, further
7Lahav, Gallya and Anthony M. Messina. "The Limits of a European Immigration Policy: Elite Opinion and Agendas
within the European Parliament." Journal of Common Market Studies 43.4(2005): 851-75

8 Phalet, Karen and Marc Swyngedouw. Center for European Studies, Bosphorus University. "Measuring Immigrant
Integration: The Case of Belgium" http://www.ces.boun.edu.tr/2/2/Immigrant_Integration_SE.pdf (July 3, 2007)

9Manco, Altay, Sociographie de la population turque et d'origine turque : 40 ans de présence en Belgique (1960-2000):
Dynamiques, problématiques, perspectives. Bruxelles: Centre des Relations Européennes, Ed. Européennes, 2000
10

6
research. Additionally, one observes various religious organizations of sorts, the most well-known of
which is the Milli Gorus that functions as a response to the Turkish immigrants' socio-cultural,
religious, ideological needs and needs relating to identity issues, especially in the absence of any
integration policies or any awareness of necessity of integration to the host-society, and any sense of
direction among the Turkish immigrants.

A. Manco mentions "the different kinds of migration to Belgium: worker and investor migration,
student and intern migrations, au pair migration, migration for purposes of family reunification, one
that is of touristic nature, asylum migration and illegal migrations. Migration for purposes of family
reunification not only involves young people, coming to Belgium to accompany the lonely and elderly
population of migrants, but also wives and children who migrate to unite with their husbands/fathers,
which is the group that best characterizes the Turkish immigrant population today”11

Some of the problems experienced by the target population due to initial, long-term absence of
integration policies have been in the labor sector. A significant amount of the immigrant population,
seems to be self-employed, which may be partly due to the lack of essential skills that the host culture
requires for employment. There is also the problem of unemployment. In fact, due to the two oil-crises
of the 70s, Europe in general experienced serious economic hardships. Indeed, Phalet and
Swyngedouw mention that "in the 70s and early 80s, the closing of the coal mines and the rapid
shrinkage of industrial labor in the south of the country (Belgium) marked the brutal transition to a
post-industrial economy. In Belgium, the breakdown of the heavy industries was even more abrupt and
less fragmented than in other states (Germany or France). As most foreigners were employed in
industrial labor, socio-economic restructuring has disproportionately affected the immigrant
populations, leading to massive and enduring unemployment or withdrawal from the labor force".12
Because of the problem of unemployment, small, self-employed businesses are sometimes passed on
Manco, Altay, Sociographie de la population turque et d'origine turque : 40 ans de présence en Belgique (1960-2000):
11

Dynamiques, problématiques, perspectives. Bruxelles: Centre des Relations Européennes, Ed. Européennes, 2000

12 Phalet, Karen and Marc Swyngedouw. Center for European Studies, Bosphorus University. "Measuring Immigrant
Integration: The Case of Belgium" http://www.ces.boun.edu.tr/2/2/Immigrant_Integration_SE.pdf (July 3, 2007)

7
to the offspring. They are mainly located in the Turkish neighborhoods, seeming to be directed more
towards the Turkish immigrants themselves as customers. Moreover, due to the heavy and dangerous
nature of guest-worker jobs, immigrants have experienced occupational accidents that, at times, left
them unemployable, and have contracted chronic, occupational diseases, such as tuberculosis. Belated
integration policies also took its toll on the immigrant youth, with the youth having more educational,
social and financial problems, leading to criminal behavior and in some cases, psycho-somatic
disorders.13

Methodology:

Research included data collection through interviews, questionnaires, and surveys and all research
was conducted in Turkish for ease of data collection:

Questionnaires/Interviews:

Sample recruitment occurred through selection of four representative experts for questionnaires (see
annex) with an aim to determine what impact integration policies have on the Turkish minority in the
concerned municipalities. Of the representatives, two were politicians and the other two were Islamic
executives. Of each pair, one representative was from Beringen and the other from St. Josse-ten-
Noode. They were asked to fill out an informed consent and a questionnaire, consisting of four
questions, followed by an open-ended, formal interview. The interviewer, accompanying the
interviewee, clarified the listed questions in case of any confusion. After clarification for each
question, the interviewee filled out the relevant space. The interviews were audio-taped in order to be
consulted during data analysis.
- Data analysis -

Starting point (general view): (SEE ANNEX FOR A LIST OF QUESTIONS)

Q1. All representatives ranked opening up of Islamic institutions as 3, and housing as 1.

Q2. Each response differed, except for the St. Josse-ten-Noode representatives'.

Manco, Altay, Sociographie de la population turque et d'origine turque : 40 ans de présence en Belgique (1960-2000):
13

Dynamiques, problématiques, perspectives. Bruxelles: Centre des Relations Européennes, Ed. Européennes, 2000.

8
Q3. All agreed on E.U negotiations process' impact
Q4. Each response differed.

Policy competences that had considerable impact on integration as agreed by each representative
were opening up of Islamic institutions and housing. Thus, these competence areas would tend to
influence the integration 'level' of the Turkish inhabitants of both Beringen and St. Josse ten Noode.

The second question that was similar to the first question, but of more subjective nature, questioned
the personal opinion of the representatives. Each response differed, except St. Josse-ten-Noode
representatives both commented on nationality acquisition. Thus, for inhabitants of this municipality,
nationality acquisition would play an important role on the integration level.

Each representative commented on the E.U negotiations process as a prominent factor on the
integration level (especially in terms of self-perception, perception of 'others' of inhabitants in both
municipalities.

Fourth question that asked of environmental factors that may play role on integration level yielded
differing responses among each representative.

Political figures vs. Islamic Executives:

Q1. Differing emphasis of politicians and islamic executives

Q2. Differing emphasis of both politicians and islamic executives
Q3. Same emphasis of politicians and differing emphasis among islamic executives
Q4. Differing emphasis of politicians and islamic executives

While politicians agreed on the importance of areas such as local voting rights, nationality
acquisition, housing, knowledge of Dutch and employment, islamic executives pointed out to housing
and opening up of Islamic institutions. As mentioned above, housing and especially opening up of
Islamic institutions already remain crucial, while politicians point out to the competence areas that
have impact on integration via policy measures in the mentioned areas.

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 For the second question, politician from St. Josse ten Noode mentioned important role of
nationality acquisition, while politician from Beringen emphasized important role of housing and
knowledge of Dutch on integration. While Islamic executive from St. Josse ten Noode commented on
nationality acquisition and local voting rights, the representative from Beringen emphasized
knowledge of Dutch and opening up of Islamic institutions.

One observes same emphasis for politicians and differing opinions among the islamic executives,
when asked of the political and social events in Turkey that may have played role on integration.
While both politicians commented on E.U negotiations process and the Turgut Ozal foreign policy of
the 90s, with Beringen being extremely change-sensitive and responsive to events at home country,
islamic executive from St. Josse ten Noode commented on Mr. Ozal's foreign policy, together with
political problems of concern, regarding E.U negotiations while executive from Beringen, also
mentioning E.U negotiations process, focused on the religious dimension of the problems/events.
However, this does not mean that the political problems mentioned by the St. Josse-ten-Noode
executive are not sensitive issues for integration of immigrants in Beringen. It may be just that the
Beringen executive has neglected to mention these events because they are inter-related with E.U
negotiations process or simply was not informed enough of them. Thus, one can conclude even though
these political problems are sensitive issues for integration in Beringen, one observes events with
religious dimension being more sensitive issues for integration, particularly in Beringen.

Last question that asked of the environmental factors showed that both politicians agreed on the
roles of the municipalities as important factors, with the exception of the politician from Beringen,
commenting on importance of community involvement/leisure. Thus, municipality roles proved
important for integration in both St. Josse ten Noode and Beringen, with the addition of community
involvement/leisure for Beringen. Islamic executives responded differently to the question, which will
be covered below.

Flemish vs. French Representatives:

Q1. Dutch: Employment French: Nationality acquisition

Q2. Dutch: Language French: Nationality acquisition

10
Q3. Dutch: E.U negotiations process, religious acts, Kurdish problem (very change-sensitive)
French: Mr. Ozal foreign policy (over-embracement)
Q4. Dutch: Community involvement and leisure activities
French: Municipality and schools

As consequences of the above-mentioned questionnaires, it appeared that factors such as opening

up of Islamic institutions in terms of community involvement, housing, employment,
municipality activities in favor and support of integration, participation in local voting would
play important roles on the degree to which integration was successful in both Beringen and St. Josse-
ten-Noode. As an exception, knowledge of Dutch was expected to have impact on the extent to which
integration was achieved in Beringen. Beringen is also expected to represent greater participation in
and some degree of devotion to religious activities.

Thus, the main focus from here on will be the measurement of these above-mentioned integration
factors via surveys to the Turkish community in both municipalities and interpretation of these
measures. Together with interpretation of survey results, carefully considering the content of the
questionnaires, other possibilities and horizons for clarification or further research on the question of
integration will be sought and offered.

Surveys:

Simple random sampling method was used with the assistance of two phone directories, one of St.
Josse-ten-Noode and the other of Beringen, which also included the addresses of the subjects. 20
individuals from Beringen, another 20 individuals from St. Josse-ten-Noode were surveyed. Drop-off
surveys were administered to 40 individuals in total, prior to which informed consents were taken.
Proper identity card was presented to the subjects in case of credibility issues. If the individual
consented, following a description of what the survey would involve and of the consent form, the
subject signed on the individual survey form. Immediately after the procedure, surveys were conducted
face-to-face with the subjects, clarifying any question in case of confusion. At the final stage of data
collection, all survey data were analyzed through SPSS version 15.

11
Nationality acquisition: According to the survey results, %5 of subjects in Beringen was of Turkish
nationality and %95 of double-nationality (Belgian and Turkish), whereas for St. Josse subjects, %25
was of Turkish nationality and %75 of double-nationality. The statistical difference between the two
municipalities was significant (p< 0.05).

Results indicated that %80 of spouses in Beringen was of double-nationality and %20 of Turkish
nationality, while %90 of spouses in St. Josse was of double-nationality, 10% of Turkish nationality,
only. The statistical difference between the two municipalities was not significant (p>0.05).

Results indicated that while %91.2 of subjects' children was reported to have double-nationalities in
Beringen, %97.1 was reported the same in St. Josse. %8.8 of subjects in Beringen reported only
Turkish citizenship for their children while %2.9 in St. Josse reported the same.

Education: The difference between educational levels of Beringen subjects and St. Josse subjects was
not statistically significant (p>0.05). Same pattern was observed when looked at the results for
spouses, which showed that the difference between educational level of spouses in Beringen and ones
in St. Josse was not statistically significant (p>0.05).

Results showed that %7 of children in Beringen do not go to any school while %11.8 of children
did not go to any school. However, it must be noted they were not yet of school age. Percentages that
will be indicated here show the last school attended, rather than the actual education level. Thus,
numbers will include those who are continuing their education and will not include those who dropped
out. There were no primary school graduates in the sample. For both municipalities, approximately for
%14 of children, the last school they attended to was primary school. %10.5 of subjects in Beringen
indicated that the last school that their children went to was middle school, while in St. Josse the
percentage was 5.9. %35.1 of subjects' children in Beringen went to high school as of today while %50
of St. Josse subjects went to high school. As school last attended, university attendance for Beringen
was %33.3 while it was %17.6 for St. Josse subjects' children.

Language: %85 of subjects in St. Josse indicated knowledge of French at an advanced level and %10
at intermediate level, whereas in Beringen none indicated any advanced level knowledge of French,

12
while 20% indicated intermediate level of French. Additionally, regarding Dutch, %90 of Beringen
subjects indicated that they know the language at an advanced level and %10 at an intermediate level,
whereas %20 of St. Josse subjects know Dutch at an intermediate level. Thus, the statistical difference
between the municipalities, in terms of knowledge of Dutch and French is very significant (p<0.05).

Results indicated that %95 of spouses in Beringen had no knowledge of French whatsoever, and
%5 had an intermediate knowledge of the language, while %80 of spouses in St. Josse had an
advanced level of French, %15 indicated an intermediate level of knowledge for the language. The
difference between the regions is statistically significant (p<0.05). Furthermore, regarding the
knowledge of the Dutch language, %75 of spouses in Beringen indicated an advanced level knowledge
of the language and %20 indicated an intermediate level of knowledge, while %90 of St. Josse spouses
had no knowledge of the language and %10 indicated an intermediate level of knowledge.

%5.3 of Beringen subjects' children knew advanced level of French while %97.1 of children in St.
Josse knew advanced level of French. Additionally, %28.1 of subjects' children knew intermediate
level of French in Beringen. When it comes to knowledge of Dutch, %93 of subjects' children in
Beringen knew the language at an advanced level while none of the children knew the language at
same level in St. Josse, though those who knew the language at an intermediate level was indicated
%29.4.

For both municipalities and for all subjects, spouses and children, mother tongue was Turkish.
Additionally, it is important to point out that children who were holding any jobs in both
municipalities were either self-employed, working at a privately-owned business/shop, or working in
construction or in a factory, which are all insecure, underpaid, much less-qualified jobs with the
exception of the self-employed ones.

Home-ownership and rent: %80 of Beringen subjects and %70 of St. Josse subjects are home-owners.
Even though there is a difference of %10, the statistical difference was not significant (p>0.05). Of
%20 Beringen subjects who are renting, none had problems while renting. They indicated their house-
owners themselves were Turkish. 30% of St. Josse subjects 10% indicated problems while renting. The

13
difference was not statistically significant (p>0.05)

Membership to parties: All subjects and their spouses from both municipalities indicated no
membership to any political parties.

Voting in local elections: %95 of Beringen subjects indicated that they voted whereas %80 of subjects
in St. Josse voted for local elections. Even though the difference is %15, it can be concluded that due
to the small sample size, the difference was not statistically significant (p>0.05). %75 of Beringen
subjects' spouses mentioned that they voted while %85 voted in St. Josse. The difference was not
statistically significant (p>0.05)

NGO Participation: %70 of Beringen subjects indicated some level of NGO participation whereas %25
of St. Josse subjects mentioned some level of participation. The difference between two municipalities
is statistically significant (p=0.05). Groups they were involved included mosques for both Beringen
and St. Josse, Diyanet for St. Josse, Milli Gorus Group, Turkish Associations Union of Belgium and
Men's Association as part of the mosque for Beringen.

%30 of Beringen subjects' spouses indicated some level of participation while %5 in St. Josse
indicated any level of participation. The difference was statistically significant (p<0.05). Groups
spouses were involved in included women's branches of the mosque and the Turkish Associations
Union of Belgium.

Responses to how and whether subjects' life is affected by mosques and other religious organizations:
%85 of Beringen subjects indicated that their life was affected positively and %55 of St. Josse subjects
mentioned that they were affected positively. The difference was statistically significant (p<0.05).

Responses to whether subjects found municipality activities toward integration sufficient: %20 of
Beringen subjects thought municipality activities sufficient whereas none of the St. Josse subjects
thought them to be sufficient. The statistical difference between the two municipalities was moderately
significant (p=0.05)

14
Responses to whether subjects' children encountered any problem(s) during school: %35 of subjects
from both municipalities indicated their children encountered problems at school. Sample size matters
here.

Conclusion and Remarks:

Similarities:

When looked at the results, it is observed that majority of the children and spouses in both Beringen
and St. Josse had double-nationalities, however, more % of spouses held only Turkish citizenship in
Beringen than in St. Josse. This may be due to the fact that the number of arranged marriages, in which
a bride is "taken" from the home country, is larger in Beringen. Nevertheless, a comparison is possible
when it comes to subjects (see "Differences"). Additionally, it is worthwhile to note that educational
levels for subjects, spouses and children in Beringen and for those in St. Josse did not vary.

Responses to the question, concerning housing (as indicated by the questionnaire results to be of
importance), showed that majority of the subjects were home-owners, and those who rented their
home, did so from fellow immigrants. A possible explanation is this is due to kinship. This may imply
the necessity of a deeper, more comprehensive research into how the home-owners came to buy their
homes in the first place, into their circumstances and experiences during the process.

Responses to the question, concerning voting in local elections presented a similar picture:
Majority of the subjects and their spouses in both Beringen and St. Josse voted for local elections. This
is a positive response to the question of integration, however, none of the subjects and the spouses
mentioned that they are a member to any political party. This brings into question whether they are
consciously aware of the opportunities that are laid out for them, or the psychological benefits they
may "discover" as consequences of recent integration policies. Even if they are aware that they can
become members to a party, this may mean that they are just much too enmeshed with what is going
on socially and politically in Turkey, rather than in Belgium, which is a negative response to the
question of integration.
An interesting point to make is that when asked whether the subjects' children had any problems at
school, same %35 of the subjects in both municipalities mentioned any problems. However, this may

15
also be due to the sample size, as it is always an issue to be kept in mind for this particular research.

Differences:

One observes a statistically significant difference between the nationality acquisition situation of
the survey subjects. More subjects in Beringen held double-nationality and less held only Turkish
citizenship. When it comes to survey subjects only, in terms of nationality acquisition, Beringen was
"better off".

Naturally, the statistical difference between the municipalities in terms of knowledge of the French
and the Dutch language was significant, much more % of subjects, spouses and children knowing
French at an advanced level in St. Josse, and much more % of subjects, spouses and children knowing
Dutch at an advanced level in Beringen. However, there was a statistically very significant difference
between the children who were learning Dutch in Beringen (%1.8) and those in St. Josse (%29.4),
which may be due to the "pressure" to learn Dutch since it is the language of Brussels and of Flemish
region of Belgium, which is also the economically more successful region and because Dutch is the
language of the people who are more ethnically conscious in identifying themselves with the language.
In any case, further research and clarification are needed. Additionally, it is worthwhile to note that
%28 children in Beringen knew and were learning French at an intermediate level. It seems that the
children in Beringen have been prioritizing the knowledge of French as a third language, while
knowledge of Dutch has been prioritized by the children in St. Josse. Furthermore, the fact that
mother tongue for all was Turkish, which supports the basic assumption that Turkish immigrants of
the guest-worker generations and their offsprings are still very much further from total-integration.
This degree of integration is not yet to be achieved.

Results indicated a much higher participation level in NGOs (turkish groups and associations) in
Beringen than in St. Josse. Furthermore, more subjects in Beringen indicated that they found
municipality activities for integration sufficient: This may be due to environmental characteristics,
namely Beringen being a more 'rural' region, people might be informed easily, rather than St. Josse that
is part of a large, urban capital. Finally, responses to how and whether subjects' life has been affected
by mosques and other religious organizations yielded a particularly more positive response in Beringen
than in St. Josse.

16
 Nevertheless, globally speaking, for the sake of integration, there is a need to determine up to what
extent environmental characteristics of a certain region play role on integration. If there are differences
between regions, in terms of these characteristics, how do the differences reflect on the degree to
which integration progresses? Furthermore, a response to the question of how gender-dynamics impact
integration can be sought. There are also various ethnic and religious sub-groups within the Turkish
minority that need to be taken into account in terms of their differences and how various inter-ethnic
dynamics work under the minority, itself. Research on the balance between the interaction (of the
indigenous people and the immigrants) and political and social events in the home-country, together
with changes in this balance is needed. Finally, ethnic differences in terms of the "ability" to integrate
into the Belgian society might be investigated, together with how these differences can be made proper
use of, so as to devise effective integration policies for all.

While it is crucial to point out to the limited sample representativeness of this study, especially
globally speaking, findings at hand signal something: Turkish immigrants in Beringen might be on the
right road to integration, however, they recently started their journey. It seems immigrants in St. Josse
have longer road ahead of them, but not too much longer than their co-patriots in Beringen. Even
though the whole picture signals us a mild tendency towards integration, it can be advised for
integration policies to especially take into account the immigrant youth, in terms of their understanding
of their situation in a host-country and what is mentioned above as important factors that will
determine the extent to which integration progresses.

17
 - BIBLIOGRAPHY -
1. Hansen, R. (2003). Migration to Europe since 1945: Its History and Its Lessons. In S. Spencer, The
Politics of Migration. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing

2. Glazer, Nathan. Ethnic Dilemmas. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard
University Press, 1983.

3. Spencer, Sarah. The Politics of Migration. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.

4. Manco, Ural. "Turks in Europe: From a garbled image to the complexity of migrant social reality."
Centruum Voor Islam in Europa. June 29, 2007. http://www.flwi.ugent.be/cie/umanco/umanco5.htm.

5. Urwin, W. Derek. Western Europe since 1945: A Political History. London, U.K; New York,
U.S.A: Longman, 1989.

6. Aroian, Karen J., Thanh V. Tran, Nancy Schappler-Morris. "Development and Psychometric
Evaluation of the Demands of Immigration Scale." Journal of Nursing Measurement 6.2 (1998).

7. Manco, Altay, Sociographie de la population turque et d'origine turque : 40 ans de présence en

Belgique (1960-2000): Dynamiques, problématiques, perspectives. Bruxelles: Centre des Relations
Européennes, Ed. Européennes, 2000.

8. CRS Report for Congress. "Muslims in Europe: Integration Policies in Selected Countries."
November 18, 2005. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33166.pdf (July 1, 2007).

9. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. "Integration of
Migrants: Contribution of Local and Regional Authorities"
http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2006/22/en/1/ef0622en.pdf (July 5, 2007)

18
10. Eriksen, Erik Oddvar. Reflexive Integration in Europe. Arena Working Paper.
http://www.arena.uio.no/publications/wp04_20.pdf (June 30, 2007).

11. Lahav, Gallya and Anthony M. Messina. "The Limits of a European Immigration Policy: Elite
Opinion and Agendas within the European Parliament." Journal of Common Market Studies
43.4(2005): 851-75

12. Cholewinski, Ryszard. "Migrants as Minorities: Integration and Inclusion in the Enlarged
European Union." Journal of Common Market Studies 43.4 (2005): 696-716

13. Manco, Ural. "Turks in Western Europe". Centruum Voor Islam in Europa. June 29, 2007.
http://www.flwi.ugent.be/cie/umanco/umanco3.htm

14. Murat, Sedat. "Immigrant Turks and Their Socio-Economic Structure in European Countries" IIBF
Faculty Journal. 2001. June 27, 2007. http://www.cumhuriyet.edu.tr/edergi/makale/90.pdf

15. "The Challenge of Integration." Directorate-General Freedom, Justice and Security. CD-ROM.
Bruxelles, 2006

16. Phalet, Karen and Marc Swyngedouw. Center for European Studies, Bosphorus University.
"Measuring Immigrant Integration: The Case of Belgium"
http://www.ces.boun.edu.tr/2/2/Immigrant_Integration_SE.pdf (July 3, 2007)

17. Acma, Bulent. "Economic Consequences of International Migration: Case Study of Turkey. World
Institute for Development Economics Research. June 30, 2007
http://www.wider.unu.edu/conference/conference-2002-3/conference%20papers/acma.pdf

18. Crul, Maurice and Hans Vermeulen. "The Second Generation in Europe." International Migration
Review 37.4 (Winter 2003): 965-86.

19. Kanmaz, Meryem. "Does a Turkish Diaspora still Exist? Turkish Immigrants in Belgium, between
Europe and Turkey". Centruum Voor Islam in Europa. June 29, 2007.
http://www.flwi.ugent.be/cie/CIE/kanmaz5.htm

19
 - ANNEX -

Questionnaire #1: Politician from St-Josse-ten-Noode

1. Please rank, from 1 to 9, the policy competences that you think are important for
the Turkish minority in St. Josse ten Noode.

- Opening up of Islamic institutions (Mosques and associations)

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Local voting rights

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Nationality acquisition

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Housing

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Knowledge of the French language

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

20
- Knowledge of the Dutch language

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Teaching of Turkish as a minority language in schools

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Employment

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Other(Please explain)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………..

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Which aspect (s), do you think, of Integration policy competences have been the
most prominent on the lives of the Turkish minority in St. Josse ten Noode? Please
explain why.

- Nationality acquisition and easement on the jurisdiction: The recognition of Turkish

side, that this is really important for integration (in the 90s)

3. Which political and social events in Turkey do you think had the most prominent
effect on the integration of the Turkish minority in St. Josse ten Noode? (in terms of
self-perception, perception of others, perception by others)

- Turgut Ozal foreign policy in the 90s

Rural vs. Urban culture
Language issue

21
 The E.U negotiations process

4. Are there any environmental characteristics that have impact on integration of the
Turkish minority that you would like to point out? (in terms of St. Josse ten Noode
region: Municipality, schools, perception of others, discrimination, mixophobia, leisure
activities, etc.)

- Municipality, schools, Turkish media’s approach to integration

Questionnaire # 2: Politician from Beringen

1. Please rank, from 1 to 9, the policy competences that you think are important
for the Turkish minority in Beringen.
- Opening up of Islamic institutions (Mosques and associations)

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Local voting rights

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Nationality acquisition

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Housing

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Knowledge of the Dutch language

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Knowledge of the French language

Most important Least important

22
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Teaching of Turkish as a minority language in schools

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Employment

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

- Other (Please explain): Involvement in the community

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Which aspect (s), do you think, of Integration policy competences have been the
most prominent on the lives of the Turkish minority in Beringen? Please explain why.

- Housing: Flemish government’s absence of appropriate action + mayor

Knowledge of Dutch: identity issue

3. Which political and social events in Turkey do you think had the most prominent
effect on the integration of the Turkish minority in Beringen? (in terms of self-
perception, perception of others, perception by others)

- Everything (very change-sensitive): from the change of a Turkish law to Turkey’s

relations with its neighboring countries and accession negotiations to the E.U.

4. Are there any environmental characteristics that have impact on integration of the
Turkish minority that you would like to point out? (in terms of Beringen region:
Municipality, schools, perception of others, discrimination, mixophobia, leisure
activities, etc.)

Municipality: Current mayor’s negative attitudes and adverse affect on integration

23
(since the 90s)
Community and political involvement
Leisure activities: Participation increased, and to some degree, integration, as well,
which owed itself to political representation

Questionnaire #3: Islamic Executive from St.-Josse-ten-Noode

1. Please rank, from 1 to 11, concepts that you think have played the most
prominent role for the integration of the Turkish minority in St. Josse ten
Noode.

- Right to be buried according to Islamic faith

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Inclusion of Islam in school curriculums

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
- Religious rights at schools (headscarf issues)

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Opening up of Islamic institutions (Islamic schools, mosques and associations)

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Employment

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Local voting rights

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Role of the Belgian media, regarding coverage and presentation of Islam

24
 Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Housing

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Nationality acquisition

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Knowledge of the French language

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

-Other (Please explain)..................................................

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2. Which aspect (s), do you think, of Integration policy competences have been the
most prominent on the lives of the Turkish minority in St. Josse ten Noode? Please
explain why.

- Nationality acquisition
- Local voting rights

3. Which political and social events in Turkey do you think had the most prominent
effect on the integration of the Turkish minority in St. Josse ten Noode? (in terms of
self-perception, perception of others, perception by others)

- Armenian, Cyprus and Kurdish problems, accession negotiations to the E.U,

nationalistic emotions, Foreign Policy (Turgut Ozal)

4. Are there any environmental characteristics that have impact on integration

that you would like to point out? (in terms of St. Josse ten Noode region:

25
Municipality, schools, perception of others, discrimination, mixophobia, leisure
activities, etc.)

- Municipality and schools

Questionnaire #4: Islamic Executive from Beringen

1. Please rank, from 1 to 11, concepts that you think have played the most
prominent role for the integration of the Turkish minority in Beringen

- Right to be buried according to Islamic faith

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Inclusion of Islam in school curriculums

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
- Religious rights at schools (headscarf issues)

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Opening up of Islamic institutions (Islamic schools. mosques and associations)

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Employment

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Local voting rights

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Role of the Belgian media, regarding coverage and presentation of Islam

Most important Least important

26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Housing

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Nationality acquisition

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Knowledge of the Dutch language

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

- Other (Please explain).................................................

Most important Least important

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2. Which aspect (s), do you think, of Integration policy competences have

been the most prominent on the lives of the Turkish minority in Beringen?
Please explain why.
- Knowledge of Dutch
Opening of Islamic institutions

3. Which political and social events in Turkey do you think had the most
prominent effect on the integration of the Turkish minority in Beringen? (in
terms of self-perception, perception of others, perception by others)

- Kurdish problem, religious acts (Milli Gorus), Necmettin Erbakan

government in the 90s, accession negotiations to the E.U

4. Are there any environmental characteristics that have impact on

integration of the Turkish minority that you would like to point out? (in terms
of Beringen region: Municipality, schools, perception of others,

27
discrimination, mixophobia, leisure activities, etc.)
- Racism
Ghettoization
Leisure activities

28