ABSTRACT

Performance of concrete at high temperatures is of great importance, in particular for

safety evaluation of concrete structures in building fires or in thermal hazard situations. In
building, structural members are to be designed to satisfy the requirement for
serviceability and safety limit states. One of the major safety requirements in the building
design is the provision of appropriate fire safety measures for structural members.
Analyzing structural elements i.e., beams and columns separately gives an insight of
thermal profile and strength & stiffness degradation. imulating the behaviour of
boundary conditions has been a challenging tas! in order to rec!on the behaviour of
structural elements in the building assembly. "onsiderable amount of #or! has been done
on material properties at elevated temperatures. $here e%ists a large variation in these
properties. ome of these properties have been codified. $here is a need for comparative
study of these properties available in literature and judge their suitability. In the age of
advanced computational technology, computational methods prove supreme to model the
job mathematically. $his modelling may be done either by using commercially available
finite element analysis pac!ages or generating customized computer program. &ut the
most important job lies in validating the modelling technique and the results obtained
from these computational methods.
In this dissertation, a detailed study has been made to compare the effect of different
boundary conditions on thermal analysis of reinforced concrete structural members.
'ffect of cooling phase on structural members has also been studied. It presents studies
sho#ing the effect of fire scenario, load level and concrete models (unconfined
concrete)confined concrete)preloaded concrete*.
equentially coupled thermal stress analyses #ere conducted on various +" elements
using ,'- based computational pac!age A&A./ to study their response during fire.
An attempt #as made to reduce the discrepancies bet#een the simulated results and
e%perimental results thus ma!ing them more accurate.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I ta!e this opportunity to than! my supervisors Dr. Pradeep Bhargava, Professor,
0epartment of "ivil 'ngineering, Indian Institute of $echnology, +oor!ee, and Dr. G. R.
Reddy, cientific officer1 23, +eactor afety 0ivision, &habha Atomic +esearch "enter,
$rombay, -umbai for his valuable guidance and support in completion of this
dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment for the a#ard of the degree of -aster of
$echnology #ith specialization in &uilding cience and $echnology. I e%tend my special
than!s to Dr.N.M.Bhandari, Professor, 0epartment of "ivil 'ngineering, Indian Institute
of $echnology, +oor!ee for his valuable suggestions.
I am than!ful to my friends 4itendra harma, 5amlesh Parihar, ujit 6angal, Praveen
5amath and 2eaven ingh firstly for e%empting me from 7ba!ar8 sessions and letting me
#or! and for al#ays being there #henever I needed them.
I am also sincerely grateful to all my batch mates and friends from the junior batch those
#ho actively helped me during the course of my dissertation #or!.
I than! Praveen 5amath for his valuable time9 he had devoted carefully scrutinising the
te%t in this dissertation.
:ast but not the least9 I #ould also li!e to than! my parents for their invaluable moral
support and consistent encouragement for pursuing masters8 degree.
0ate; <= 4une, >=?? HTESH LAKHAN
Place; +oor!ee
iii
CONTENT
CANDDATE!S DECLARATON....................................................................................i
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................iii
LST O" "G#RES.........................................................................................................vii
LST O" TABLES..............................................................................................................%
CHAPTER $ %
NTROD#CTON..............................................................................................................?
?.? 6'@'+A:.........................................................................................................?
?.> ,I+' :I-I$ $A$'..........................................................................................?
?.< I "O0' ,O+ ,I+' +'I$A@"'...............................................................>
?.A @''0 O, $/0B............................................................................................>
?.C AI- A@0 6OA:..........................................................................................<
?.D -'$2O0O:O6B............................................................................................<
?.E O+6A@IA$IO@ O, 0I'+$A$IO@...........................................................A
CHAPTER $ &
LTERAT#RE RE'EW..................................................................................................C
>.? 6'@'+A:.....................................................................................................................C
>.> I "O0' P+OFIIO@ ,O+ ,I+' +'I$A@"'........................................D
>.< ',,'"$ O, 2I62 $'-P'+A$/+' O@ "O@"+'$'..................................E
>.<.? palling of "oncrete...........................................................................G
>.<.> -odulus of 'lasticity........................................................................??
>.<.< "oncrete "ompressive trength........................................................??
>.A $+'1$+AI@ +':A$IO@2IP ,O+ "O@"+'$' A$ ':'FA$'0
$'-P'+A$/+'...................................................................................................?<
>.A.? tress1train +elationship as per 'urocode>....................................?D
>.A.> tress1train +elationship for "onfined "oncrete (Boussef et al,
>==E*..........................................................................................................?H
>.C "O@$I$/$IF' -O0': "O-PA+IO@...................................................>?
CHAPTER ( )
THERMAL ANAL*SS..................................................................................................>C
<.? 6'@'+A:.......................................................................................................>C
iv
<.> $2'+-A: P+OP'+$I'..............................................................................>D
<.>.? $hermal Properties of "oncrete........................................................>D
<.>.> $hermal Properties of teel...............................................................>G
<.< A@A:B$I"A: $/0I'...............................................................................<?
<.<.? ectional 0etails; &eam and "olumn...............................................<?
<.<.> ,ire cenario and '%posure "ondition.............................................<?
<.A A@A:BI; P+O"'0/+' A@0 $2'O+B..................................................<D
<.A.? /ncoupled 2eat $ransfer Analysis...................................................<E
<.A.> 'ffect of &oundary "ondition...........................................................A?
<.C 2'A$ $+A@,'+ A@A:BI +'/:$....................................................AC
<.C.? $@"?; +esults and "omparison.......................................................AD
<.C.> $2"A; +esults and "omparison.......................................................AH
<.C.< $2"H; +esults and "omparison.......................................................C=
<.C.A &?; +esults and "omparison.............................................................C>
<.C.C &>; +esults and "omparison.............................................................CA
<.C.D &A; +esults and "omparison.............................................................CD
CHAPTER ( +
STRESS ANAL*SS........................................................................................................CH
A.? 6'@'+A:.......................................................................................................CH
A.> A@A:B$I"A: $/0I'...............................................................................CH
A.>.? $est "onditions and Procedure.........................................................CG
A.< A@A:BI; P+O"'0/+' A@0 $2'O+B..................................................CG
A.<.? 'lement 0escription..........................................................................CG
A.<.> -aterial -odel for "oncrete............................................................D>
A.<.>.? :inear 'lasticity.................................................................D>
A.<.>.> "oncrete 0amaged Plasticity -odel.................................D>
A.<.< -aterial -odel for +einforcement...................................................DG
A.<.<.? "lassical -etal Plasticity...................................................DG
A.A $+' A@A:BI O, &'A-..................................................................E=
A.A.? &eam &?............................................................................................E=
A.A.?.? -aterial Properties for "oncrete........................................E>
A.A.?.> -aterial Properties for +einforcing teel..........................ED
A.A.?.< +esults and "omparison....................................................EH
A.A.> &eam &<............................................................................................H=
v
A.A.>.? -aterial Properties for "oncrete........................................H?
A.A.>.> -aterial Properties for +einforcing teel..........................H>
A.A.>.< +esults and "omparison....................................................H>
A.A.< &eam &A............................................................................................HC
A.A.<.? -aterial Properties for "oncrete........................................HC
A.A.<.> -aterial Properties for +einforcing teel..........................HD
A.A.<.< +esults and "omparison....................................................HD
A.C $+' A@A:BI O, "O:/-@............................................................HH
A.C.? "olumn $2"A...................................................................................HH
A.C.?.? -aterial Properties for "oncrete........................................HG
A.C.?.> -aterial properties for +einforcing teel..........................HG
A.C.?.< +esults and "omparison....................................................HG
A.C.> "olumn $@"?...................................................................................G=
A.C.>.? -aterial Properties for "oncrete........................................G=
A.C.>.> -aterial Properties for +einforcing teel..........................G>
A.C.>.< +esults and "omparison....................................................G<
CHAPTER ( ,
CONCL#SONS..............................................................................................................GC
C.? /--A+B.....................................................................................................GC
C.> "O@":/IO@..............................................................................................GC
C.< +'"O--'@0A$IO@ ,O+ ,/+$2'+ IO+5........................................GD
RE"ERENCES.................................................................................................................GH
vi
LST O" "G#RES
,ig. >.?;1urface te%ture of the concrete sample e%posed to elevated temperatures...........D
,ig. >.>;1Pore pressure prediction for different values of initial permeability...................?=
,ig. >.<;1-odulus of elasticity for different concretes at elevated temperatures..............?=
,ig. >.A(a*;1 Fariation of compressive strength #ith temperature for normal strength
concrete..............................................................................................................................?>
,ig. >.A(b*;1 Fariation of compressive strength #ith temperature for high strength
concrete..............................................................................................................................?>
,ig. >.C;1 Fariation of residual compressive strength #ith temperature for concrete........?<
,ig. >.D;1 $ests for computing the various strain components...........................................?C
,ig. >.E;1 -athematical model for stress strain1relationships of concrete under
compression at elevated temperature as per 'urocode>....................................................?E
,ig. >.H;1 "oefficient !
c,t
(J* for decreasing tensile strength of concrete at elevated
temperature as per 'urocode>............................................................................................?H
,ig. >.G;1 tress1strain relationship for confined concrete (cott et al.*............................?G
,ig. >.?=;1 "onfined and unconfined concrete stress1strain plot.......................................>>
,ig >.??;1 "omparison of constitutive models (Boussef et al. and 'urocode>*.................>A
,ig. <.?;1 pecific heat as a function of temperature at < different moisture contents, as
per 'urocode ('@?GG>1?1>;>==A*.....................................................................................>H
,ig. <.>;1 Fariation of thermal conductivity of different types of concrete as predicted by
various constitutive models................................................................................................>H
,ig. <.<;1 Fariation of specific heat of different types of concrete as predicted by various
constitutive models............................................................................................................>G
,ig. <.A(a*;1 Fariation of thermal conductivity #ith temperature for rebar.......................<=
,ig. <.A(b*;1 Fariation of specific heat #ith temperature for rebar....................................<=
,ig. <.C;1 'levation and sectional details of columns ($@"?, $2"A & $2"H*...............<<
,ig <.D;1 ectional details of beams (&?, &> & &A*.........................................................<A
,ig. <.E;1 $ime K temperature curve for A$- '??G fire scenario...................................<C
,ig. <.H;1 $ime K temperature curve for short severe design fire e%posure (,*...............<C
,ig <.G(a*; 1 0iscretized column........................................................................................<D
,ig. <.G(b*;1 0iscretized beam...........................................................................................<E
vii
,ig. <.?=;1$he effect of boundary condition on column $@"? results (only heating phase*
............................................................................................................................................A>
,ig91<.?? Input fire curve for "O:1A................................................................................A<
,ig. <.?>;1$he effect of boundary condition on "O:1A results.........................................AA
,ig. <.?<;1 $hermal profiles for column section using different thermal properties.........AC
,ig. <.?A (a*;1 "omparison of column $@"? results for thermal property '$?..............AD
,ig. <.?A (b*;1 "omparison of column $@"? results for thermal property '$>.............AE
,ig. <.?A (c*;1 "omparison of column $@"? results for thermal property '$<..............AE
,ig. <.?C (a*;1 "omparison of column $2"A results for thermal property '$?..............AH
,ig. <.?C (b*;1 "omparison of column $2"A results for thermal property '$>.............AG
,ig. <.?C (c*;1 "omparison of column $2"A results for thermal property '$C..............AG
,ig. <.?D (a*;1 "omparison of column $2"H results for thermal property '$?..............C=
,ig. <.?D (b*;1 "omparison of column $2"H results for thermal property '$>.............C?
,ig. <.?D (c*;1 "omparison of column $2"H results for thermal property '$D..............C?
,ig. <.?E;1$he effect of moisture content on column $2"H results (only heating phase* C>
,ig. <.?H;1 $hermal profiles for beam section e%posed to A$- '??G fire using different
thermal properties..............................................................................................................C<
,ig. <.?G;1 "omparison of beam &? results for different thermal property.......................CA
,ig. <.>= (a*;1 "omparison of beam &> results for different thermal property..................CC
,ig. <.>=(b*;1 "omparison of beam &> results for different thermal property..................CC
,ig. <.>?(a*;1 "omparison of beam &A results for different thermal property...................CD
,ig. <.>?(b*;1 "omparison of beam &A results for different thermal property..................CE
,ig. A.?;1"ommonly used element families in A&A./..................................................D?
,ig. A.>;1,irst and second order continuum element.........................................................D?
,ig. A.<(a*;1/nia%ial tension behaviour of concrete..........................................................DA
,ig. A.<(b*;1/nia%ial compression behaviour of concrete.................................................DC
,ig. A.A;1:oading for testing of beams...............................................................................E=
,ig. A.C;1 -eshed vie# of the beam..................................................................................E?
,ig. A.D;1 ample #indo# for defining a predefined temperature field.............................E>
,ig. A.E;1 tress strain curve for concrete..........................................................................E<
,ig. A.H;1 Fariation of Boung8s -odulus #ith temperature (&eam &?*.............................EA
,ig. A.G(a*;1tress strain relation for concrete in compression at elevated temperature....EC
,ig. A.G(b*;1tress strain relation for concrete in tension at elevated temperature............EC
viii
,ig. A.?=;1 -athematical model for stress1strain relationships of reinforcing steel at
elevated temperatures.........................................................................................................ED
,ig. A.??;1 tress1strain curves of reinforcing steel at elevated temperatures...................EH
,ig. A.?>;1 "omparison of beam &? results.......................................................................EG
,ig. A.?<;1 /n1deformed and deformed shape of beam &?...............................................EG
,ig.A.?A;1-id section under tension and compression at failure (&eam &?*....................H=
,ig. A.?C;1 +educed strength of concrete as a function of temperature.............................H?
,ig. A?D;1 Fariation of Boung8s -odulus #ith temperature (&eam &<*............................H>
,ig. A.?E;1 "omparison of beam &< results.......................................................................H<
,ig. A.?H;1 /n1deformed and deformed shape of beam &<...............................................HA
,ig.A.?G;1tress contour for beam &<................................................................................HA
,ig. A.>=;1 "omparison of beam &A results.......................................................................HE
,ig. A.>?;1 /n1deformed and deformed shape of beam &A...............................................HE
,ig. A.>>;1 "lamped centrically loaded reinforced concrete column in fire......................HH
,ig. A.><;1'%perimental and simulated results of column $2"A......................................G=
,ig. A.>A;1$emperature v)s compressive strength for column $@"?................................G?
,ig. A.>C;1$emperature v)s Boung8s modulus for unloaded and preloaded concrete.........G>
,ig. A.>D;1Farious stress strain relationship for concrete at >==
=
" and D==
=
" ($@"?*...G>
,ig. A.>E;1'%perimental and simulated results of column $@"?......................................G<
,ig. A.>H;1+esults of column $@"? under increased load level........................................GA
i%
LST O" TABLES
$able >.?;1 Farious stages of heating phase.........................................................................C
$able >.>;1 :ist of various I codes related to fire safety of buildings (6eneral*................E
$able >.<;1 Falues for the main parameters of the stress1strain relationships of normal
#eight concrete at elevated temperature as per 'urocode>...............................................?E
$able >.A Falues of constants for 2ertz -odel..................................................................>=
$able <.?;1 "onstitutive relationships for thermal properties of concrete..........................>D
$able <.>; :ist of e%periments simulated in A&A./ v D.G.< (Pure 2eat $ransfer
Analysis*............................................................................................................................<>
$able.<.<; Applicability of thermal properties for different concrete................................AD
$able A.?; :ist of e%periments simulated in A&A./ v D.G.< (,or stress)deformation
analysis*.............................................................................................................................D=
$able A.>; Falues for the main parameters of the stress strain relationships of concrete at
elevated temperatures.........................................................................................................E<
$able A.<;1"lass @ values for the parameters of the stress1strain relationship of hot rolled
reinforcing steel.................................................................................................................EE
$able A.A;1 Parameters for defining the stress strain relationship for 2"........................H?
%
%
NTROD#CTON
O-.e/0ive1$ &riefly e%plain the problem statement, its significance and
scope of the #or! carried out.
CHAPTER ( %
NTROD#CTON
%.% GENERAL
,ires are a relatively li!ely hazard under present scenario in urban locations. ,ires in
buildings have al#ays been a threat to human safety L&uchanan A., >==>M
?E
. $he threat
increases as large number of people live and #or! in larger buildings throughout the
#orld. $here must be no total collapse of the structure during the evacuation phase or
preferably during the fire fighting phase.
$he considerations involved in fire safety engineering can be grouped into t#o
categories9 active measures and passive measures.
I. Active measures
Provision of alarm systems,
Provision of smo!e control systems,
Provision of in built fire fighting or fire control systems,
"ontrol of hazardous contents,
Provision of access for e%ternal fire fighting,
Provision of a fire safety management system.
II. Passive measures
Adequate compartmentation,
"ontrol of flammability of the structure fabric,
Provision of fi%ed escape routes,
Provision of adequate structural performanceN.
NProvision of adequate structural performance forms the area of concern in this #or!.
%.& "RE LMT STATE
$he fire safety of +" structures largely depends on the combustibility and fire rating (fire
resistance* of their main structural elements, i.e., beams and columns. "oncrete is non
combustible in nature, it8s basically the degradation in material property #hich leads to
failure. 0esign criterions are based on the standard fire, or furnace test. &ased on tests
some failure criteria #ere identified; LPur!iss, >==EM
EG

?
i. $ested element must have sufficient load bearing capacity to resist the applied
loading over the required duration.
ii. $emperatures on the une%posed face should be lo# enough not to cause ignition
of materials stored against that face.
iii. $here should be no possibility of flame being able to reach the une%posed face
through any #ea!ness or loss of integrity in the construction either inherent in the
construction itself or due to e%cessive deformation during the test.
$hese failure criteria can be simply identified as load1bearing capacity (:*, insulation (I*
and integrity ('*. ,irst limit state of load bearing capacity (:* is the area of concern in
this #or!.
%.) S CODES "OR "RE RESSTANCE
-ost of the countries have their o#n fire protection codes and consider fire resistant
design in their normal construction practices. 2o#ever in India fire resistance design has
not yet gained attention. $his is clear from the fact that all codes for fire safety of
buildings #ere introduced in latter half of ?GH=8s and since then have not been revised.
$hese codes #ere based on then research done on fire protection in countries li!e /A,
/5 and "anada. 'ven the code for fire resistance test of structures is based on, then IO1
H<A.
Above points sho# the need for introduction of ne# fire resistant design code for
structures in Indian conte%t. Indian codes are prescriptive codes and they lay do#n
guidelines to be follo#ed to achieve fire resistance of required duration. ,rom design
point of vie#, provisions in code are limited to minimum dimension and minimum cover
to reinforcing steel to achieve fire resistance ranging from =.C hr to A hr.
%.+ NEED O" ST#D*
"onsiderable amount of #or! has been done on material properties at elevated
temperatures (refer Chapter 2*. $here e%ists a large variation in these properties. ome of
these properties have been codified. $here is a need for comparative study of these
properties available in literature and judge their suitability.
>
$o study the effect of fire e%posure on individual structural elements, they #ere subjected
to standard fire test, #hich does not ta!e into account the cooling phase. $he present
study also focuses on sho#ing the importance of cooling phase. Another important point
is that one cannot al#ays resort to testing actual structural members to observe their
performance under a particular fire scenario. In the age of advanced computational
technology, computational methods prove supreme to model the job mathematically. $his
modelling may be done either by using commercially available finite element analysis
pac!ages or generating customized computer program. &ut the most important job lies in
validating the modelling technique and the results obtained from these computational
methods.
$he present #or! aims at revie#ing various aspects of modelling and their consequences
using commercially available ,'A pac!age A&A./ v D.G.
%., AMS AND GOALS
i. "onducting the complete thermal stress analysis (> phase problem* using
A&A./.
ii. 0etermination of the suitability of e%isting thermal properties for different
concrete (based on aggregate type and strength*.
iii. -odelling of structural elements and simulation of fire in A&A./ for
conducting sequentially coupled thermal analysis and stress analysis.
iv. Analyzing different #ays of modelling fire e%posure.
v. tudying the effect of moisture content on prediction of thermal profile.
vi. "omparative study of unconfined and confined concrete models.
vii. Analyzing the response of structural elements e%posed to fire during heating and
cooling phase and comparing them #ith available e%perimental results from
literature.
%.2 METHODOLOG*
i. Li0era03re revie4, developing a database of the e%perimental results and material
properties available in the literature for reinforced concrete subjected to elevated
temperature.
ii. Deve56p7en0 68 )D S0r3/03ra5 76de59 of +" elements considered for analysis
using A&A./.
<
iii. Si735a0i6n 68 8ire scenarios for +" elements on A&A./.
iv. Carrying 630 0her7a5 ana5y9i9 on structural elements using different sets of
thermal properties and study the suitability of different thermal properties for
different concrete (&ased on strength @ormal strength concrete(@"*)2igh
strength concrete (2"* and aggregate type iliceous)"alcareous*
v. Carrying 630 90re99 ana5y9i9 using results obtained in thermal analysis using
suitable material properties (for heating phase and cooling phase*.
vi. Re93509 and /6n/539i6n9, based on the results obtained from analysis, the
response of structural elements (beams and columns* e%posed to fire #ill be
discussed in detail.
%.: ORGANSATON O" DSSERTATON
Chap0er$& ;Li0era03re Revie4<
$his chapter briefly discusses about the available literature on effect of fire (elevated
temperature* on concrete)+" elements. It aims at presenting the variation in material
properties (mechanical properties* available in literature. It also e%plains in detail the
stress1strain relationships used to carry out the thermal stress analysis.
Chap0er$) ;Ther7a5 Ana5y9i9<
$his chapter highlights the variation in thermal properties available in literature. It also
aims at presenting a comparative study regarding the suitability of thermal properties for
different concretes. $he effect of boundary conditions and moisture content has also been
presented.
Chap0er$+ ;S0re99 Ana5y9i9<
$his chapter deals #ith the various aspects involved in carrying out a temperature
dependent stress analysis. It uses the thermal profiles predicted in chapter1<. It presents
results sho#ing the effect of fire scenario, load level, and concrete models (unconfined
concrete)confined concrete)preloaded concrete*.
Chap0er$, ;C6n/539i6n9<
ummarise the conclusion dra#n from the results presented in chapter1< & A. It also
gives recommendation for further studies in the area of +" elements subjected to fire.
A
&
LTERAT#RE RE'EW
O-.e/0ive1$ An overvie# of e%isting literature on effect of fire)elevated
temperature on concrete)+" elements.
CHAPTER ( &
LTERAT#RE RE'EW
&.% GENERAL
$he literature available can be broadly classified into < categories; fire parameters, effect
of elevated temperature on properties (thermal, mechanical and structural* of materials,
and effect of fire on structural components.
"onsiderable amount of #or! has been accomplished on material properties at elevated
temperatures, Anderberg and $helandersson (?GED*
G
, -alhotra (?GH>*
EA
, chneider
(?GHH*
H=
, 0iederichs (?GHE*, ,res!a!is (?GHA*
>D
, :ie (?GG>*, 5hennae and &a!er (?GG<*
C<
,
5houry (?GGC*
CA
, @eves et.al. (?GGD*
<?
, $erro (?GGH*
HE
, Phan1"arino (?GGH*
EH
, :uo et al.
(>===*
E>
, "heng et al. (>==A*
?G
, Abramo#icz1et al. (>==C*
A
, Pur!iss (>==C*
E=
, @assif
(>==D*
EE
, Bussef and -oftah (>==E*
G?
, :ee et al. (>==H*
D>
, &ingol16ul (>==G*
?
, chneider
et al. (>==G*
H>
, 5naac!1et al. (>=?=*
D
, -asoud1et al. (>=?=*
EC
etc.
:iterature contains lot of results for individual structural elements subjected to standard
furnace)fire test, :in et al. (?GH?*
DH
, 0otreppe et al. (?GHC*
>?
, :ie et al. (?GG<*
D<
, 2a#ary et
al. (?GGD*
ED
, 5odur et al. (>==<*
CD, HG
, A 5umar et al. (>==A*
>
, 2eiza et al. (>==C*
>G
, 2us et
al. (>==D*
<=
, 5odur et al. (>==D*
CC
, 0#ai!at et al. (>==G*
><
, "hen et al. (>==G*
?C
, :i%ian
(>=?=*
?C
, Iu et al. (>=?=*
?D
, etc
Table 2.1:- Various stages of heating phase.
tage Probable effects
On heating
i. +ise in surface temperature
ii. 2eat transfer from surface to the
interior of concrete
iii. 2eat transfer from concrete to
reinforcement
urface crac!ing
:oss of strength, crac!ing and spalling
+eduction of yield strength, possible
buc!ling and deflection increases.
Table 2.1 sho#s the effect of fire on +"" structures during heating phase. $he cooling
phase is considered equally important due to the fact that the pea! temperature in a
member is reached during cooling phase. 2ence, cooling phase may yield failure in +"
C
members. Fig. 2.1 sho#s the change in surface te%ture of concrete on e%posure to high
temperatures up to ?>==
=
" LOmer, >==EM
??
Fig. 2.1:-Surface texture of the concrete sample exposed to elevated temperatures.
&.& S CODE PRO'SONS "OR "RE RESSTANCE
Indian tandards for fire safety)resistance are prescriptive codes introduced long bac! in
?GH=8s. $hese codes need revision to account for current building practices. Table 2.2 lists
various Indian standards for fire safety of general buildings.L<A, <C, A=1AEM
I; ?DA?1?GHH defines fire load as heat in !ilocalories #hich is liberated per sq. m. of
floor area. $his amount of heat is used as the basis for classification of occupancies. It
also defines < types of fire zones, #hich are basically groups of different types of
buildings (classified on based on occupancy*. I; ?DA>1?GHG classifies type of
construction according to fire resistance into A categories namely type ?, type >, type <
and type A.$he code also enlists fire resistance ratings for various type of construction
and building elements (#alls, beams, column etc*. It also enlists minimum dimensions of
building elements for different fire resistance. @&";>==C Part1 A provides the criterion
for limit state of insulation. It states that on an une%posed face ma%imum temperature
D
should not e%ceed ?H=
=
" at any location on the face and average temperature of the face
should not e%ceed ?C=
=
". I; <H=G1?GEG describes the procedures for conducting
standard fire resistance tests. Indian standard for +" design of buildings (general* I;
ACD1>=== ensures fire safety of structure by laying guidelines regarding the minimum
dimension and cover requirements for various fire rating (duration* of columns, beams
and floors.
Table 2.2:- ist of various !S codes related to fire safet" of buildings #$eneral%
I ?DA?;?GHH
"ode of practice for fire safety of buildings (6eneral*; 6eneral
principles of fire grading and classification
I ?DA>;?GHG
,ire safety of buildings (6eneral*; 0etails of construction1code of
practice
I ?DA<;?GHH
"ode of practice for fire safety of buildings (6eneral*; '%posure
hazards
I ?DAA;?GHH
"ode of practice for fire safety of buildings (6eneral*; '%it
requirements and personal hazard
I ?DAD;?GGE
"ode of practice for fire safety of buildings (6eneral*; 'lectrical
installation
I <H=H;?GEG -ethod of test for non1combustibility of building materials
I <H=G;?GEG ,ire resistance test of structures
"ode of practice for fire safety of special)particular buildings and institutions li!e
industrial buildings, temporary structures, libraries, hotels, educational institutions had
also been introduced in ?GG=8s L<>, <<, <D1<G, AGM
&.) E""ECT O" HGH TEMPERAT#RE ON CONCRETE
"oncrete is a heterogeneous material #ith variation in material types, problem due to
spalling, and greater comple%ity in material modelling. $he thermal properties of
concrete and the dimensions of concrete structural elements lead to the development of
high temperature gradients, #hich may or may not influence the ultimate load bearing
capacity, and it is necessary in many cases to carry out a stress analysis in more or less
detail. A realistic model of concrete in compression is also more complicated due to the
influence of the stress history on its behaviour, #hich must be ta!en into account.
$he principal effect of fire on concrete are; loss of compressive strength, crac!ing and
spalling. $hough a lot of information has been gathered on these phenomenons, there
remains a need for more systematic studies on the effects of thermal e%posures. $he
E
response of concrete structures subjected to realistic fires is a great challenge due to the
intricacies of structural elements. Initial heating rates can be more rapid and all real fires
have a distinct cooling phase both of these conditions are recognised to impose additional
stress on in1situ structures. $hus there e%ist obvious gaps in !no#ledge of the true
behaviour of concrete structures in fire.
$he e%tent of strength loss depends on the follo#ing conditions;L5odur et al., >=?=M
CE
i. $ype of e%posure (duration, number. of faces and percentage of e%posure*.
'%posure to a severe fire generally leaves evidence of significant structural
damage such as noticeable spalling, e%posed reinforcement and relatively
large deformations #hereas e%posure to mild fire causes minor spalling and
unnoticeable deflections.
ii. $ype of concrete (strength, aggregate type etc*
iii. :oading (level of initial load before and during e%posure to fire*.
$he behaviour of a fire e%posed +" element depends on;
i. Internal temperature e%perienced,
ii. :oad level during the fire,
iii. "ooling regime, rate of cooling,
iv. trength recovery duration follo#ing cooling.
,ollo#ing conclusions can be dra#n after a detailed study of e%perimental results
available in the literature L>, C, ><, CD, CE, D=, DE, DHM
2" beams have lo#er fire resistance @" beams,
$ype of fire scenario, a%ial restraint and load level have significant influence on
the overall fire resistance of +" beams,
2" has faster degradation of strength and stiffness at elevated temperature,
Permeability and load ratio plays significant role in spalling of concrete,
:o#er load level leads to higher fire resistance,
-a%imum temperature #ithin the +" elements is not necessarily found during the
heating phase i.e., temperature inside an element !eep rising for some time even
after the furnace temperature starts to fall.
&.).% Spa55ing 68 C6n/re0e
H
palling is one of the most comple% and hence poorly understood behaviour of concrete
e%posed to high temperatures)fires. $his phenomenon involves e%plosive ejection of
chun!s of concrete from the surface of the material. Ihile spalling can occur in all types
of concrete #hen subjected to rapid heating, 2" (characterised by lo# permeability* is
more susceptible to fire induced spalling than @". ,ire induced spalling in concrete
structures have been observed both in laboratory tests and practical conditions. At present
there is very limited information on #ays to incorporate spalling in fire resistance
calculations L0#ai!at et al., >==GM
>>
. palling has the effect of reducing cross1sectional
areas of the structural members and increase heat transmission to reinforcement. $hus
may lead to significant degradation in strength and stiffness.
$here are t#o broad theories on #hich the phenomena of spalling may be e%plained;
&ressure build-up; palling is believed to be caused by the build1up of pore
pressure during heating. 2" is believed to be more susceptible to this pressure
build1up than @" because of its lo# permeability. $he e%tremely high #ater
vapour pressure, generated during e%posure to fire cannot escape due to the high
density (and lo# permeability* of 2". Ihen the pore pressure e%ceeds the
tensile strength of concrete, tensile fracture may occur in the concrete, #hich
leads in disintegration of concrete layers (segments* from the structural member.
$his disintegration is often e%plosive in nature depending on fire and concrete
characteristics.
'estrained thermal dilatation; $his hypothesis considers that spalling results from
restrained thermal dilatation close to the heated surface, #hich leads to the
development of compressive stresses parallel to the heated surface. $hese
compressive stresses are released by brittle fractures of concrete (spalling*. $he
pore pressure can play a significant role in the onset of instability in the form of
e%plosive thermal spalling.
2o#ever, spalling is mainly caused by build1up of pore pressure. Other mechanisms may
indirectly affect the pore pressure build1up and temperature dependent tensile strength of
concrete. 0#ai!at et at. (>==G*
>>
have sho#n that permeability, tensile strength of
concrete and heating rate has significant influence on fire1induced spalling in concrete
#hereas relative humidity has a marginal influence on fire1induced spalling in concrete.
G
$he reason for 2" being more prone to e%plosive spalling may be understood via Fig.
2.2 L0eai!at et al., >==GM
>>
. It sho#s that #ith increase in initial permeability of concrete
the pore pressure developed during fire becomes severe. :imited literature is available on
variation of permeability, void ratio and porosity #ith temperature. LE, >C, C=, C>, E?, HD,
HHM
Fig. 2.2:-&ore pressure prediction for different values of initial permeabilit".
Fig. 2.(:-)odulus of elasticit" for different concretes at elevated temperatures.
?=
&.).& M6d3539 68 E5a90i/i0y.
,or all concretes, the modulus of elasticity decreases #ith increase in temperature.
chneider et. al. (?GH?*
H?
via his e%periments concluded that the modulus of elasticity is
significantly influenced by the type of aggregate #hereas the original strength and the
type of cement have trivial influence. $est conditions have a great influence; a sustained
stress during heating affects the modulus of elasticity significantly. Fig 2.( sho#s the
percent degradation in modulus of elasticity #ith temperature. Boussef et al (>==E*
G?
conducted a comparative study of available models and sho#ed a significant scattering of
the e%perimental results.
&.).) C6n/re0e C67pre99ive S0reng0h
A number of models e%ist in the literature that estimates the compressive strength of
concrete at elevated temperature, f
cT
. $hese models are based on the e%perimental results
of compressive strength tests done on concrete specimens heated to pre1specified
temperatures. 'ffect of elevated temperature on concrete is studied by conducting <
different types of tests;
i. tressed test; In this test the specimen is loaded to a predefined stress level.
$hen the temperature is increased to desired level maintained for some time
and the specimen is then loaded to failure at that temperature.
ii. /nstressed test; In this test the specimen is heated to a specific temperature,
maintained for some time (to attain steady state of heat transfer*. $hen the
specimen is loaded to failure at that temperature.
iii. /nstressed residual test;1 $he specimen is heated to the desired temperature
and then cooled do#n to ambient temperature and then loaded to failure.
,irst t#o tests give properties of concrete at elevated temperature i.e, properties to be
used #hile carrying out stress analysis during fire. $he third test gives the residual
properties of concrete after e%posure to fire. $hese properties are useful for !no#ing the
level of retrofitting or strengthening required.
Amongst #or! reported in the literature, discrepancies e%ist because of dissimilar heating
rates, specimen sizes, shapes and loading configuration. Fig. 2.* #a% + #b% sho#s the
variation of compressive strength #ith temperature for normal strength concrete and high
strength concrete L5odur et al., >==HM
CG
.
??
Fig. 2.*#a%:- Variation of compressive strength ,ith temperature for normal strength
concrete.
Fig. 2.*#b%:- Variation of compressive strength ,ith temperature for high strength
concrete.
?>
$he residual properties of concrete after e%posure to high temperature depends on many
factors li!e the duration of e%posure, rate of cooling, method of cooling etc. Fig. 2.-
sho#s the variation in residual strength of concrete #ith temperature L?=, ?A, ?C, ?H, >=,
ECM.
Fig. 2.-:- Variation of residual compressive strength ,ith temperature for concrete.
(N1 Air cooled, O1 Iater cooled*
&.+ STRESS$STRAN RELATONSHP "OR CONCRETE AT ELE'ATED
TEMPERAT#RE
Farious difficulties #ith concrete are variation in material types, problem due to spalling
and comple%ity in material modelling. $he thermal properties of concrete and the
dimensions of concrete structures cause high temperature gradients, #hich may or may
not influence the ultimate load bearing capacity, and it is necessary in many cases to carry
out a stress analysis in more or less detail. A realistic model of concrete in compression is
also more complicated due to the influence of the stress history on its behaviour, #hich
must be ta!en into account.
6enerally, the constitutive model for concrete under high temperature may be e%pressed
as follo#s;
*
P
*, ( *, ( ( t T t
(>.?*
?<
Ihere,
$otal strain at time t
tress
T $emperature

P
tress history
An adequate formulation of the model is obtained if the total strain is seen as the sum of
four different strain components; free thermal strain (
th

*, creep strain (
cr

*, transient
strain (
tr

* and instantaneous stress related strain (

*.
* , ( * , , ( * , ( * ( T t T T T
tr cr th


+ + +
(>.>*

$otal strain

"orresponding stress
T $emperature
t
$ime
N $hermal strain, including shrin!age, measured on unstressed specimens under variable
temperature. ,ree thermal strain is due to change of temperature. $raditionally it is
e%pressed by a linear function of temperature.
*, (
=
T T
th

(>.<*
Ihere,

is the thermal e%pansion coefficient and $

=
is the initial temperature. ,or
concrete #ith siliceous or carbonate aggregate,

can be ta!en equal to ?H Q ?=

1D
or ?> Q
?=
1D
per
=
", respectively to conduct appro%imate calculations. :ie (?GG>* proposed
follo#ing relationship for concrete #ith siliceous or carbonate aggregate.

. #/.//0 T 1 2% 3 1/
-2
(>.A*
Ihere, $ R temperature in
=
".
N Instantaneous stress related strain is due to e%ternally applied stresses. It is based on
stress1strain curves obtained under constant stabilized temperature.
N "reep strain; time dependent strain recorded under constant stress at constant stabilized
temperature.
N $ransient strain, accounts for the effect of temperature increase under stress, derived
from tests under constant stress and variable temperature. It only occurs on heating during
the first cycle. At very early stages of heating, transient strain is insignificant, but as the
?A
e%posure time increases the effect of ignoring transient strain progressively increases and
produces unconservative estimates of load carrying capacity.
'ach of the strain components is connected to and correlated #ith a specified type of test.
Fig. 2.2 sho#s the load and temperature variation #ith time for different tests to compute
different strain components.
Fig. 2.2:- Tests for computing the various strain components.
/nli!e the free thermal strain, #hich is a function of temperature, the creep, transient and
instantaneous stress related strains are functions of the stress, temperature and time. $his
ma!es it quite difficult to separate them during an e%periment. $herefore, some of the
e%isting models use only t#o strainsKstress1induced strain and transient creep strain,
#hich includes both the transient and creep strains. Ihile in other models all the three
strains are considered as a single strain.
?C
Primitive research in this field #as carried out by Anderberg and $helandresson (?GED*
G
but the basis of their analysis #as questioned by chneider (?GH?*
H?
. An alternative
approach based on Anderberg and $helandersson for calculating the transient strain #as
proposed by 0iederichs (?GHE*. ,res!a!is (?GHA*
>D
also studied the behaviour of
reinforced concrete at elevated temperature using -oment curvature relations and
proposed lo#er and upper bound stress1strain curves. :ie (?GG>* conducted some
e%periment on steel fibre reinforced concrete and proposed some stress1strain relations.
5houry (?GGC*
CA
proposed different component for strain (strain model* after his studies
on concrete for nuclear reactors, he introduced the term :I$ (:oad induced thermal
strain*. :ater, $erro (?GGH*
HE
proposed a model using the strain model given by 5houry.
5hennae and &a!er (?GG<*
C<
proposed plasticity model using strain rate formulation.
+ecently fe# more stress1strain models #ere proposed by :i and Pur!iss (>==C*
E=
, Bussef
and -oftah (>==E*
G?
and thermal induced train model by chneider /., chneider -.
and ,rassen (>==G*
H>
.
Out of various stress1strain relationships, those #hich #ere used for carrying out the
thermal stress analysis have been e%plained in detail. $he stress1strain relationships
proposed in 'urocode>
>A
and stress1strain relationship for confined concrete by Boussef et
al (>==E*
G?
have been discussed in this chapter. (,or more details on other stress1strain
constitutive models refer seminar report Stress stain constitutive models for concrete at
elevated temperatureT, August >=?= LD?M*. 'urocode>
>A
constitutive model for stress1
strain relationship has been considered because of its simplicity and #ide acceptance over
other available models.
&.+.% S0re99$S0rain Re5a0i6n9hip a9 per E3r6/6de&
$he proposed values of strength are based on steady state as #ell as transient state test
and sometimes a combination of both. $he model does not consider creep effect
e%plicitly. It is applicable for heating rates bet#een > and C= 5)min. $he strength and
deformation properties of unia%ially stressed concrete under compression at elevated
temperatures are obtained from the stress1strain relationships as sho#n in Fig. 2.4. $he
values for each of the parameters sho#n in Fig. 2.4 are given in Table. 2.(, for
intermediate values of temperature, linear interpolation may be used.
?D
$he reduction of the characteristic tensile strength of concrete is allo#ed for by the
coefficient 5
c,t
(*.
F
c!,t
(* . 5
c,t
(* f
c!,t
,#here f
c!,t
is characteristic tensile strength at ambient temperature.
6
c7t
#% . 17/ for >=
=
" U J U ?==
=
"
5
c,t
(* R ?,= K ?,= ( 1?==*)C== for ?==
=
" V J U D==
=
"
Ihere, R temperature in
=
"
Fig. 2.0 sho#s the variation of coefficient 5
c,t
(* #ith temperature.
Fig. 2.4:- )athematical model for stress strain-relationships of concrete under
compression at elevated temperature as per 8urocode2.
Table 2.(:- Values for the main parameters of the stress-strain relationships of normal
,eight concrete at elevated temperature as per 8urocode2
"oncrete
temp.
iliceous aggregate "alcareous aggregate
=
" f
c,J
) f
c!
W
c?,J
W
cu?,J
f
c,J
) f
c!
W
c?,J
W
cu?,J
>= ?.== =.==>C =.=>== ?.== =.==>C =.=>==
?== ?.== =.==A= =.=>>C ?.== =.==A= =.=>>C
>== =.GC =.==CC =.=>C= =.GE =.==CC =.=>C=
<== =.HC =.==E= =.=>EC =.G? =.==E= =.=>EC
?E
A== =.EC =.=?== =.=<== =.HC =.=?== =.=<==
C== =.D= =.=?C= =.=<>C =.EA =.=?C= =.=<>C
D== =.AC =.=>C= =.=<C= =.D= =.=>C= =.=<C=
E== =.<= =.=>C= =.=<EC =.A< =.=>C= =.=<EC
H== =.?C =.=>C= =.=A== =.>E =.=>C= =.=A==
G== =.=H =.=>C= =.=A>C =.?C =.=>C= =.=A>C
?=== =.=A =.=>C= =.=AC= =.=D =.=>C= =.=AC=
??== =.=? =.=>C= =.=AEC =.=> =.=>C= =.=AEC
?>== =.== 1 1 =.== 1 1
Fig. 2.0:- Coefficient 5
c7t
#9% for decreasing tensile strength of concrete at elevated
temperature as per 8urocode2
&.+.& S0re99$S0rain Re5a0i6n9hip 86r C6n8ined C6n/re0e =*6399e8 e0 a5, &>>:?
It is !no#n that the effect of elevated temperatures involves decreasing concrete strength
and increasing the strain value corresponding to it but its effects on the stress1strain
relationship of confined concrete are not fully understood. "onfinement is e%pected to be
affected because of the degradation in bond bet#een the reinforcing bars and the
surrounding concrete, and due to reduction in yield stress of steel reinforcing bars.
It8s a #ell !no#n fact that at ambient temperature the behaviour of concrete under
compression is greatly affected by the degree of confinement provided by the transverse
reinforcement and many models e%ists in the literature li!e -anders model, 5ent and
?H
Par! model, cott et al model etc. "onfinement has slight effect on pea! stress value and
significant on the descending branch of the stress1strain relationship.
Boussef et al (>==E*
G?
considered t#o stress1strain models for confined concrete and
modified them for elevated temperatures by replacing the parameters #ith temperature
dependent parameters available in literature. $he constitutive models at ambient
temperature modified #ere those of cott et al. and -ander et al. -odified cott et al
model has been used for carrying out the thermal stress analysis and hence has been
e%plained in detail. Fig. 2.: sho#s the stress1strain relationship and various parameters.
Fig. 2.::- Stress-strain relationship for confined concrete #Scott et al.%
Farious equations for the parameters sho#n in Fig. 2.: and their nomenclature are as
stated belo#.
(>.C*
(>.D*
f
c$
R "oncrete compressive stress at elevated temperature,
cT
f

R "oncrete compressive strength at elevated temperature,
W
c$
R "oncrete strain at elevated temperature,
(>.E*
(>.H*
?G
(>.G*
(>.?=*
h
S h
S
h
EC . =
C=
, (>.??*
,or calculating the compressive strength of concrete at elevated temperature, 2ertz model
#as used #hich recognised the variation of compressive strength #ith type of aggregate.
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +

DA
DA
H
H
>
> ?
?
?
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
f f
c cT (>.?>*
Ihere,
c
f

is concrete compressive strength at ambient temperature, $ is temperature in
X
=
" and $
?
, $
>
, $
H,
and $
DA
are constants dependent on type of aggregate. Table 2.* lists the
values for these constants. 2ertz also proposed that the decrease in the rate of decay of
concrete strength due to preloading could be accounted by using a multiplication factor of
?.>C for initial stress of =.>C f
"
.
Table 2.* Values of constants for ;ert< )odel
Aggregate type $
?
$
>
$
H
$
DA
iliceous ?C,=== H== CE= ?==,===
:ight#eight ?==,=== ??== H== GA=
Other ?==,=== ?=H>= DG= ?===
W
o$
R train at ma%imum stress of unconfined concrete at elevated temperature,
,or calculating the value of this strain corresponding to ma%imum stress of unconfined
concrete $erro8s model #as used. It ta!es into account the initial compressive stress level
Y.
* ( > * ( ?
>
* ( =
*. ? ?= ( C *. C ( >= *. ? C *( ? ?= ( * , (
T u T u T u u
T + +
(>.?<*
Ihere,
$ R $emperature in
=
"

* ( = T u

>.=C Q ?=
1<
3 <.=H Q ?=
1D
. $ 3 D.?E Q ?=
1G
. $
>
3 D.CH Q ?=
1?>
. $
<

* ( ? T u

>.=< Q ?=
1<
3 ?.>E Q ?=
1D
. $ 3 >.?E Q ?=
1G
. $
>
3 ?.DA Q ?=
1?>
. $
<

* ( > T u

=.==>
W
tr
R $ransient creep strain,
>=
$he model proposed by Anderberg and $helandersson #as used for calculating
the transient creep strains.
5
h$
R "onfinement factor at elevated temperature,
Z

R +atio of the volume of transverse reinforcement to the volume of concrete core

measured to outside of the transverse reinforcement,
f
y$
R Bield strength of reinforcing bars at elevated temperatures,
0egradation suggested by 'urocode> for yield strength of reinforcing steel #as
used,
W
o$c
R train at ma% stress of confined concrete at elevated temperature,
W
oc
R train at ma%imum stress for confined concrete at ambient temperature,
W
C=u$
R train component that ta!es into account effect of concrete strength on the slope
of the descending branch of unconfined concrete at elevated temperature,
c
f

R "oncrete compressive strength at ambient temperature,
W
C=h
R train component that gives the additional ductility due to rectangular transverse
reinforcement,
h R Iidth of the concrete core measured to outside of the transverse reinforcement,

h
R "enter to center spacing of the transverse reinforcement,
[ R lope of the decaying branch of the concrete stress1strain curve.
&., CONSTT#T'E MODEL COMPARSON
$his section presents a comparison bet#een stress1strain relationships from 'urocode>,
confined concrete model proposed by Boussef et al., and unconfined concrete model
generated using Boussef et al. model ta!ing confinement factor as ?. Fig. 2.1/ sho#s the
confined concrete model and unconfined concrete model based on Boussef et al. tress1
strain curves #ere generated for concrete having a compressive strength of C>.> -Pa at
ambient temperature. $he yield strength of transverse reinforcing steel #as >H= -Pa at
ambient temperature.
>?
Fig. 2.1/:- Confined and unconfined concrete stress-strain plot
("1 "onfined concrete model9 /1 /nconfined concrete model*
,ollo#ing observations #ere made from the stress1strain plots for both the models under
consideration (ref. Fig. 2.11%;1
i. $he pea! stress level estimated using model proposed by Boussef et al. for
confined concrete #ere higher than those computed using 'urocode> model
upto a temperature of D==
=
" (this should be there since Boussef et al.8s
model is for confined concrete * after #hich it gives values lo#er than that
of 'urocode>.
ii. ,or the strain at the end of the descending branch, up to temperature of C==
=
" the difference bet#een t#o models is significant and after C==
=
" the
values are more or less equal.
iii. It is very clear from these figures (Fig. 2.11 #a%7 #b% + #c%* that same base
model for confined and unconfined concrete needs to be chosen in order to
study the effect of confinement on the behaviour of +" elements.
iv. $he decaying branch of the stress1strain curve as per 'urocode> is less steep
as compared to Boussef et al.8s model.
>>
#a% For temperature from 1//
/
C to *//
/
C
#b% For temperature from -//
/
C to 4//
/
C
><
#c% For temperature from 0//
/
C to 11//
/
C
Fig 2.11:- Comparison of constitutive models #=oussef et al. and 8urocode2%
('@ K 'urocode>, " K "onfined concrete as per Boussef et al*
>A
)
THERMAL ANAL*SS
O-.e/0ive1$ ?. "omparative study regarding the suitability of e%isting thermal
properties for different concrete (trength & Aggregate type*.
>. ho# the effect of boundary condition and moisture content on
results of thermal analysis.
CHAPTER ( )
THERMAL ANAL*SS
).% GENERAL
In building, structural members are to be designed to satisfy the requirement for
serviceability and safety limit states. One of the major safety requirements in the building
design is the provision of appropriate fire safety measures for structural members.
$he thermal stress analysis is a t#o phase process i.e., in first phase conducting time1
dependent heat transfer analysis in #hich temperature distributions at various time stages
are calculated and in the second phase of analysis #e use the temperature distributions
obtained in phase one to carry out the stress analysis. ince the temperature is time1
dependent, the thermal stress is also time1dependent.
$he fire safety measures for structural members are measured in terms of fire resistance.
,ire resistance is defined as the duration during #hich a structural member e%hibits
resistance #ith respect to structural integrity, stability, and temperature transmission
under fire conditions. $he fire resistance of a structural member depends on the geometry,
the materials used in construction, the load intensity, and the characteristics of the fire
e%posure itself.
$he fire resistance calculation is performed in three steps namely;1
?* $he calculations of the temperatures of the fire, to #hich the structural element is
e%posed,
>* $he temperature in the structural element and,
<* $he calculation of the resulting deformation and strength, i.e. a stress analysis using
the output of step >.
$his chapter aims at;1
(?* &riefly discussing the first step of sequentially coupled thermal analysis i.e. heat
transfer analysis (first and second step in calculating the fire resistance as stated above*,
(>* "omparing the thermal properties available in literature for concrete,
(<* Presenting the results of heat transfer analysis carried out for different structural
elements using different thermal properties (using A&A./*
>C
(A* Falidating the thermal analysis results (by comparing #ith e%perimental results*,
(C* ho#ing the variation of thermal gradients during heating and cooling.
).& THERMAL PROPERTES
$he temperature dependent thermal properties of concrete and reinforcing steel are
important for understanding the fire response of +" structure. $hese properties include;
a* thermal conductivity9 b* specific heat. $hermal properties determine the e%tent of heat
transfer inside the material. $hey influence the temperature rise and distribution in a
concrete structural section. ,urther, the variation at high temperatures is quite sensitive to
small changes in concrete ingredients and environmental conditions. ,or e%ample they
vary #ith type of aggregate, humidity, temperature rise etc.
).&.% Ther7a5 Pr6per0ie9 68 C6n/re0e
:imited formulations for the thermal properties of different types of concrete (normal and
high strength concrete* at elevated temperature are available in literature L>A, CH, ?>M.
:imited e%perimental data for these properties of concrete are also available LCA, DD, E<,
HAM. $hese formulation are tabulated in Table (.1
Table (.1:- Constitutive relationships for thermal properties of concrete.
$hermal capacity (pecific "onductivity*
($hermal capacity R Z Q c*
$hermal conductivity
'@?GG>1?1>;>==A
(@" and 2"* L>AM
All types of aggregate;
cRG==, for >=
=
"U$U?==
=
"
cRG==3($1?==*, for ?==
=
"V$U>==
=
"
cRG==3($1>==*)>, for >==
=
"V$UA==
=
"
cR??==, for A==
=
"V$U?>==
=
"
0ensity change;
Z R Z(>=
=
"*, initial density
for >=
=
"U$U??C
=
"
Z R Z(>=
=
"*(?1=.=>($1??C*)HC*,
for ??C
=
"U$U>==
=
"
Z R Z(>=
=
"*(=.GH1=.=<($1>==*)>==*,
for >==
=
"U$UA==
=
"
Z R Z(>=
=
"*(=.GC1=.=E($1A==*)H==*,
for A==
=
"U$U?>==
=
"
All types of aggregate;
/pper limit1
! R > K =.>AC?($)?==* 3 =.=?=E($)?==*
>
for >=
=
"V$U?>==
=
"
:o#er limit1
! R ?.<D 1=.?<D($)?==* 3 =.==CA($)?==*
>
for >=
=
"V$U?>==
=
"
5odur et al.LCHM iliceous aggregate concrete; iliceous aggregate concrete;
>D
(2"*

'

+

C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
T
T
T
c
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
D
D
D
D
D
?=== D==
D== C==
C== A==
A== >==
>== >=
?= E . >
?= * =?< . = C . ?= (
?= * C . > =?< . = (
?= E . >
?= * E . ? ==C . = (

"arbonate aggregate concrete;

'

+


+

C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
T
T
T
T
c
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
D
D
D
D
D
D
?=== H==
H== E<C
E<C DC=
DC= AEC
AEC A==
A== >=
?= >
?= * A . >?> >D< . = (
?= * ?? . ?>= ?HGA . = (
?= * >GC . D =?A< . = (
?= * HC . ?> =>D . = (
?= AC . >

! R =.HC(> K =.==??$*,
for >=
=
"V$U?===
=
"
"arbonate aggregate concrete;
! R =.HC(> K =.==?<$*
for >=
=
"U$U<==
=
"
! R =.HC(>.>? K =.==>$*
for <==
=
"V$
A"'
manual ?GG>
(@"* L?>M
iliceous aggregate concrete;

'

+

T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
T
T
T
c

=
= =
= =
= =
= =
D
D
D
D
D
D==
D== C==
C== A==
A== >==
>== >=
?= E . >
?= * =?< . = C . ?= (
?= * C . > =?< . = (
?= E . >
?= * E . ? ==C . = (

"arbonate aggregate concrete;

'

T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
C T C
T
T
T
T
T
c

=
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
EHC
EHC E?C
E?C D<C
D<C C==
C== AAC
AAC A?=
A?= A==
A== >=
?= CDD . >
?= * >>?<= . = =E<A< . ?ED (
?= * G=>>C . ?== ?DD<C . = (
?= * AAHH? . C =?D=< . = (
?= CDD . >
?= * =C=A< . = ==DE? . >C (
?= * =<A . DH ?EDC . = (
?= CDD . >

iliceous aggregate concrete;

! R 1=.===D>C$3?.C,
for >=
=
"U$UH==
=
"
! R ?.=
for H==
=
"V$
"arbonate aggregate concrete;
! R ?.<CC
for >=
=
"U$U>G<
=
"
! R 1=..==?>A?$3?.E?D>
for >G<
=
"V$
@"1@ormal strength concrete9 2"12igh strength concrete9
Z1density (!g)m
<
*9 !1thermal conductivity (I)m sec.
=
"*9 c1specific heat (4)!g
=
"*
,rom Table (.1 it may be noted that the 'urocode> relationships for thermal properties
are temperature dependent only, #ere as A"' e%pressions are dependent on temperature
and the type of aggregate also. A"' models applicable to @" only, have been e%tended
by 5odur et al. (>==<*
CH
for 2" also based upon his e%perimental studies. In addition,
'urocode> suggests some modification in specific heat evaluation based on the moisture
>E
content as sho#n in Fig.(.1. 'urocode> recommends these values to be used if the
moisture content is not considered e%plicitly in the numerical algorithm.
Fig. (.2 + (.( depict the variation in the thermal conductivity and the specific heat #ith
respect to temperature using various models, listed above, for thermal properties of
concrete. It is apparent that the aggregate type has significant influence on thermal
properties of concrete.
Fig. (.1:- Specific heat as a function of temperature at ( different moisture contents7 as
per 8urocode #8>1::2-1-2:2//*%
>H
($he type of concrete mentioned in the brac!ets is that for #hich the formulating agency recommends the model to be applicable*.
Fig. (.2:- Variation of thermal conductivit" of different t"pes of concrete as predicted b"
various constitutive models
($he type of concrete mentioned in the brac!ets is that for #hich the formulating agency recommends the model to be applicable*.
Fig. (.(:- Variation of specific heat of different t"pes of concrete as predicted b" various
constitutive models.
>G
2o#ever, Fig. (.( sho#s that specific heat e%cept in the temperature range of A==
=
" to
H==
=
" is nearly same, approaching appro%imately a value of ?=== 4)!g
=
". 'urocode>
does not predict much variation in specific heat.
).&.& Ther7a5 Pr6per0ie9 68 S0ee5
teel, in general, is considered to be highly conductive. teel may be structural or
reinforcing, most of the codes or studies give thermal properties of structural steel. It is
also seen that reinforcement in concrete members influences only a small area. ince, it
occupies only a small portion of the section. :ie and Ir#in LDCM have sho#n that the
differences in temperature in the concrete and in the embedded steel reinforcement at
contact are small. 2ence, the temperature of reinforcement is considered to be equal to
the concrete temperature at that location. -ost of the available literature deals only #ith
thermal properties of concrete. $he modelling of heat transfer available in literature L><,
CE, D=, DE, H<M follo#s the above mentioned assumption and during stress analysis, it
gives the temperature of reinforcement equal to average temperature of concrete at that
location. In spite of this assumption (valid only for the length for #hich the concrete is
e%posed to fire scenario during the test*, during the analysis to ta!e into account the heat
flo# along the length of the reinforcement follo#ing thermal properties for reinforcing
steel #ere used LC?M as sho#n in Fig. (.* #a% + #b% #hich are similar to those specified by
'urocode>. $he density of steel is ta!en as EHC= !g)m
<
.

<=
Fig. (.*#a%:- Variation of thermal conductivit" ,ith temperature for rebar
Fig. (.*#b%:- Variation of specific heat ,ith temperature for rebar
).) ANAL*TCAL ST#DES
+elevant e%perimental studies on beams and columns #ere pic!ed from literature and the
test conditions #ere simulated in A&A./ for observing the temperature profiles using
different constitutive models for thermal properties. $he results obtained from A&A./
#ere than compared #ith the results from available e%periments and simulation (for same
e%perimental problem9 if available* to observe the effect of variations in constitutive
models. Table (.2 lists the various e%perimental details pic!ed from literature for study.
$he list contains beams and columns made of @" and 2", siliceous and carbonate
aggregate and different fire scenarios. Farious $hermal properties of concrete used for
carrying out the analysis #ere given a nomenclature as stated belo#, for the convenience
of discussion;
'$?; 'urocode> K lo#er limit conductivity and specific heat,
'$>; 'urocode> K upper limit conductivity and specific heat,
'$<; A"' K conductivity and specific heat for siliceous aggregate,
'$A; A"' K conductivity and specific heat for carbonate aggregate,
'$C; 5odur et al. (>==<*
CH
K conductivity and specific heat for siliceous aggregate,
'$D; 5odur et al. (>==<*
CH
K conductivity and specific heat for carbonate aggregate.
<?
).).% Se/0i6na5 De0ai591 Bea7 and C6537n
All columns ($@"?, $2"A & $2"H* #ere <.H? m long, having a square cross section of
<=C Q <=C mm. $he dimensions of column cross section and other specification of the
column are sho#n in Fig. (.-. All columns had four, >C mm dia longitudinal bars. All
beams (&?, &> & &A* #ere <.GD m long having a rectangular cross section of A=D Q >CA
mm9 more sectional details of beam can be seen in Fig. (.2. All beams had ?G mm bars as
tensile reinforcement and t#o ?< mm dia bars as compression reinforcement.
).).& "ire S/enari6 and E@p693re C6ndi0i6n
,ire resistance tests are carried out by e%posing the structural element to standard fire (t1$
curve*. Farious standard fire curves e%ist for different countries but the most #idely used
are those proposed in A$- '??G and IO H<A given via equation <.? and <.>
respectively.
t e T
t
f
A? . ?E= M ? L EC= >=
* EGCC< . < (
+ +

(<.?*
<>
Table (.2: ist of experiments simulated in ?@?ABS v 2.:.( #&ure ;eat Transfer ?nal"sis%
tructural
component
@omenclature
$ype of concrete
'%posure
condition
,ire
scenario
Applicable
constitutive
-odelsN
+eference
PP
trength Aggregate
"olumn $@"? @" iliceous
A sides
A$-
'??GNN
'urocode
A"'1iliceous
5odur F. 5. +., "heng ,. P., Iang $. ". and
ultan -. A., 'ffect of strength and fiber
reinforcement on fire resistance of high strength
concrete column. 4ournal of tructural
'ngineering, A"' ?>G(>*, >==<, p. >C< K >CG.
"olumn $2"A 2" iliceous
A$-
'??GNN
'urocode
5odur1iliceous
5odur F. 5. +., Iang $. "., and "heng ,. P.,
Predicting the fire resistance of high strength
concrete columns. "ement and concrete
composites, >D(>*, >==A, p. ?A?1?C<
"olumn $2"H 2" "arbonate
A$-
'??GNN
'urocode
5odur1"arbonate
&eam &? @" "arbonate
< sides
A$-
'??GNN
'urocode
A"'1"arbonate
0#ai!at -. &.., 5odur F. 5. +., +esponse of
restrained concrete beams under fire e%posure.
4ournal of tructural 'ngineering, A"' ?<C(??*,
>==G, p. ?A=H K ?A?E.
&eam &> @" "arbonate ,
O
'urocode
A"'1"arbonate
&eam &A 2" "arbonate ,
O
'urocode
5odur1"arbonate
@";1 @ormal strength concrete9 2";1 2igh strength concrete
N;1 "onstitutive models for thermal properties of concrete #hich are applicable as per the available literature
NN;1 tandard time temperature curve9 only heating (see Fig. (.4*
O;1 hort sever design fire e%posure9 rapid heating to a pea! temperature of about ??==
=
" maintained this temperature till ? hr and than cooling do#n (see Fig. (.0*
PP;1 +eferences for the e%perimental results.
<<
Fig. (.-:- 8levation and sectional details of columns #T>C17 T;C* + T;C0%
<A
F
i
g

(
.
2
:
-

S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

d
e
t
a
i
l
s

o
f

b
e
a
m
s

#
@
1
7

@
2

+

@
*
%
<C
T
f
. (*- log1/ #0t11% 1 2/ (<.>*
Ihere
<D
T
f
R ,ire temperature in
=
" at time t
t R $ime in hours.
$he columns ($@"?, $2"A & $2"H* #ere e%posed to A$- '??G standard fire
(Fig.(.4* #ith no cooling phase. $he length e%posed to fire #as appro%imately <.= m (in
central region* for columns. $he beams had >.AA m length e%posed to fire9 beam &? #as
e%posed to A$- '??G standard fire (no cooling phase* and beams &> & &A #ere
e%posed to short severe design fire (,* as sho#n in Fig. (.0.

Fig. (.4:- Time C temperature curve for ?ST) 811: fire scenario
Fig. (.0:- Time C temperature curve for short severe
design fire exposure #SF%
).+ ANAL*SS1 PROCED#RE AND THEOR*
$he analysis #as carried out using ,'- based soft#are
A&A./ $he concrete part of beam)column #as
modelled in <0 space and solid shape. $he reinforcement
#as also modelled in <0 space and #ire shape as sho#n in
Fig. (.:#a%.$he appropriate temperature dependent thermal
properties (conductivity and specific heat* and densities
#ere given as input for material properties (refer. ection;
<.>*. "oncrete #as assigned isotropic homogeneous and
reinforcing steel #as assigned isotropic truss section
respectively. olid concrete #as discretized using 0"<0H
<E
element (H node linear bric! element* available in A&A./ having nodal temperature
(@$??* as the only active degree of freedom. $ie constrain available in A&A./ #as
used to transfer the temperature from concrete to steel at that location. +einforcement #as
discretized using 0"?0> element (> node lin! element* having nodal temperature (@$??*
as the active degree of freedom.
Fig (.:#a%: - Discreti<ed column.
A comparative study of thermal properties is feasible using just a >0 model. ince these
temperatures are to be used for conducting stress analysis in <0.$thereafter, a <0 model
#as generated facilitating direct temperature input (concrete and steel* from the output
file of heat conduction to another <0 model generated for stress analysis. -esh size, no.
of elements and no. of nodes for column and beam model are as stated belo#;1
"olumn &eam
-esh size =.=?C m =.=?C m
@o. of elements ?=?=== ?>>GD=
@o. of nodes ???DGC ?<C<GA
$ransient heat transfer analysis #as carried out for a period of <== min. 2eat transfer
from the gas phase to the structural elements (beam)column* #as modelled by applying
appropriate convection and radiation boundary conditions. A convection coefficient of >C
I)m
>

=
" for e%posed surface and G I)m
>

=
" for other ambient e%posed surfaces and
emissivity of =.E #ere considered. Fig (.: #a% + #b% sho#s the modelling of column, and
beam.
<H
Fig. (.:#b%:- Discreti<ed beam
).+.% #n/63p5ed Hea0 Tran98er Ana5y9i9
$he Abaqus)tandard capability for uncoupled heat transfer analysis is intended to model
solid body heat conduction #ith general, temperature1dependent conductivity9 internal
energy (including latent heat effects*9 and quite general convection and radiation
boundary conditions. $his section describes the basic energy balance, constitutive
models, boundary conditions, finite element discretization, and time integration
procedures used.
AEnergy -a5an/e1$ $he basic energy balance is (6reen and @aghdi*

+
V S V
rdV EdS dV B

(<.<*
Ihere V is a volume of solid material, #ith surface area S9 is the density of the material9
is the material time rate of the internal energy9 E is the heat flu% per unit area of the body,
flo#ing into the body9 and r is the heat supplied e%ternally into the body per unit volume.
It is assumed that the thermal and mechanical analyses are uncoupled in the sense that
only, #here is the temperature of the material, and E and r do not depend on the strains or
displacements of the body. ,or simplicity a :agrangian description is assumed, so
SvolumeT and SsurfaceT mean the volume and surface in the reference configuration.
<G
C6n90i030ive de8ini0i6n1$ $his relationship is usually #ritten in terms of a specific heat,
neglecting coupling bet#een mechanical and thermal analyses;

d
dB
c * (
, e%cept for latent heat effects at phase changes. (<.A*
2eat conduction is assumed to be governed by the ,ourier la#,
F
5 f

, (<.C*
Ihere, ! is the conductivity matri%, 5.5#9% 9 f is the heat flu%9 and F is position. $he
conductivity 5 can be fully anisotropic, orthotropic, or isotropic.
B63ndary /6ndi0i6n91$ &oundary conditions can be specified as;1
?* Prescribed temperature, 9 . 9#x7 t%9
>* Prescribed surface heat flu%, E . E#x7 t% per area9
<* Prescribed volumetric heat flu%, E . r#x7 t% per volume9
A* urface convection E . h #9 C 9
/
%, #here h . h#x7 t% is the film coefficient and
9
/
. 9
/
#x7 t% is the sin! temperature; and
C* +adiation E . ? ##9 C 9
G
%
*
C #9
/
C 9
G
%
*
%, #here A is the radiation constant (emissivity
times the tefan1&oltzmann constant* and 9
G
is the absolute zero on the temperature scale
used.
Spa0ia5 de9/re0iBa0i6n1$ A variational statement of the energy balance, together #ith the
,ourier la#, is obtained directly by the standard 6aler!in approach as

+

+
SE V V V
EdS rdV dV
x
5
x
dV B

. . .

(<.D*
Ihere, H9 is an arbitrary variational field satisfying the essential boundary conditions.
$he body is appro%imated geometrically #ith finite elements, so the temperature is
interpolated as
9 . >
>
#x% 9
>
, @ R ?, >, \, (<.E*
#here, 9
>
are nodal temperatures.
$he 6aler!in approach assumes that H97 the variational field, is interpolated by the same
functions; H9 . >
>
H9
>
. ,irst1 and second1order polynomials in one, t#o, and three
dimensions are used for the >
>
. Iith these interpolations the variational statement,
equation (<.D*, becomes
A=

'

+

SE
>
V
>
V
>
V
> >
EdS > rdV > dV
x
5
x
>
dV B >

. .

,
(<.H*
And since the ]J
@
are arbitrarily chosen this gives the system of equations

+

+
SE
>
V
>
V
>
V
>
EdS > rdV > dV
x
5
x
>
dV B >

. .

(<.G*
$his set of equations is the Scontinuous time descriptionT of the geometric
appro%imation.
Ti7e in0egra0i6n1 Abaqus)tandard uses the bac!#ard difference algorithm;
* ) ? *( ( t B B B
t t t t t

+ +

$his operator is chosen for a number of reasons. ,irst of all,

#e choose from one1step operators of the form
t f f f f
t t t t t t
+ +
+ +
* * ? ((


because of their simplicity in implementation, and #ell1
understood behaviour. Introducing the operator, into the energy balance equation (<.G*
gives

+
SE
>
V
>
V V
>
t t t
>
EdS > rdV > dV
x
5
x
>
dV B B >
t
= . . * (
?

(<.?=*
$his nonlinear system is solved by a modified @e#ton method. $he method is modified
@e#ton because the tangent matri% (the 4acobian matri%*^that is, the rate of change of
the left1hand side of equation (<.?=* #ith respect to
>
t t +

is not formed e%actly. $he

formation of the terms in this tangent matri% is no# described.
$he internal energy term gives a 4acobian contribution;

V
)
t t
>
dV >
d
dB
>
t

?
(<.??*
$he conductivity term gives a 4acobian contribution;

+ +
+

V
)
t t t t
>
V
)
t t
>
dV >
x
5
x
>
dV
x
>
5
x
>

. . . .
(<.?>*
$he second of these terms is typically small, since the conductivity usually varies only
slo#ly #ith temperature. &ecause of this, and because the term is not symmetric, it is
A?
usually more efficient to omit it. $his term is omitted unless the unsymmetric solver is
chosen. Prescribed surface flu%es and body flu%es can also be temperature dependent and
#ill then give rise to 4acobian contributions.
Iith film and radiation conditions, the surface flu% term gives a 4acobian contribution;

S
)
t t
>
dS >
E
>

(<.?<*
,or film conditions, E. h#9% #9 C 9
/
%
h
h E
+

* (
=


(<.?A*
Ihile for radiation E. ? #9
*
C 9
o *
%7
<
A

?
E

(<.?C*
$hese terms are included in e%actly this form in the 4acobian. $he modified @e#ton
method is then
. ,
, . . * (
?
A * (
. .
?
, ? ,
< =
number iteration i c ,ith
dV
x
5
x
>
B B >
t
EdS > rdV >
c
dS > ? h
h
>
dV
x
>
5
x
>
dV >
d
dB
>
t
> >
i t t
>
i t t
SE > V
>
t t t
> >
V
>
)
S
) >
)
V V
t t
>
)
t t
>
+

+
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

+ + +
+

+
+

(<.?D*
$he purely linear system equation (iv* is linear in c
-)
and hence, in
>
t t +

, so a single
equation solution provides the
>
t t +

. ince the method usually is a minor modification

of @e#ton8s solution, convergence is rapid. Abaqus)tandard uses an automatic (self1
adaptive* time stepping algorithm to choose. $his is based on a user1supplied tolerance on
the ma%imum temperature change allo#ed in a time increment, and the increment is
adjusted according to this parameter, as #ell as the convergence rate of equation (<.?D* in
nonlinear cases.
A>
$he first1order heat transfer elements (such as >1node lin!, A1node quadrilateral, and H1
node bric!* use a numerical integration rule #ith the integration stations located at the
corners of the element for the heat capacitance terms. $his means that the 4acobian term
associated #ith the internal energy rate is diagonal. $his approach is especially effective
#hen strong latent heat effects are present. $he second1order elements use conventional
6aussian integration. $hus, second1order elements are to be preferred for problems #hen
the solution #ill be smooth (#ithout latent heat effects*, #hereas the first1order elements
should be used in non smooth cases (#ith latent heat*.
).+.& E88e/0 68 B63ndary C6ndi0i6n
$here are different #ays of specifying thermal load in A&A./ as stated in art. (.*.1.
,irst method involves an assumption that the surface temperature of the structural
element is same as that of the gas) furnace temperature and specifying prescribed
temperature boundary condition (on the e%posed surface*. $his is the most simplified
boundary condition requiring less input variables)parameters. econd #ay of modelling
fire is by specifying surface convection and radiation boundary condition, the second type
of boundary condition requires more input parameters. $o sho# the superiority of the
second boundary condition over the first boundary condition a comparative study #as
conducted. $hermal properties of '$? #ere used for study and it #as also assumed that
the same thermal properties are applicable for heating and cooling phase (,or dry
concrete*.
"olumn $@"? (refer Table: (.2* L5odur et al., >==<M
CD
#as analysed and temperatures
#ithin the element #ere predicted using both boundary condition i.e., &"? (prescribed
temperature* and &"> (surface convection and radiation*. ,or this problem the predicted
member temperatures at three different locations near surface, at quarter point and at
centre of column #ere compared as sho#n in Fig. (.1/ #a%7 #b% and #c%.
A<
(a*$emperature at ?G mm from e%posed surface
(b* $emperature at EC mm from the e%posed face
AA
(c* $emperature at center of the column
Fig. (.1/:-The effect of boundar" condition on column T>C1 results #onl" heating phase%
$he difference in temperature predicted using t#o boundary condition is about ?C1>C X",
one may ignore this difference and resort to &"? requiring lesser input parameters.
,urther to sho# the importance of boundary condition in cooling phase a column ("O:1
A* tested by :ie et al. (?GHD*
DE
#as simulated in A&A./. 0etails of the column tested
are as stated belo#;1
"olumn section; <=C Q <=C mm
:ength; <H?= mm
"oncrete compressive strength; <C -Pa
Aggregate type; iliceous
:ongitudinal reinforcement; A1>C dia bars
'%posure; 2eated for ? hr as per standard time1temperature curve given in A$- '1??G.
After e%posure to fire the temperature of the environment is assumed to
decrease to room temperature as specified in IO H<A tandard (stated belo#*
d$)dt R D>C
=
")h for t
h
U =.C h
d$)dt R >C= (< K t
h
*
=
")h for =.C V t
h
V >.= h
d$)dt R >C=
=
")h for t
h
_ > h
d$)dt R = for $ R >=
=
"
Ihere, t R time in hrs,
AC
t
h
R duration of the fire in hrs,
$ R fire temperature, at time t, in hrs.
$hus for ? hr fire #e get a slope of C==
=
")hr for the descending arm, representing the
cooling phase as sho#n in Fig: (.11
FigI-(.11 !nput fire curve for CJ-?
$emperatures predicted near surface and at center using both the boundary condition are
compared #ith the e%perimental results in Fig. (.12 #a% and #b%. &"> result in significant
improvement in the results, thus proving superiority of &"> for modelling fire scenario.
AD
(a*$emperature at >C mm from e%posed surface
(b*$emperature at center of the column
Fig. (.12:-The effect of boundar" condition on CJ-? results
#;eating and cooling phase%
)., HEAT TRANS"ER ANAL*SS RES#LTS
$his section sho#s the comparison bet#een the results obtained from A&A./ D.G.<
using different constitutive models for thermal properties of concrete, and the
e%perimental results from literature. $he results have also been compared #ith the
simulations for the same problem carried out by different authors.
(a* '$?. (b* '$>
AE
(c* '$<. (d* '$A
(e* '$C. (f* '$D
Fig. (.1(:- Thermal profiles for column section using different thermal properties
#>T11 denotes the nodal temperatureI these are at the final state%
Table (.( lists the applicability of different thermal properties for different types of
concrete. $hermal contours obtained using different thermal properties are as sho#n in
Fig. (.1(.
Table.(.(: ?pplicabilit" of thermal properties for different concrete
"oncrete
Aggregate
@" 2"
iliceous
'$?
'$>
'$<
'$?
'$>
'$C
"arbonate
'$?
'$>
'$A
'$?
'$>
'$D
).,.% TNC%1 Re93509 and C67pari96n
AH
Although the e%perimental results #ere available for >EC min, the analysis #as carried
out for <== min. "olumn $@"? is made of @" and siliceous aggregates and the thermal
properties to be used for comparative study are as listed in Table (.(. Fig. (.1* #a%7 #b%
and #c% sho#s the comparison of temperatures at various depths from the e%posed
surface, bet#een e%perimental and the A&A./ results for different applicable thermal
properties i.e., '$?, '$> and '$< respectively.
Fig. (.1* #a%:- Comparison of column T>C1 results for thermal propert" S8T1
Fig. (.1* #b%:- Comparison of column T>C1 results for thermal propert" S8T2
AG
Fig. (.1* #c%:- Comparison of column T>C1 results for thermal propert" S8T(
'`P1 e%perimental value at distance from the face of column9
A&.1 simulated results at various distance from column face obtained using A&A./ v D.G.<
It8s clear from Fig. (.1* #a%7 #b%7 and #c% that all sets seems to predict higher temperature
near surface but the deviation from e%perimental values is less for '$?, increases for
'$> and further increases for '$<. As #e move to#ards core of the column '$?
gave better match #ith the e%perimental results than the other t#o.
).,.& THC+1 Re93509 and C67pari96n
Although the e%perimental results #ere available for >== min, the analysis #as carried
out for <== min. "olumn $2"A is made of 2" and siliceous aggregate, and the thermal
properties to be used for comparative study are as listed in Table (.(. Fig. (.1- #a%7 #b%
and #c% sho#s the comparison of temperatures at various depths from the e%posed
surface, bet#een e%perimental results, simulated results by 5odur et al. (>==A*
D=
and the
A&A./ results for different applicable thermal properties i.e., '$?, '$> and '$C
respectively.
$he simulation available in literature reported to match #ith the e%perimental results #as
carried out using a different thermal property ('$C* and the program used for carrying
the simulation #as capable of incorporating the effect of moisture. &ecause of this reason
C=
5odur et al, >==A reports his simulation done using thermal properties '$C to match
#ith the e%perimental one and thermal properties from 'urocode #ere reported to give
lo#er temperatures. In simulation done on A&A./ effect of moisture #as not
considered e%plicitly and the results obtained using '$? ('urocode lo#er limit
conductivity and specific heat* #ere found to match #ith the e%perimental values. $he
analysis results obtained using '$? properties #ere found to give better match than
'$C used by 5odur et al. for his analysis.
Fig. (.1- #a%:- Comparison of column T;C* results for thermal propert" S8T1
C?
Fig. (.1- #b%:- Comparison of column T;C* results for thermal propert" S8T2
1 imulation available in literature9 '`P1 e%perimental value at distance from the face of column9
A&.1 simulated results at various distance from column face obtained using A&A./ v D.G.<
Fig. (.1- #c%:- Comparison of column T;C* results for thermal propert" S8T-
).,.) THCC1 Re93509 and C67pari96n
C>
Although the e%perimental results #ere available for >A= min, the analysis #as carried
out for <== min. "olumn $2"H is made of 2" and carbonate aggregate, the thermal
properties to be used for comparative study are as listed in Table (.(. Fig. (.12 #a%7 #b%
and #c% sho#s the comparison of temperatures at various depths from the e%posed
surface9 bet#een e%perimental results, simulated results in literature L5odur et al. >==AM
D=
and the A&A./ results for different applicable thermal properties i.e., '$?, '$> and
'$D respectively.
ince the simulation of $2"A and $2"H available in literature #ere carried using the
same program thus, the difference and reasons for the difference bet#een conclusions
regarding the thermal properties as e%plained in section <.C.> holds.
@ear surface '$? and '$> gives temperatures very close to the simulation results
available in literature but as #e move to#ards the core '$> starts deviating. '$? for
the first hour gives a good match #ith the simulated and e%perimental results but after
that temperature predicted falls belo# the e%perimental values. $emperatures predicted by
'$> are consistently slightly above the values obtained from simulation.
Fig. (.12 #a%:- Comparison of column T;C0 results for thermal propert" S8T1
C<
Fig. (.12 #b%:- Comparison of column T;C0 results for thermal propert" S8T2
Fig. (.12 #c%:- Comparison of column T;C0 results for thermal propert" S8T2
Out of the many factors influencing the prediction of thermal profile in the structural
elements effect, of boundary conditions has already been discussed and the ne%t thing
affecting the results significantly is the moisture content. ome consider the effect of
CA
moisture e%plicitly (5odur, et al.*
D=
for the simulation of $2"H9 other#ise one can use the
modified thermal properties to ta!e into account the effect of moisture as given in
'urocode> (modified specific heat as sho#n in Fig (.1*.
Fig. (.14:-The effect of moisture content on column T;C0 results #onl" heating phase%
#D-&roperties of dr" concreteI )- &roperties of concrete ,ith 1.-K moisture%
Fig. (.14 sho#s the effect of considering the moisture content. $he thermal property '$
used #as modified '$> i.e., upper bound conductivity and modified specific heat for
moisture effect. +eason behind modifying only '$> #as that it gave results more
closely to the e%perimental results than the other '$8s. It can be seen from Fig. (.14 that
ta!ing moisture has little influence on temperature prediction near surface but as #e
move to#ards the core the difference is more and to#ards betterment.
).,.+ B%1 Re93509 and C67pari96n
&eam &? #as made of @" and carbonate aggregate and #as e%posed to conditions as
stated in Table (.2. Fig (.10 sho#s the final state thermal profile obtained using '$?,
'$>, and '$A thermal properties, it can be clearly seen from these contours that '$>
gives higher core temperatures as compared to other '$s of thermal properties. $he
contour edges are not straight because of the tie constrain (provided to transfer the
CC
temperature of the surrounding concrete to reinforcement at that level9 the significance of
providing this constrain #as e%plained in art <.>.> and <.A*
(a* '$? (b* '$>
I '$A
Fig. (.10:- Thermal profiles for beam section exposed to ?ST) 811: fire using different
thermal properties
#>T11 denotes the nodal temperatureI these are at the final state i.e.7 at the end of heating phase%
Fig (.1: sho#s a comparison of results from e%periments available in literature and
A&A./ models. It can be observed from the graph that '$? temperature predictions
are slightly lo#er than the e%perimental values. +esults obtained using '$A seemed to
CD
deviate more from e%perimental results initially but #ith an increase in time, the
deviation decreases and provides a reasonably good match.
Fig. (.1::- Comparison of beam @1 results for different thermal propert"
(+esults have been compared for $"1?? position9 ref Fig-(.2*
).,., B&1 Re93509 and C67pari96n
&eam &> #as made of @" and carbonate aggregate e%posed to conditions as stated in
Table (.2. $his beam had a cooling phase #here thermal properties #ere assumed to
remain the same #ithout any modification. As demonstrated in Fig. (.14 the effect of
moisture on the prediction of thermal profiles, the heat transfer analysis #hich includes
cooling phase should be carried out in a sequential manner. In first step #e carry out heat
transfer analysis for the heating phase using thermal properties #hich are modified for
moisture content and then in the second step #e carry out heat transfer for cooling phase
using thermal properties for dry concrete. $he heat transfer analysis for the cooling phase
#ould start #here the heating phase ends. $his can be achieved in A&A./ by creating
t#o different models9 one for each phase (heating and cooling*. In the heat transfer model
for cooling phase, the initial temperature is the final temperature (in the last step* of
heating phase using the available 7predefined fields option.
CE
imulated results for beam &> available in literature #ere obtained using thermal
properties similar to those specified in manual of A"' ('$A* and the program #as
capable of ta!ing moisture content into account. Fig (.2/ #a%7 #b% sho# the comparison
bet#een various results obtained from e%periments, simulation, available literature and
A&A./ -odel.
#TC11 refers to thermocouple position refer Fig. (.2%
Fig. (.2/ #a%:- Comparison of beam @2 results for different thermal propert"
CH
#TC: refers to thermocouple position refer Fig. (.2%
Fig. (.2/#b%:- Comparison of beam @2 results for different thermal propert"
,ollo#ing observations can be made from Fig (.2/ #a%7 #b%I '$> seems to give a good
match #ith the e%perimental results near the bottom face but as #e move to#ards the top
face the deviation increases9 temperature predicted using '$? are slightly lo#er than the
e%perimental values near the bottom face and gives a reasonably good match as #e move
to#ards top face. $emperatures predicted using '$A are higher than the e%perimental
values but 0#ai!at et al., (>==G*
><
reports '$A to match #ith e%perimental i.e., because
the computational program used by him #as capable of ta!ing the moisture effect into
account e%plicitly.
).,.2 B+1 Re93509 and C67pari96n
&eam &A #as made of 2" and carbonate aggregate e%posed to conditions as stated in
Table (.2. $his beam also had a cooling phase. Fig (.21 #a% and #b% sho#s a comparison
of different results obtained from e%periments, simulation, available literature and
A&A./ models. $he only difference bet#een beams &> and &A is the strength. @ear
surface, '$ > & A is observed to give results very close to the e%perimental ones but as
#e move a#ay from the e%posed surface they seems to deviate.
CG
#TC11 refers to thermocouple position refer Fig. (.2%
Fig. (.21#a%:- Comparison of beam @* results for different thermal propert"
#TC: refers to thermocouple position refer Fig. (.2%
Fig. (.21#b%:- Comparison of beam @* results for different thermal propert"
D=
+
STRESS ANAL*SS
O-.e/0ive1$ '%plain the various aspects of sequentially coupled thermal
stress analysis.(-odelling, inputs and results*
CHAPTER ( +
STRESS ANAL*SS
+.% GENERAL
$he analysis of thermal stress in concrete structures in general is done in t#o phases as
e%plained in previous chapters. After completing the first step, conducting a time
dependent heat transfer analysis, in #hich temperature distributions at various stages are
calculated #e move to the second step i.e. carrying out stress analysis using the thermal
gradients obtained in first step (results obtained in chapter <*. Ie resorted to sequentially
coupled thermal1stress analysis since the stress)deformation field in a structure depends
on the temperature field in that structure, but the temperature field can be found #ithout
!no#ledge of the stress)deformation response. Farious stress1strain constitutive models
for concrete at elevated temperature have been discussed in chapter1>.
$his chapter aims at;1
(?* &riefly discussing the second step of sequentially coupled thermal stress analysis i.e.
stress)deformation analysis,
(>* Falidating the stress)deformation analysis results, by comparing the simulated results
#ith e%perimental results.
(<* Presenting the stress analysis results of beams and columns,
(A* tudying parameters influencing the response of the structural member such as
spalling, load on the member during fire, effect of confinement etc.,
+.& ANAL*TCAL ST#DES
Out of the three beams and three columns on #hich the pure heat transfer analysis #as
conducted, t#o beams and t#o columns have been chosen for conducting the stress
analysis for the computed temperature field. Table *.1 lists the various details available
from literature, considered for study9 the list contains three beams and t#o columns, made
of @" and 2"9 siliceous and carbonate aggregate9 and different fire scenario.
All columns ($@"? and $2"A* #ere <.H? m long and had a square cross1section of <=C
mm Q <=Cmm, and all beams (&?, &< and &A* #ere <.GD m long #ith a rectangular cross
CH
section of A=D mm Q >CA mm. Farious other details (li!e longitudinal reinforcement and
stirrups detailing* for columns and beams are as given in Fig. (.- and Fig. (.2.
+.&.% Te90 C6ndi0i6n9 and Pr6/ed3re
$he test conditions for all columns #ere fi%edKfi%ed. At high temperature, the stiffness of
the unheated column ends #hich is higher as compared to the heated portion, contributes
to a reduction in the effective length of the column. All columns #ere tested under
concentric loads. "olumn $@"? #as subjected to a load of G<= !@ and column $2"A
#as subjected to a load of >=== !@. 0uring e%perimentation the load #as applied about
AC min before the start of the fire test and #as maintained until a condition #as reached at
#hich no further increase in the a%ial deformation could be measured. $his #as selected
as the initial condition for the a%ial deformation of the column during fire.
All beams #ere tested under t#o point loads, each of #hich #ere placed at ?.A m from
the end supports. 'ach point load #as of C= !@. In case of beams the load #as applied <=
min before the start of the fire and #as maintained till no further increase in deformation
could be measured. $his #as selected as the initial condition for the deflection of the
beam. $he load #as maintained constant through out the test for both beam and column.
+.) ANAL*SS1 PROCED#RE AND THEOR*
$he stress analysis #as carried out using ,'- based soft#are A&A./. $he modelling
#as done in the same #ay as it #as done for heat transfer analysis. $he section #as
assumed to be isotropic and homogeneous. "oncrete #as discretized using "<0H (H1node
linear bric!* element, and reinforcement #as discretized using $<0> elements available
in A&A./.
+.).% E5e7en0 De9/rip0i6n
A&A./ has an e%tensive element library. $he behaviour of the element is characterized
by five aspects; family, degree of freedom (directly related to the element family*,
number of nodes, formulation and integration. $he element name identifies each of the
five aspects of an element. Fig. *.1 sho#s commonly used element families.
CG
Table *.1: ist of experiments simulated in ?@?ABS v 2.:.( #For stressLdeformation anal"sis%
tructural
component
@omenclature
$ype of concrete
'%posure
condition
,ire
scenario
+eference
PP
trength Aggregate
"olumn $@"? @" iliceous
A sides
A$-
'??GNN
5odur F. 5. +., "heng ,. P., Iang $. ". and ultan -. A.,
'ffect of strength and fiber reinforcement on fire
resistance of high strength concrete column. 4ournal of
tructural 'ngineering, A"' ?>G(>*, >==<, p. >C< K >CG.
"olumn $2"A 2" iliceous
A$-
'??GNN
5odur F. 5. +., Iang $. "., and "heng ,. P., Predicting
the fire resistance of high strength concrete columns.
"ement and concrete composites, >D(>*, >==A, p. ?A?1?C<
&eam &? @" "arbonate
< sides
A$-
'??GNN
0#ai!at -. &.., 5odur F. 5. +., +esponse of restrained
concrete beams under fire e%posure. 4ournal of tructural
'ngineering, A"' ?<C(??*, >==G, p. ?A=H K ?A?E.
&eam &< @" "arbonate
A$-
'??GNN
&eam &A 2" "arbonate ,
O
@";1 @ormal strength concrete9 2";1 2igh strength concrete
NN;1 tandard time temperature curve9 only heating (see Fig. (.4*
O;1 hort sever design fire e%posure9 rapid heating to a pea! temperature of about ??==
=
" maintained this temperature till ? hr and than cooling do#n (see Fig. (.0*
PP;1 +eferences for the e%perimental results.
D=

Fig. *.1:-Commonl" used element families in ?@?ABS
0isplacements or other degrees of freedom are calculated at the nodes of the element. At
any other point in the element, the displacements are obtained by interpolating from the
nodal displacements. /sually the interpolation order is determined by the number of
nodes used in the element. 'lements that have nodes only at their corners, such as the H1
node bric! sho#n in Fig. *.2#a%, use linear interpolation in each direction and are often
called linear elements or first1order elements. In Abaqus)tandard elements #ith mid side
nodes, such as the >=1node bric! sho#n in Fig. *.2#b%, use quadratic interpolation and are
often called quadratic elements or second1order elements.
Fig. *.2:-First and second order continuum element
D?
+.).& Ma0eria5 M6de5 86r C6n/re0e
$he material models used for defining the elastic and plastic behaviour of concrete #ere
linear elasticity and concrete damaged plasticity models respectively.
+.).&.% Linear E5a90i/i0y
A linear elastic material model;
Falid for small elastic strains (normally less than Ca*9
Isotropic, orthotropic, or fully anisotropic9
2as properties that depend on temperature and)or other field variables
$he total stress is defined from the total elastic strain as
el el
D , (A.?*
#here is the total stress (Strue,T or "auchy stress in finite1strain problems*, D
el
is the
fourth1order elasticity tensor, and M
el
is the total elastic strain (log strain in finite1strain
problems*.
$he simplest form of linear elasticity is the isotropic case, and the stress1strain
relationship is given by

'

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

'

><
?<
?>
<<
>>
??
><
?<
?>
<<
>>
??
) ? = = = = =
= ) ? = = = =
= = ) ? = = =
= = = ) ? ) )
= = = ) ) ? )
= = = ) ) ) ?

$
$
$
8 8 8
8 8 8
8 8 8
(A.>*
$he elastic properties are completely defined by giving the Boung8s modulus, 8, and the
Poisson8s ratio, N. $he shear modulus, $, can be e%pressed in terms of 8 and N as
$.8L2#11 N%. $hese parameters can be given as functions of temperature and other
predefined fields, if necessary.
+.).&.& C6n/re0e Da7aged P5a90i/i0y M6de5
$he concrete damaged plasticity model in Abaqus;
Provides a general capability for modelling concrete and other quasi1brittle
materials in all types of structures (beams, trusses, shells, and solids*9
D>
/ses concepts of isotropic damaged elasticity in combination #ith isotropic
tensile and compressive plasticity to represent the inelastic behaviour of concrete9
"an be used for plain concrete, even though it is intended primarily for the
analysis of reinforced concrete structures9
Is designed for applications in #hich concrete is subjected to monotonic, cyclic,
and)or dynamic loading under lo# confining pressures9
Allo#s user control of stiffness recovery effects during cyclic load reversals9
"an be defined to be sensitive to the rate of straining9
+equires that the elastic behaviour of the material be isotropic and linear
$he model is a continuum, plasticity1based, damage model for concrete. It assumes that
the main t#o failure mechanisms are tensile crac!ing and compressive crushing of the
concrete material. $he evolution of the yield (or failure* surface is controlled by t#o
hardening variables,
pl
t

P
and
pl
c

P
, lin!ed to failure mechanisms under tension and
compression loading, respectively.
pl
t

P
and
pl
c

P
represent tensile and compressive
equivalent plastic strains, respectively. $he follo#ing sections discuss the main
assumptions about the mechanical behaviour of concrete. $he model assumes that the
unia%ial tensile and compressive response of concrete is characterized by damaged
plasticity, as sho#n in Fig. *.( #a% + #b%.
/nder unia%ial tension the stress1strain response follo#s a linear elastic relationship until
the value of the failure stress,
= t

, is reached. $he failure stress corresponds to the onset

of micro1crac!ing in the concrete material. &eyond the failure stress the formation of
micro1crac!s is represented macroscopically #ith a softening stress1strain response,
#hich induces strain localization in the concrete structure. /nder unia%ial compression
the response is linear until the value of initial yield,
= c

. In the plastic regime the

response is typically characterized by stress hardening follo#ed by strain softening
beyond the ultimate stress,
cu

.
Ihen the concrete specimen is unloaded from any point on the strain softening branch of
the stress1strain curves, the unloading response is #ea!ened; the elastic stiffness of the
material appears to be damaged (or degraded*. $he degradation of the elastic stiffness is
characterized by t#o damage variables, d
t
and d
c
, #hich are assumed to be functions of
D<
the plastic strains, temperature, and field variables; $he damage variables can ta!e values
from zero, representing the undamaged material, to one, #hich represents total loss of
strength.
If 8
/
is the initial (undamaged* elastic stiffness of the material, the stress1strain relations
under unia%ial tension and compression loading are, respectively;
*,
P
( * ? (
*,
P
( * ? (
=
=
pl
c c c c
pl
t t t t
8 d
8 d




(A.<*
Ie define the SeffectiveT tensile and compressive cohesion stresses as
*,
P
(
* ? (
*,
P
(
* ? (
=
=
pl
c c
c
c
c
pl
t t
t
t
t
8
d
8
d

(A.A*
Fig. *.(#a%:-Bniaxial tension behaviour of concrete.
DA
Fig. *.(#b%:-Bniaxial compression behaviour of concrete
-ulti1a%ial behaviour
$he stress1strain relations for the general three1dimensional multi1a%ial condition are
given by the scalar damage elasticity equation;
* ( ; * ? (
=
pl el
D d
, (A.C*
Ihere
el
D
=
is the initial (undamaged* elasticity matri%.
$he previous e%pression for the scalar stiffness degradation variable, d, is generalized to
the multi1a%ial stress case by replacing the unit step function * (
??
N
r #ith a multi1a%ial
stress #eight factor,
* (

r
, defined as
9 * (
<
?
<
?

i
i
i
i
r

, ? * ( =

r
(A.D*
Ihere
* < , > , ? ( i
i

are the principal stress components. $he -acauley brac!et

.
is
defined by
* (
>
?
x x x +
.
0efining tension stiffening
$he post1failure behaviour for direct straining is modelled #ith tension stiffening, #hich
allo#s defining the strain1softening behaviour for crac!ed concrete. $his behaviour also
DC
allo#s for the effects of the reinforcement interaction #ith concrete to be simulated in a
simple manner. $ension stiffening is required in the concrete damaged plasticity model.
Bou can specify tension stiffening by means of a post1failure stress1strain relation or by
applying a fracture energy crac!ing criterion. In reinforced concrete the specification for
post1failure behaviour generally means giving the post1failure stress as a function of
crac!ing strain,
c5
t

P
. $he crac!ing strain is defined as the total strain minus the elastic
strain corresponding to the undamaged material9 that is,
el
t t
c5
t =
P

, #here
= =
) 8
t
el
t

. $o avoid potential numerical problems, Abaqus enforces a lo#er limit on the post1failure
stress equal to one hundredth of the initial failure stress;
?== )
= t t

. (+efer Fig. *.(#a%*
0efining compressive behaviour
tress1strain behaviour of plain concrete can be defined in unia%ial compression outside
the elastic range. "ompressive stress data are provided as a tabular function of inelastic
(or crushing* strain,
in
c

P
, and, if desired, strain rate, temperature, and field variables.
Positive (absolute* values should be given for the compressive stress and strain. $he
stress1strain curve can be defined beyond the ultimate stress, into the strain1softening
regime. 2ardening data are given in terms of an inelastic strain,
in
c

P
, instead of plastic
strain,
pl
c

P
. $he compressive inelastic strain is defined as the difference bet#een the
total strain and the elastic strain corresponding to the undamaged material,
el
c c
in
c =
P

,
#here
= =
) 8
c
el
c

. (+ef. Fig. *.(#b%*
Plastic flo#
$he concrete damaged plasticity model assumes non1associated potential plastic flo#.
$he flo# potential $ used for this model is the 0ruc!er1Prager hyperbolic function;
tan * tan (
> >
=
p E $
t
+ , (A.E*
Ihere,
* , (
i
f
is the dilation angle measured in the pKE plane at high confining pressure9
o
t i t
pl
t
f

P
=
* , (
is the unia%ial tensile stress at failure, ta!en from the user1specified
tension stiffening data9 and
* , (
i
f
is a parameter, referred to as the eccentricity, that
DD
defines the rate at #hich the function approaches the asymptote (the flo# potential tends
to a straight line as the eccentricity tends to zero*.
$his flo# potential, #hich is continuous and smooth, ensures that the flo# direction is
al#ays uniquely defined. $he function approaches the linear 0ruc!er1Prager flo#
potential asymptotically at high confining pressure stress and intersects the hydrostatic
pressure a%is at G=X. $he default flo# potential eccentricity is R =.?, #hich implies that
the material has almost the same dilation angle over a #ide range of confining pressure
stress values. Increasing the value of provides more curvature to the flo# potential,
implying that the dilation angle increases more rapidly as the confining pressure
decreases. Falues of that are significantly less than the default value may lead to
convergence problems if the material is subjected to lo# confining pressures because of
the very tight curvature of the flo# potential locally #here it intersects the p1a%is.
Bield function
$he model ma!es use of the yield function of :ubliner et. al (?GHG*, #ith the
modifications proposed by :ee and ,enves (?GGH* to account for different evolution of
strength under tension and compression. $he evolution of the yield surface is controlled
by the hardening variables,
pl
t

P
and
pl
c

P
. In terms of effective stresses, the yield
function ta!es the form
(A.H*
#ith
2ere,
is the ma%imum principal effective stress9
is the ratio of initial equi1bia%ial compressive yield stress to initial unia%ial
compressive yield stress (the default value is ?.?D*9
6
c
is the ratio of the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian, E#T)%, to that on the
compressive meridian, E#C)%, at initial yield for any given value of the pressure invariant
DE
p such that the ma%imum principal stress is negative,
=
ma%
<

9 it must satisfy the

condition
= . ? C . = <
c
6
(the default value is >)<*9
*
P
(
pl
t t

is the effective tensile cohesion stress9 and
*
P
(
pl
c c

is the effective compressive cohesion stress.
Fiscoplastic regularization
-aterial models e%hibiting softening behaviour and stiffness degradation often lead to
severe convergence difficulties in implicit analysis programs, such as Abaqus)tandard. A
common technique to overcome some of these convergence difficulties is the use of a
viscoplastic regularization of the constitutive equations, #hich causes the consistent
tangent stiffness of the softening material to become positive for sufficiently small time
increments.
$he concrete damaged plasticity model can be regularized in Abaqus)tandard using
viscoplasticity by permitting stresses to be outside of the yield surface. Ie use a
generalization of the 0uvaut1:ions regularization, according to #hich the viscoplastic
strain rate tensor, , is defined as
(A.G*
2ere is the viscosity parameter representing the rela%ation time of the viscoplastic
system, and is the plastic strain. imilarly, a viscous stiffness degradation variable, ,
for the viscoplastic system is defined as
(A.?=*
Ihere9 d is the degradation variable
$he stress1strain relation of the viscoplastic model is given as
(A.??*
/sing the viscoplastic regularization #ith a small value for the viscosity parameter (small
compared to the characteristic time increment* usually helps improve the rate of
convergence of the model in the softening regime, #ithout compromising results. $he
basic idea is that the solution of the viscoplastic system rela%es to that of the in viscid
case as , #here t represents time. One can specify the value of the viscosity
parameter as part of the concrete damaged plasticity material behaviour definition. If the
DH
viscosity parameter is different from zero, output results of the plastic strain and stiffness
degradation refer to the viscoplastic values, and . In Abaqus)tandard the default
value of the viscosity parameter is zero, so that no viscoplastic regularization is
performed.
+.).) Ma0eria5 M6de5 86r Rein86r/e7en0
$he material models used for defining the elastic and plastic behaviour of reinforcing
steel #ere linear elasticity and classical metal plasticity models respectively. $he material
model for elastic behaviour, i.e. linear elasticity has already been e%plained under the
heading of material model for concrete.
+.).).% C5a99i/a5 Me0a5 P5a90i/i0y
$he classical metal plasticity models;
/se -ises or 2ill yield surfaces #ith associated plastic flo#, #hich allo# for
isotropic and anisotropic yield, respectively9
/se perfect plasticity or isotropic hardening behaviour9
"an be used #hen rate1dependent effects are important9
Are intended for applications such as crash analyses, metal forming, and general
collapse studies
$he -ises yield surface is used to define isotropic yielding. It is defined by giving the
value of the unia%ial yield stress as a function of unia%ial equivalent plastic strain,
temperature, and)or field variables.
Isotropic hardening
Isotropic hardening means that the yield surface changes size uniformly in all directions
such that the yield stress increases (or decreases* in all stress directions as plastic
straining occurs. Abaqus provides an isotropic hardening model, #hich is useful for cases
involving gross plastic straining or in cases #here the straining at each point is essentially
in the same direction in strain space throughout the analysis. Although the model is
referred to as a ShardeningT model, strain softening or hardening follo#ed by softening
can be defined.
DG
If isotropic hardening is defined, the yield stress, , can be given as a tabular function of
plastic strain and, if required, of temperature and)or other predefined field variables. $he
yield stress at a given state is simply interpolated from this table of data, and it remains
constant for plastic strains e%ceeding the last value given as tabular data.
+.+ STRESS ANAL*SS O" BEAMS
$he theory regarding the modelling and the testing conditions have already been
e%plained in section A.> and A.<. $his section deals #ith, the various input data used for
carrying out the analysis, the results obtained and the validation of the results.
+.+.% Bea7 B%
&eam &?#as made of normal strength concrete and carbonate aggregate. $he
compressive cylinder strength of the concrete #as C>.> -Pa and it #as e%posed to A$-
'??G fire scenario.
A point load of C=!@ #as applied at each point on a t#o point, simply supported loading
arrangement.(Fig. *.**,$ensile reinforcement #as <1?G mm dia bars, compression
reinforcement #as >1?< mm dia bars and stirrups #ere of D mm dia spaced at ?C= mm
c)c. -ain reinforcing bars and stirrups had yield strength of A>= -Pa and >H= -Pa
respectively. $hermal properties used for predicting the temperatures (lo#er bound
conductivity, and specific heat.* #ere considered from 'urocode>.
Fig. *.*:-oading for testing of beams
#?ll dimensions in m%
Fig. *.- sho#s a meshed vie# of the beam model generated in A&A./ for analysis.
$he loading and support conditions simulated #ere in agreement #ith the above sho#n
and stated configuration. $he interaction bet#een concrete and reinforcement #as
E=
achieved by using the embedded region constraint (available in A&A./* i.e. defining
reinforcement to be embedded in concrete. $he embedded element technique is used to
specify an element or a group of elements that lie embedded in a group of host elements
#hose response #ill be used to constrain the translational degrees of freedom of the
embedded nodes (i.e., nodes of embedded elements*
Fig. *.-:- )eshed vie, of the beam.
ince effect of fire #as considered after the deformation due to loading reached a
constant value, this state #as considered to be the initial stage for measuring
deformations due to fire e%posure. $hus, the analysis #as carried out in t#o phase9 in the
first phase, all the mechanical loads #ere applied and in the second step, a temperature
rise #as introduced (reading the nodal temperatures from the heat transfer analysis*. An
initial temperature of >=
=
" #as applied in initial step by specifying a pre1defined
temperature field #ith constant sectional variation and a magnitude of >=. In
stress)displacement analysis, the temperature difference bet#een a predefined
temperature field and any initial temperatures #ill create thermal strains if a thermal
e%pansion coefficient is given to the material. $he predefined temperature field also
affects temperature1dependent material properties.
E?
In the second step after the application of mechanical load, #hich remains constant
thereafter, temperatures #ere read from the specified output file. &asically a ne#
predefined temperature field #as created from output database, specifying the path of the
required output file, the initial and final step and the increment number.
Fig. *.2 sho#s a typical predefined field #indo#. ame meshing #as used for heat
transfer and stress analysis.
Fig. *.2:- Sample ,indo, for defining a predefined temperature field.
+.+.%.% Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r C6n/re0e
,or unia%ial compressive behaviour of concrete, the shape given in '@?GG>1?1> #as
used, and for tension a bilinear idealization #as used (+ef. Fig. *.4*. 'urocode proposes
user1preferred parabolic and linear descending branches in post1pea! behaviour of
concrete in compression. $ensile strength #as assumed to be ?=a of the compressive
strength. $he behaviour in compression #as assumed to be elastic up to a stress level of
=.< times the pea! value. $he young8s modulus (secant modulus* at various temperatures
#as calculated as the slope of the line joining the origin and the point mar!ing the end of
the elastic behaviour (=.< of pea! stress, +ef. Fig. *.4*. Fig.*.0 sho#s the variation of
Boung8s modulus of elasticity #ith temperature. Poisson ratio #as assumed to have a
E>
constant value of =.>. ,or plotting the complete stress1strain curve, #e need three
parameters; pea! compressive stress, strain corresponding to pea! stress and ultimate
strain. $he equation for the curve in compression is as sho#n belo# L>AM
$he subscript J in the equation signifies temperature. All the temperature dependent
properties #ere pic!ed from 'urocode> and have been tabulated in Table *.2.
Fig. *.4:- Stress strain curve for concrete
Table *.2: Values for the main parameters of the stress strain relationships of concrete at
elevated temperatures
$emperature f
c7
L f
c5
M
c17
M
cu17
0eg "
>= ?.== =.==>C =.=>==
?== ?.== =.==A= =.=>>C
>== =.GE =.==CC =.=>C=
<== =.G? =.==E= =.=>EC
E<
A== =.HC =.=?== =.=<==
C== =.EA =.=?C= =.=<>C
D== =.D= =.=>C= =.=<C=
E== =.A< =.=>C= =.=>EC
H== =.>E =.=>C= =.=A==
G=== =.?C =.=>C= =.=A>C
?=== =.=D =.=>C= =.=AC=
??== =.=> =.=>C= =.=AEC
?>== =.==
Fig. *.0:- Variation of =oungOs )odulus ,ith temperature #@eam @1%
$he stress strain relation in tension is represented by a bilinear curve. It is elastic up to the
pea! stress. $he tensile strength of concrete at elevated temperatures is assumed to vary
as per 'urocode> L>AM but #ith some modifications L>>M to avoid the conditions #here the
tensile strength becomes zero at relatively lo# temperatures (D==
=
"*. A value of M
ct
(ultimate strain in tension* that lies bet#een =.==> and =.==A, independent of temperature,
have been assumed in literature. LG, HEM
(A.?>*
Ihere, f
t$
is the tensile strength of concrete at any temperature, $ and f
t
the tensile
strength of concrete at ambient temperature.
EA
Fig. *.:#a%:-Stress strain relation for concrete in compression at elevated temperature
Fig. *.:#b%:-Stress strain relation for concrete in tension at elevated temperature
$he e%pansion coefficient of concrete #as assumed to have a constant value of D.?D ?=
1D
)
=
". Fig.*.: #a% and #b% sho#s stress1strain relationship for concrete in compression and
tension at some elevated temperatures.
+.+.%.& Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r Rein86r/ing S0ee5
$he strength and deformation properties of reinforcing steel at elevated temperatures
#ere obtained from the stress strain relationships specified in '@ ?GG>1?1>. Fig. *.1/
EC
sho#s the mathematical model for stress1strain relationships of reinforcing steel at
elevated temperatures.
Fig. *.1/:- )athematical model for stress-strain relationships of reinforcing steel at
elevated temperatures
$he stress1strain relationships are defined by three parameters9 (i* the slope of the linear
elastic range 8
S7
9 (ii* the proportional limit f
sp7
9 (iii* the ma%imum stress level f
s"7
.
'urocode> gives values of these parameters for hot rolled and cold #or!ed reinforcing
steel at elevated temperatures and for intermediate values of temperature, linear
interpolation may be used. 'urocode> also gives these parameters for t#o class of steel;
class @ and class `. In general it recommends class @. ,or our analysis, reinforcing steel
ED
#as assumed to be from class @ and hot rolled. $he proportionality limit at ambient
temperature #as assumed to be =.H times the yield stress. Table *.( sho#s the values of
different parameters used for determining the stress strain relationships for longitudinal
reinforcement of beam at elevated temperatures.
Table *.(:-Class > values for the parameters of the stress-strain relationship of hot rolled
reinforcing steel
$emp Bield stress Proportional. :imit Boungs modulus
deg " ratioN -Pa ratioN -Pa ratioN @)mm>
>= ?.== A>=.== ?.== <<D.== ?.== >.=='3=C
?== ?.== A>=.== ?.== <<D.== ?.== >.=='3=C
>== ?.== A>=.== =.H? >E>.?D =.G= ?.H='3=C
<== ?.== A>=.== =.D? >=A.GD =.H= ?.D='3=C
A== ?.== A>=.== =.A> ?A?.?> =.E= ?.A='3=C
C== =.EH <>E.D= =.<D ?>=.GD =.D= ?.>='3=C
D== =.AE ?GE.A= =.?H D=.AH =.<? D.>='3=A
E== =.>< GD.D= =.=E ><.C> =.?< >.D='3=A
H== =.?? AD.>= =.=C ?D.H= =.=G ?.H='3=A
G== =.=D >C.>= =.=A ?<.AA =.E= ?.A='3=C
?=== =.=A ?D.H= =.=> D.E> =.=A H.=='3=<
??== =.=> H.A= =.=? <.<D =.=> A.=='3=<
$emp M
sp
M
s"
M
st
M
su
>= =.==?E =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
?== =.==?E =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
>== =.==?C =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
<== =.==?< =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
A== =.==?= =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
C== =.==?= =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
D== =.==?= =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
E== =.===G =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
H== =.===G =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
G== =.===? =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
?=== =.===H =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
??== =.===H =.=>== =.?C== =.>===
N11 ratio of respective parameters at elevated temperature and ambient temperature
EE
Fig. *.11:- Stress-strain curves of reinforcing steel at elevated temperatures
$he e%pansion coefficient of steel #as ta!en as ?.<C ` ?=
1C
)
=
" and #as assumed to be
constant over the entire temperature range.
+.+.%.) Re93509 and C67pari96n
Analysis #as carried out using the model built in Abaqus and the material properties
e%plained above. $he results obtained and their comparisons #ith the e%perimental results
L><M are sho#n in Fig.*.12. $he results are presented in the form of time v)s deflection
plots. $he deflections #ere noted at mid span (on upper surface, as sho#n in Fig.*.**.
Fig. *.1( sho#s a superimposition of the deformed shape over the un1deformed shape of
beam &?. '%perimentally observed fire resistance for the beam #as ?H= min #hereas the
simulation gave a fire resistance time of ?D= min.
$he behaviour of a fire1e%posed reinforced concrete beam mainly
depends on internal temperature e%perienced and the load level
during the fire. "oncrete strength generally has a small effect on the
fle%ural strength of +" beams (@a#y, >==C*. &ut the strength of
reinforcing steel has a significant effect on the fle%ural capacity. At
the time of failure (?D= min* the temperatures of reinforcing bar ? &
< #ere D?C
=
" and that of bar > #as C>H
=
". As an effect of high
temperature, the yield strength of reinforcing steel reduces from A>= -Pa at ambient
EH
temperature to ?H>.< -Pa at D?C
=
" and >G?.? -Pa at C>H
=
". At failure it #as observed
that the longitudinal reinforcement has yielded. $hus, beam &? failed due to the yielding
of the reinforcement.
Fig. *.12:- Comparison of beam @1 results
Fig. *.1(:- Bn-deformed and deformed shape of beam @1
Fig. *.1* sho#s the contour for a%ial stress on mid span section. It is very clear from this
figure that most of the concrete section is under tension. $hus the failure depends on the
temperature achieved by the reinforcement, #hich indirectly defines the degradation in
the yield strength of the reinforcing steel.
EG
Fig.*.1*:-)id section under tension and compression at failure #@eam @1%
+.+.& Bea7 B)
&eam &< #as made of high strength concrete having cylinder strength of ?=D -Pa and
carbonate aggregate. It #as e%posed to A$- '??G fire scenario. A point load of C= !@
#as applied on each point of a t#o point, simply supported loading arrangement.(Fig. *.*
*. $he testing procedure #as e%actly same as that of beam &?.
$ensile reinforcement #as <1?G mm dia bars, compression reinforcement #as >1?< mm
dia bars and stirrups #ere of D mm dia spaced at ?C= mm c)c. -ain reinforcing bars and
stirrups had yield strength of A>= -Pa and >H= -Pa respectively.
$hermal properties used for predicting the temperature gradients (upper bound
conductivity and specific heat* #ere considered from 'urocode>.
$he analysis procedure #as e%actly the same as that of beam &?. $he load #as applied
appro%imately <= min as in previous case before the fire #as started and #as maintained
until a condition #as reached at #hich no further increase in deflection of the beam could
be measured. $his #as selected as the initial condition for the deflection of the beam. $he
load #as maintained constant throughout the test.
H=
+.+.&.% Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r C6n/re0e
$he shape of the stress1strain relationship #as considered from 'urocode>.$he values of
various other parameters required for stress strain relationship #ere insufficient. 'ven the
compressive strength degradation #ith temperature #as scarce and the strain
corresponding to the pea! stress #as missing. $hus in absence of any codified values,
these parameters #ere pic!ed from literature L?GM. '%perimental stress strain curves #ere
available for high strength concrete, appropriate values #ere pic!ed from these curves.
Fig. *.1- and Table *.* sho#s variation of various parameters pic!ed from literature L?G,
><M
Fig. *.1-:- 'educed strength of concrete as a function of temperature.
Table *.*:- &arameters for defining the stress strain relationship for ;SC
$'-P
deg "
@O+-A:I['0
$+'@6$2
$+'@6$2
-Pa
$+AI@ b
P'A5
$+'
/:$I-A$'
$+AI@
>= ?.== ?=D.== =.==<= =.==C=
C= ?.== ?=D.== =.==<= =.==C=
?== ?.== ?=D.== =.==<< =.==D=
>== ?.== ?=D.== =.==C= =.==H=
<== =.HH G<.>H =.==D= =.==G=
A== =.EC EG.C= =.==E= =.=?==
C== =.DA DE.HA =.==HC =.=??=
H?
D== =.C> CC.?> =.=?== =.=?C=
H== =.A> AA.C> =.=>== =.=<C=
G== =.<= <?.H= =.=>== =.=A==
?=== =.?D ?D.GD =.=>== =.=AC=
??== =.?= ?=.D= =.=>== =.=AE=
$he method for calculating young8s modulus of elasticity remained the same as Kbeam
&?. Fig. *.12 sho#s the variation of Boung8s modulus as a function of temperature.
Poisson ratio #as assumed to have a constant value of =.>. $he e%pansion coefficient of
concrete #as assumed to have a constant value of D.?D Q ?=
1D
)
=
".
Fig. *12:- Variation of =oungOs )odulus ,ith temperature #@eam @(%
$he stress1strain relationship for concrete in tension #as established in the same #ay as it
#as done for beam &?.
+.+.&.& Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r Rein86r/ing S0ee5
ince the reinforcement detailing and grade of steel #as e%actly the same as that of beam
&?, the properties of reinforcing steel are the same as e%plained in conte%t of beam &?.
+.+.&.) Re93509 and C67pari96n
Analysis #as carried out using the model built in Abaqus and the material properties are
e%plained as above. $he results obtained and their comparison #ith the e%perimental
H>
results L><M is as sho#n in Fig.*.14. $he results are presented in the form of time v)s
deflection plots. $he deflections #ere recorded at mid span (on upper surface, as sho#n
in Fig.*.**. Fig. *.10 sho#s a superimposition of the deformed shape over the un1
deformed shape of beam &<. '%perimentally observed fire resistance for the beam #as
?C< min #hereas the simulation gave a fire resistance time of ?A< min.
At the time of failure (?A< min* the temperature of reinforcing steel
bars ? & < #ere DC=
=
" and that of bar > #as CCA
=
". As an effect of
high temperature, the yield strength of reinforcing steel reduces
from A>= -Pa at ambient temperature to ?AE -Pa at DC=
=
" and
>D< -Pa at CCA
=
". At failure, it #as observed that the longitudinal
reinforcement yields. $hus, fails in same mechanism as observed for
beam &?. $he fire resistance (time* of beam &< is less than that of
beam &? since the temperatures attained are higher than that of beam &?.
Fig. *.14:- Comparison of beam @( results
H<
Fig. *.10:- Bn-deformed and deformed shape of beam @(
Fig. *.1: sho#s the contour for Fon -ises stress. $he entire length of beam #as not
e%posed to fire. A portion of beam near supports #as not e%posed to high temperature9
due to #hich high temperature gradients #ere observed near supports. It is very clear
from Fig. *.1: that there is stress concentration in the zone near supports. $his sho#s that
there are chances of stress concentrations at the joints in a framed system during fire
since the temperature in the core of the joint is lo#er than the core temperatures of the
members meeting at the joint.
Fig.*.1::-Stress contour for beam @(
HA
+.+.) Bea7 B+
&eam &A #as made of high strength concrete #ith a cylinder compressive strength of ?=D
-Pa. And carbonate aggregate. $he beam #as tested under short severe design fire
e%posure (,* (+ef. Fig.(.0*9 it had a heating phase follo#ed by cooling phase. A point
load of C= 5@ #as applied on each point of a t#o point, simply supported loading
arrangement.. $esting procedure #as e%actly the same to that of beam &?, A tensile
reinforcement of <1?G mm dia bars, a compression reinforcement of >1?< mm dia bars
and stirrups of D mm dia spaced at ?C= mm c)c #ere provided. -ain reinforcing bars and
stirrups had yield strength of A>= -Pa and >H= -Pa respectively. $he thermal properties
for heating phase #ere assumed to be applicable for cooling phase
2eating phase accounted for upper bound conductivity and specific heat modified for
<.=a moisture content #hereas "ooling phase accounted for upper bound conductivity
and specific heat for dry concrete based on 'urocode>. $he analysis procedure #as
e%actly the same as that of beam &?.
+.+.).% Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r C6n/re0e
ince same type of concrete #as used in beams &< and &A, the properties of concrete
used for analyzing both the beams remain the same as e%plained in conte%t of beam &<.
&ecause of many issues and difficulties (li!e one may reach >==
=
" by cooling a
specimen from G==
=
" or from C==
=
", in both cases the properties #ould be different at
the same temperature of >==
=
"*9 involved in determining the material properties during
cooling phase, #e do not have any e%perimental investigation available for these
properties. In the absence of any data for the cooling phase, it #as assumed that the same
set of properties as available for heating phase #ere applicable for cooling phase..
Another issue involved #as differentiating bet#een heating and cooling phase. As it #as
observed in heat transfer analysis, ma%imum temperature may be observed during the
cooling phase. $his means that even if the furnace temperature starts to fall, it does not
necessarily mean that the specimen temperature falls. 0uring cooling, initially the core
temperature continues to rise and then cooling starts at different durations at different
locations depending on the distance from the e%posed surface.
HC
+.+.).& Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r Rein86r/ing S0ee5
ince the reinforcement detailing and the grade of steel used #ere e%actly the same as
that of beam &?, the properties of the reinforcing steel remained the same as e%plained in
conte%t of beam &?.
+.+.).) Re93509 and C67pari96n
Analysis #as carried out using the modelling and the material properties e%plained in the
previous subheadings. $he results obtained and their comparison #ith the e%perimental
results L><M is as sho#n in Fig.*.2/. $he results are presented in the form of time v)s
deflection plot. $he deflections #ere recorded at mid span (on upper surface, as sho#n in
Fig.*.**. Fig. *.21 sho#s the contour for deflection at D=min and <== min for beam &A.
@o failure #as observed in the beam &A.
Ihen the furnace temperature starts to drop (after D= min*, the
temperature of reinforcing bars ? and < #ere just >=H.>E X" and that
of bar > #as ?A<.=D
=
". $he ma%imum temperature is attained at
around >>C min (i.e. during the cooling phase*, after this
temperature starts to fall. $he ma%imum temperature attained by
bars ? and < #ere A<?.AG
=
" and that by bar > #as <HA.>
=
". $he
degradation in material properties of reinforcing steel is very lo# at
these elevated temperatures and no failure #as observed. -a%imum deflection observed
e%perimentally #as about <C mm (appro%imate since the value #as interpreted from the
graphs available in literature L><M* #hereas the ma%imum deflection obtained from
simulation #as <=.> mm, yielding a difference of ?<.Ca. At the end of <== mins., the
difference in predicted and e%perimentally observed deflection reduced to ?=.Da
(e%perimental value appro% <>.H mm9 simulation result >G.<D mm*. $his sho#s that the
cooling phase cannot be ignored and should be considered during analysis in order to get
a complete response of any structural member.
HD
Fig. *.2/:- Comparison of beam @* results
#a% Contour for deflection at 2/ min
#b% Contour for deflection at (// min
Fig. *.21:- Bn-deformed and deformed shape of beam @*
HE
+., STRESS ANAL*SS O" COL#MNS
tress analysis #as carried out for t#o columns (one made of @" and other made of
2"*. &oth columns #ere e%posed to A$- '??G fire scenario. "lamping centrically
loaded reinforced concrete column is sho#n in Fig. *.22. &oundary condition at end A
#as fi%ed and at end & only a%ial movement #as allo#ed. $he modelling technique and
procedure used #ere same as those adopted for beams.
$he load #as applied AC min before the start of fire to assure that the a%ial deformation
reached a steady state. $his state #as assumed to be the initial state for measuring
deformation during fire. $he analysis #as carried out in t#o steps to simulate
e%perimental process; application of mechanical load and application of the temperature
field #hile !eeping the mechanical load constant.
Fig. *.22:- Clamped centricall" loaded reinforced concrete column in fire.
+.,.% C6537n THC+
"olumn $2"A #as made of high strength concrete having cylinder compressive strength
of GG.D -Pa and siliceous aggregate, and #as e%posed to A$- '??G fire scenario.It #as
subjected to an a%ial load of >=== !@. $he column consisted of >C mm, longitudinal bars
having A>= -Pa yield strength, tied #ith ?= mm ties having >H= -Pa yield strength at a
spacing of EC mm at both ends and ?AC mm at the centre. $emperature in the member #as
predicted using upper bound conductivity, and specific heat from 'urocode>.
HH
+.,.%.% Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r C6n/re0e
Farious parameters required for developing the stress1strain relationship for concrete
under unia%ial compression and tension #ere the same as considered for beam &<. $he
young8s modulus of elasticity #as computed using the methodology used for beams.
Falue for Poisson ratio #as =.>, independent of temperature. "oefficient of thermal
e%pansion #as D.?DQ?=
1D
)
=
".
+.,.%.& Ma0eria5 pr6per0ie9 86r Rein86r/ing S0ee5
+einforcing steel of grade A>= -Pa #as considered(same as discussed for beam &?*,the
properties of #hich are same as e%plained in conte%t of beam &?.
+.,.%.) Re93509 and C67pari96n
Analysis #as carried out using the modelling and the material properties e%plained in the
previous subheadings. $he results obtained #ere compared #ith the e%perimental results
LD=M as sho#n in Fig.*.2(. $he results are presented in the form of time v)s a%ial
deformation plots. $he deflections #ere noted at end & (+ef. Fig.*.22*. '%perimentally
observed fire resistance for the column #as >=> min #hereas that obtained from
simulation #as ?GA min.
ince the column #as made of square cross1section having
same e%posure conditions on all the four faces, the
temperature attained by all the four longitudinal rebars #as
same. One of the major factors governing the response of +"
elements during fire is the load level. $he ratio of applied
load to capacity of the column $2"A #as =.CA. ,rom Fig.
*.2( #e observe that as the temperature rises the column e%pands in the initial phase after
#hich a plateau is formed and then it contracts causing a failure. $he column sho#ed an
e%pansion until the yielding of reinforcement and then it contracted leading to failure.
HG
Fig. *.2(:-8xperimental and simulated results of column T;C*
+.,.& C6537n TNC%
"olumn $2"A #as made of normal strength concrete having a cube compressive strength
of C=.= -Pa. And siliceous aggregate $he column #as e%posed to A$- '??G fire
scenario. An a%ial load of G<= !@ #as imposed on the column. It had a longitudinal
reinforcement of for >C mm longitudinal bars of A>= -Pa yield strength tied #ith ?= mm
ties of >H= -Pa at a spacing of EC mm at both ends and ?AC mm at the mid span., $he
temperatures in the member #ere predicted using lo#er bound conductivity, and specific
heat from 'urocode>.
+.,.&.% Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r C6n/re0e
In this particular case #e intended to study the effect of confinement. $hus #e considered
the confined and unconfined numerical constitutive models proposed by Boussef et. al.,
>==E LG?M. (-ore details in chapter1>* $he degradation in strength of concrete #as
calculated using the relationship proposed by 2ertz. $he values of the constants used
#ere aggregate1specific. 2ertz also proposed that the decrease in the rate of decay of
concrete strength due to preloading could be accounted by using a multiplication factor of
?.>C for initial stress of =.>C f
"
. Fig.*.2* sho#s the temperatureKcompressive strength
G=
relationship used for column $@"?. ,or all computational purposes preloading #as
assumed to produce a stress of =.> f
"
.
Fig. *.2*:-Temperature vLs compressive strength for column T>C1
Boung8s modulus of elasticity #as calculated using the relationship proposed by
Anderberg and $helandersson LGM. Fig. *.2- sho#s the variation of Boung8s modulus #ith
temperature for unloaded and preloaded concrete. Only a slight difference may be
observed due to preloading. A value of =.> #as assumed for Poisson ratio and D.?D Q ?=
1
D
)
=
" for coefficient of thermal e%pansion. Fig. *.22 sho#s stress1strain relationships for
unconfined concrete, confined concrete and confined preloaded concrete at >==
=
" and
D==
=
". "onfinement affects the pea! value slightly and descending branch significantly.
$he difference due to preloading increases #ith temperature and pea! value increases,
ma!ing the descending branch becomes steeper.
G?
Fig. *.2-:-Temperature vLs =oungOs modulus for unloaded and preloaded concrete.
Fig. *.22:-Various stress strain relationship for concrete at 2//
/
C and 2//
/
C #T>C1%
+.,.&.& Ma0eria5 Pr6per0ie9 86r Rein86r/ing S0ee5
$he properties of the reinforcing steel used for carrying out the analysis remains the same
as e%plained in conte%t of beam &?.
G>
+.,.&.) Re93509 and C67pari96n
Analysis #as carried out using the model built in Abaqus and the material properties are
e%plained in the previous subheadings. $he results obtained #ere compared #ith the
e%perimental results LCDM as sho#n in ,ig.A.>E. $he results are presented in the form of
time v)s a%ial deformation plots. $he deflections #ere noted at end & (as sho#n in
Fig.*.22*. $ype of failure observed #as same as that of column $2"A. '%perimentally
observed time at #hich a%ial deformation becomes zero #as >>= min #hereas that
observed in simulation #as ?EE.C min, ?H=.> min, and >=< min for unconfined, confined
and confined preloaded concrete models respectively. Ihile using confined preloaded
model for concrete, an a%ial deformation of ? mm more than the e%perimental value #as
obtained in simulation #hich is a quite insignificant difference.
Fig. *.24:-8xperimental and simulated results of column T>C1
@o significant difference #as observed due to confined concrete model. $his #as because
the strains generated due to the applied load intensity #ere less than the strain
corresponding to pea! stress i.e. stresses didn8t supersede the pea! stress. It8s !no#n that
confinement affects the descending branch more significantly as compared to the
ascending branch of the stress1strain curve for concrete.
G<
In order to study the effect of using confined concrete model, the a%ial load on the
column during fire #as increased to ?H== !@ so that stress level during analysis
supersedes pea! values. Fig.*.20 sho#s the results obtained using unconfined concrete
and confined concrete stress1strain relationships LG?M. +esult obtained using both concrete
models overlap upto first ?== minutes but differ significantly beyond it. ,ire resistance
time obtained using unconfined concrete model #as ??G min and ?<E min for confined
concrete model. A plateau can be seen in Fig *.20 starting from ?D min and lasting till >D
min. 0uring this time interval of the e%pansion phase the effects of a%ial load and
e%pansion due to increase in temperature balance each other and leads only to increase in
stresses.
Fig. *.20:-'esults of column T>C1 under increased load level
Fig *.2E & Fig. *.20 sho# the effect of increased load level. $he increase in load level
leads to drastic change in deformation characteristics of the column9 it also reduces the
fire resistance time. An Increase in the a%ial load from G<= !@ to ?H== !@ predicted a
reduction in fire resistance time from ?EE.C min to ??G min.
GA
,
CONCL#SONS
O-.e/0ive1$ ummarise the conclusion dra#n from the results presented
in chapter1< & A. and highlight scope for further studies
CHAPTER ( ,
CONCL#SONS
,.% S#MMAR*
In present study, performance of +" elements (beams and columns* e%posed to different
fire scenario has been studied using A&A./, a commercially available pac!age for
conducting finite element analysis. After conducting e%tensive literature revie#, studies
#ere performed on various aspects of modelling (material, geometry, fire etc*. 2eat
transfer analysis #as conducted using different thermal properties of concrete on < beams
and < columns. 0ifferent #ays of modelling fire e%posure #ere studied. An attempt #as
made to incorporate the effect of moisture during heat transfer analysis. "onsequently,
thermal stress analysis #as carried out on < beams and > columns using different material
models for concrete. $he effect of confined concrete model and loading level #as also
studied.
,.& CONCL#SONS
On the basis of the results obtained, follo#ing conclusions can be dra#n;1
?. -odelling of fire e%posure may be accomplished in t#o #ays K using 7Prescribed
temperature8 boundary condition (i.e. assuming surface temperature to be equal to
furnace) fire temperature* and alternatively using 7urface convection and
radiation8 type boundary condition. $he result suggests that the enforcement of the
t#o types of boundary condition does not alter the thermal gradient significantly
during heating phase, though the effect is more illustrative and accurate during the
cooling phase.
>. $he thermal properties ta!ing into account the moisture content, as given in
'urocode>, results into predicted temperature variation closer to the e%perimental
values. $he effect is more pronounced to#ards the core of the concrete element.
<. $he temperature profile prediction for @ormal strength concrete (@"* elements,
based upon the 'urocode> model for the conductivity (lo#er bound* and specific
heat (modified for moisture content* are far superior to predictions derived from
other models listed in chapter1<. On the contrary, in the case of 2igh strength
concrete (2"* elements, 'urocode> recommendation based upon thermal
conductivity (upper bound* and specific heat gives accurate predictions.
GC
A. -echanical properties of normal strength concrete at elevated temperature have
been borro#ed from 'urocode> in vie# of its #ider acceptability and simplicity
and the same has been employed for stress analysis of +" elements under thermal
and mechanical loads. $he numerical investigation carried out on different beams
and columns under varying fire e%posure indicates a variation in the range of
D.Ca 1??.=a for the parameter S,ire resistanceT.
C. $he fire resistance obtained for high strength concrete elements differ by A.=a
#ith reference to the e%perimental values. $o this end, it may be noted that the
mechanical properties of concrete at elevated temperature used in ,' based
formulation are referred from "heng et al (>==A*
?G
.
D. $he limited numerical e%perimentation also suggests that employing the
constitutive parameters identical for both heating and cooling phase in the stress
analysis results in large variation compared to e%perimental observations in the
cooling phase.
E. Attempts have also been made to minimise the error observed in the predicted
results on various beams and columns considered in the present study. $his has
been accomplished by introducing the constitutive models at elevated temperature
ta!ing into account the effect of preloading and confinement. $he results are not
conclusive, though encouraging, due to the very fact that only one such model is
available in the literature.
On the basis of entire study, it can be concluded that the response of +" element during
fire is a function of large number of variables li!e temperature dependent thermal
properties ($hermal "onductivity and pecific heat* of material, temperature dependent
mechanical properties (tress1strain relationship, Boung8s modulus of elasticity etc* of
materials, effect of moisture content, variation in modelling of fire e%posure, temperature
dependency of permeability and void ratio, modelling of spalling, effect of load level,
effect of confinement, effect of restrains and many more. $he above stated parameters are
in turn dependent on large number of other variables. A proper understanding of these
variables may help us to model the behaviour of +" elements closer to reality.
,.) RECOMMENDATONS "OR "#RTHER WORK
palling can occur in all concrete types #hen e%posed to rapid heating. palling has the
effect of reducing the cross1sectional area of the structural member, thus increasing the
GD
chances of heat penetration to the steel reinforcement. It also leads to reduction in
strength and stiffness of the member. $hus spalling influences the response of both 2eat
transfer analysis and thermal stress analysis. At present, there is very limited information
on incorporating spalling in fire resistance calculations. $herefore, there is a need to
device #ays of modelling spalling of concrete due to fire e%posure.
0uring literature revie# it #as found that no material properties are available for the
cooling phase. $hus there is a need for evaluating these material properties either by
e%perimentation or by analytical formulation.
Precise constitutive material models for confined concrete are most important in studying
the behaviour of concrete elements e%posed to fire. :ac! of literature in this area suggests
a #ide scope for detailed e%perimental or analytical research in this field.
"urrent #or! on +" elements can be e%tended to the ne%t phase by conducting a detailed
study on full scaled model of +" frames.
GE
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