P

a
g
e
1







BSC Degree in Textile Design
1
st
Year

352-4 Fabric Study


P
a
g
e
2


INDEX

Unit I ................................................................. 3
Lesson 1: Yarns ..................................................... 4
Lesson 2: Cotton System, Wool System ................ 7
Lesson 3: Alternate Spinning Processes .............. 16

Unit II .............................................................. 22
Lesson 4: Yarn Properties ................................... 23
Lesson 5: Number of Yarn Parts .......................... 28
Lesson 6: Textured Yarns .................................... 35
Lesson 7: Fibre Blends ........................................ 39

Unit - III ............................................................. 44
Lesson 8: Definition of Weaving .......................... 45
Lesson 9: Woven Fabrics ..................................... 51
Lesson 10: Fancy Weaves ................................... 65

Unit - IV .............................................................. 84
Lesson 11: Other Methods of Fabrication ............ 85
Lesson 12: Leather Science ................................. 91

Unit V ............................................................. 137
Lesson 13: Collection of Swatches and Maintaining
a Swatch File..................................................... 138

Books for Further References............................ 210


P
a
g
e
3










Unit I
Lesson 1: Yarn definition
Lesson 2: Cotton system, wool system
Lesson 3: Alternate spinning processes





P
a
g
e
4

Lesson 1: Yarns
Objective
To learn what is a yarn
To study different forms of yarn
Structure
1.1 What is a yarn?
Forms of yarn
Basic structure of yarn
1.1 Yarn Processing
1.2 Identification of spun and filament yarn

1.1 What is a Yarn?
To convert textile fibers into fabrics some type of
fiber arrangement is required. Probably the most
common method is to convert fibers into yarns,
which are then constructed into fabrics .Yarns are
essential for knitting ,weaving, braiding etc.The
basic unit to make yarn is fibers. Thus yarns are
composed of textile fibres.

The term yarn has been defined by the American
Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) as
a continuous strand of textile fibres, filaments,
or material in a form suitable for knitting,


P
a
g
e
5

weaving or otherwise interlacing to make a
textile fabric.
Yarn occurs in the following forms
a) a number of fibres twisted together
b) a number of filaments laid together without twist
c) a number of filaments laid together with little
twist
d) a single filament
e) one or more strips made by the length wise
division of a sheet of material such as a natural
or synthetic polymer, a paper or a metal foil.
Basic structure of yarn includes four types
Monofilament :composed of a single filament
Multifilament :composed of several filaments
Staple yarns: are yarns made from short length
fibers.

Filament yarns: are made from filament fibers.
Note:
The filaments appear in man-made fabrics.
The only natural filament fibre is silk.
The filaments can be cut down to short lengths
(like cotton), and twisted to make yarns.
Natural fibers always have a short length and
need spinning to make yarns.


P
a
g
e
6

1.2 YARN PROCESSING
Yarns composed of staple fibres are frequently
called spun yarns or staple fibre yarns. The spun
yarns are manufactured by either the Wool or the
Cotton System.
1.3 Identication of spun and filament yarn
When a spun yarn is untwisted and pulled, yarn
simply comes apart without breaking
When filament yarn is untwisted and pulled,
fibers remain parallel and yarn does not come
apart






















P
a
g
e
7

Lesson 2: Cotton System,
Wool System
Objective
To study the yarn processing through cotton
system and wool system
To understand different steps and there
importance in yarn processing
Structure
2.1 Cotton system
2.2 Wool system


2.1 COTTON SYSTEM
Manufacturing Process
1. Sorting and Blending: Cotton and other staple
fibres arrive at the processing unit in the form of
bales. The bales are opened and fed into the
blending machines. The machines loosen and
separate the closely packed fibres and remove
any dirt or impurities and blend the fibres into a
uniform mixture.




P
a
g
e
8

2. Picking: The fibers are passed on to the pickers.
These machines clean them further and form
them into a lap about 40-45 wide of randomly
oriented fibres. The lap resembles absorbent
cotton in form and shape. Quality of the yarn is
dependent to a considerable degree upon the
thoroughness of the picking operation and the
uniformity of the picker lap.
3. Carding: The picker lap is next fed into the
carding machine. This step continues the
cleaning process, removing fibres too short for
yarns and separating and partially straightening
them so that their longitudinal axes are
somewhat parallel. The fibres are then spread
into a thin, uniform web. The web moves into a
funnel shaped device where it is gathered into a
soft mass and formed into the card sliver, a
ropelike strand of fibres about inch to 1 inch in
diameter. The card sliver is not completely
uniform in diameter, and the fibres are
considerably more random in arrangement than
a combed sliver. Carded yarns go directly to the
drawing machine; combed yarns receive
additional processing before drawing.

THE PURPOSE OF CARDING:


P
a
g
e
9

to open the individual fibers
cleaning or elimination of impurities
reduction of naps
elimination of dust
elimination of short fibers
fiber orientation or alignment
sliver formation
4. Combing: For high-quality yarns of outstanding
evenness, smoothness, fineness, and strength,
the fibres are combed as well as carded. In the
combing operation several card slivers are
combined and then drawn onto the comb
machine, where they again are spread into a web
form and subjected to further cleaning and
straightening. Short fibres are removed. After
combing, the fibres are pulled from the combing
wires and formed into a combed sliver. This
sliver will produce yarns of high quality.
5. Drawing: Depending on the quality of yarn
desired, drawing follows either carding or
combing. Several slivers are combined and
conveyed to the drawing machine, where they
are pulled together and drawn out into a new
sliver no larger than one of the original single
slivers - diameter. Fibre the yarn is to be an
intimate blend of two or more fibres, the slivers
will be different fibres. For example, one sliver of
cotton fibres for each silver of polyester fibres
wild produce a blend of approximately 50
percent polyester and 50 percent cotton. As yet
no twist will have been introduced into the yarn.
Through doubling the slivers are made even
doubling results in homogenization(blending)
through draft fibers get parallelized


P
a
g
e
1
0

hooks created in the card are straightened
through the suction ,intensive dust removal is
achieved
auto leveler maintains absolute sliver fineness
6. Roving: The sliver from the drawing machine is
taken to the roving machine, where it is
attenuated until it measures from to
1
/
8
of its
original diameter. As the roving strand is ready
to leave the roving frame, a slight twist is
imparted to the strand, and it is then ready to
the spinning frame. The fineness and intimacy of
blending of the yarn depend to some degree on
the number of times the slivers are doubled and
redrawn during the roving operation.
7. Spinning: The final process in the manufacture
of yarn is the spinning operation: In the spinning
frame the yarn is stretched to its ultimate
diameter, and the desired amount of twist is
inserted.
Several methods are used for imparting twist during
the spinning operation. For cotton yarns as well as
for other fibres processed on the cotton system the
most common technique is ring spinning. In the
ring spinning, the drawn-out roving is guided in a
downward direction through the traveler, a small
inverted U-shaped device. The traveler moves
around the ring at the rate of 4,000 to 12,000
revolutions per minute. As the spindle revolves to
wind the yarn, the latter has to pass through the
traveler, which carries it around on the ring. This
process imparts the desired twist. The yarn as it
comes from the spinning machine is a single yarn.



P
a
g
e
1
1








MANUFACTURING STEPS













P
a
g
e
1
2












2.2 THE WOOL SYSTEM
Wool and man-made fibres can be spun into yarns
by the woolen or the worsted system.



P
a
g
e
1
3

The woolen system is comparable to that used in
spinning carded cotton, where the yarns are
carded, drawn, and spun.
Yarns made by the worsted system are similar to
combed cotton yarns in that the fibres are
combed after carding to produce smoother and
finer-quality yarns. Another difference between
woolen and worsted yarn is the fibre length
involved. Woolen yarns use the shorter length of
wool fibres whereas worsted yarns use the
longer wool fibers.
Steps involved in the manufacturing of
woolen yarn:
1. Sorting: Each fleece is carefully opened, and an
expert grader pulls the fleece apart and sorts the
fibres according to fineness or width and length
of fibre and sometimes according to strength.
The grade of fibre determines the type of product
for which it will be used. Fine fibres that are
relatively long are reserved for sheer wool fabrics
and for worsteds; medium fibres of shorter
length are suitable for woolens; coarse fibres;
both long and short, go into rough fabrics and
carpets. The best-quality fibres come from the
sides and shoulders of the sheep. Lambs wool,
sheared from animals about eight months old, is
used in making very fine-quality, soft-textured
sweaters similar products.






P
a
g
e
1
4

VARIOUS TYPES AND NATURAL COLOURS
OF WOOL
2. Scouring: After sorting, the wool is scoured.
This involves washing in warm soapy water
several times, followed by thorough rinsing and
drying. Scouring is essential, for it removes the
natural grease in the fibre, the body excretions,
dirt, and dust. Natural grease is recovered and
purified and becomes lanolin, used in the
cosmetic industry. Scouring is, of course, not
required for man-made fibres.
3. Carding and combing: Wool fibres are carded
by passing them between cylinders faced with
fine wire teeth. This procedure removes
considerable vegetable matter such as twigs
and burrs that remain in the fibre after scouring
and begins to disentangle the fibres and
straighten them. It can be compared with the
carding of cotton fibres.

Before combing, it must be decided whether the
fibres are to be used for woolen or worsted yarns
and fabrics. Woolen yarns are carded only, and the
fibres are quite random in arrangement.
Considerable foreign matter remains in woolen
yarns, and if this is to be removed, it is eventually
taken out by Carbonization. The latter involves
passing the fabric through a sulphuric acid bath and
applying heat, which combines with the acid to burn
out vegetable matter. A final rinse removes acid and
carbonized matter.
Fibres for worsted yarns are combed by passing
them through the combing machine, where they are
arranged parallel to each other. Short fibres are
removed, and the remaining fibers are pulled into
an untwisted strand called top. Wool tops can be


P
a
g
e
1
5

dyed in this form, or the worsted yarns can be
constructed and dyed later.
4. Spinning: The spinning of wool yarns usually is
done by either the ring method or the mule
method. Large amounts of wool are spun by the
ring method today, because it is faster, it
produces good-quality yarn, and the equipment
occupies less space than the mule frame.
RING-SPINNING: A system of spinning using a
ring-and-traveler takeup wherein the drafting of the
roving and twisting and winding of the yarn onto the
bobbin proceed simultaneously and continuously.
Ring frames are suitable for spinning all counts up
to 150s, and they usually give a stronger yarn and
are more productive than mule spinning frames. The
latest innovation in ring spinning involves the use of
a revolving ring (Also see REVOLVING SPINNING
RING) to increase productivity. Ring spinning
equipment is also widely used to take-up
manufactured filament yarns and insert producer-
twist at extrusion.









P
a
g
e
1
6

Lesson 3: Alternate
Spinning Processes
Objective
To study various alternate spinning process.
Structure
3.1 Open end rotor spinning
3.2 Air jet spinning
3.3 Direct spinning
3.4 Compact spinning
3.5 Twist less spinning
3.6 Self twist spinning

Introduction
These procedures shorten and simplify yarn
spinning by eliminating or bypassing some of the
steps in the conventional ring-spinning system. Most
processes focus on eliminating one or more of these
steps: drawing, roving, ring spinning, and
rewinding. However, the two dominant spinning
systems are ring and open-end spinning.
3.1 Open-End Rotor Spinning:
In the rotor-air-jet spinning process, silver is broken
up so that individual fibers are fed by an air stream
and deposited on the inner surface of a rotating
device driven at high speed. As the fibers are drawn
off, twist is inserted by the rotation of the rotor,
thus making a yarn. Open-end rotor spinning.




P
a
g
e
1
7

eliminates the roving and twisting by the ring.
Knots are eliminated
larger packages of yarn are formed,
less operator supervision is needed,
and production speeds are about four times that
of ring spinning, but the yarns produced are
coarser.
(Figure 1).










Friction spinning, a modification of open-end rotor
spinning, combines rotor and air techniques. The
sliver is separated into fibres that are spread into
carding or combing rolls and delivered by air to two
cylinders rotating in the same direction, which pull
the fibres into a yarn. The feed angle into the
cylinder controls fibre alignment. Friction-spun
FIGURE 1: OPEN-END
ROTOR SPINNING.


P
a
g
e
1
8

yarns are more even, freer of lint and other debris,
and loftier, but they are weaker as compared with
conventional yarns. Friction spinning may be used to
process very short waste staple fibre into yarns.
3.2 Air-Jet Spinning:
Air-jet spinning is similar to rotor spinning, except
that an even, regular yarn is formed by moving air
rather than a rotor. Air-jet yarn are less elastic,
weaker, and rougher than either ring or rotor-
spun yarns.
AIR JET SPINNING: A spinning system in which
yarn is made by wrapping fibers around a core
stream of fibers with compressed air. In this
process, the fibers are drafted to appropriate sliver
size, then fed to the air jet chambers where they
are twisted, first in one direction, then in the
reverse direction in a second chamber. They are
stabilizedafter each twisting operation


3.3 Direct Spinning:
Direct spinning eliminates the roving but still uses
the ring-spinning device for inserting the twist.




P
a
g
e
1
9

The sliver is fed directly to the spinning frame. This
machine is used to make heavier yarn for pile
fabrics and carpets.

3.4 Compact Spinning:
Compact spinning is a variation of ring spinning that
condenses the roving before final twist insertion and
creates a yarn with better smoothness and strength.

3.5 Twist less Spinning:
Twist less spinning eliminates the twisting process.
A roving is wetted, drawn out, sprayed with sizing
or adhesive, wound on a package, and steamed to
bond the fibres together. The yarns are ribbon like
in shape and stiff because of the sizing. They lack
strength as individual yarns but gain strength in the
fabric from the pressure between the warp and
filling. The absence of twist gives the yarns a soft
hand, good luster, and opacity after the sizing is
removed. The yarns are easy to dye and have good
durability but are not suitable to very open fabric
structures.

3.6 Self-Twist Spinning:
In self-twist spinning, two strands of roving are
carried between two rollers, which draw out the
roving and insert twist. The yarns have areas of S-
twist and areas of Z-twist. When the two twisted
yarns are brought together, they intermesh and
entangle, and, when pressure is released, the yarns
ply over each other.





P
a
g
e
2
0

Summary:
Yarns are continuous. Stands of textile fibers,
filaments or material in a form suitable for knitting,
weaving or otherwise interlacing to make a textile
fabric. Yarns can be multifilament or monofilament
cotton is processed into yarn after going through
various processes staging from sorting, picking,
carding, combining, drawing, rowing and spinning.
To spun wool yarn the steps are sorting, scouring,
carding and combing and spinning. Alternate
spinning process procedures shorten and simplify
yarn spinning by eliminating or bypassing some of
the steps in the conventional ring-spinning system.
Most processes focus on eliminating one or more of
these steps drawing, roving, ring spinning and
rewinding. However, the two dominant spinning
systems are ring and open end spinning. Other
alternate spinning process are air jet spinning,
direct spinning, compact spinning, twist less
spinning and self twist spinning.

Revision Points:
- To weave or knit of fabric it is necessary to have
yarns. Yarns are composed of textile fibers.
- Yarns occur in 5 different ways
- Yarns composed of staple fibers are frequently
called spun yarns or staple fiber yarns. The spun
yarns are manufactured by either the wool or the
cotton system.
- The alternate spinning processes are open-end
rotor spinning, air jet spinning, direct spinning,
direct spinning, compact spinning, twist less
spinning and self twist spinning.



P
a
g
e
2
1

Intext Question:
1. What are the steps involved in the cotton system
of your construction?
2. What are the faster and newer methods of yarn
construction.

Terminal Exercise:
1. What is a yarn?
2. What is open-end rotor spinning?
3. What is carbonization?
4. What is the difference between carded and
combed yarns?
5. What is the difference between woolen and
worsted fabrics?

Assignment:
Collecting swatches and maintaining a swatch file

Keywords:
Fleece - wool obtained from living animal
Suet hard fat of an animal
Lanolin Extract obtained from sheep wool used in
ointments
Twigs Small branch of tree
Burr A rough edge of cutting tost left inside the
fibre
Sizing the process of applying starch onto the
yarn to make them stiff.



P
a
g
e
2
2








Unit II

Lesson 4: Yarn properties
Lesson 5: Number of yarn parts
Lesson 6: Textured yarns
Lesson 7: Fiber Blends




P
a
g
e
2
3

Lesson 4: Yarn Properties
Objective
To learn what is thread, yarn and its parts &
types
Structure
4.1 Thread and Yarn
4.2 Yarn twist and its effects
4.3 Balanced and unbalanced yarns
4.4 Yarn Number or Yarn Count


4.1 Thread and Yarn
Thread and yarn are basically very similar.
Yarn is the term usually applied when the
assembled age of fibres is employed in the
manufacture of fabric. They can be simple as
well as fancy.
Whereas thread indicates a product used to join
pieces of fabric together to create textile
products. They are always simple

4.2 Yarn twist and its effects
Twist is inserted to the fibres to help hold them
together. The amount of twist is sometimes
identified broadly as low, medium or high. It is more
accurate to define twist as the number of turns per
unit length (metric or inch).

More the twist per inch, finer and more compact
is the yarn;
More the twist, stronger will be the yarn. Beyond
a certain optimum point, the twist will cause the


P
a
g
e
2
4

yarns kinks and eventually the yarn will become
brittle and loose strength;
Increased twist adds elasticity to the yarn;
Yarns become more resistant to abrasion with a
higher twist;
High twist gives a smooth surface to the yarn so
that they can shed soil easily.
Yarns with low twist are soft, fluffy and tend to be
warmer because of air spaces to serve as insulation
areas. They have a surface texture but are less
strong and abrade easily as compared to yarns with
high twist. They also tend to snag.

4.3 Balanced and unbalanced yarns:
Balanced yarns are those in which the twist is
such that the yarn will hang in a loop without
kinking, doubling or twisting upon itself.
Unbalanced yarns have a sufficient twist to set up
a torque effect and the yarn can untwist and
retwist in the opposite direction. Smooth fabrics
require balanced yarns, but for textured effects,
unbalanced yarns are used.
Direction of the twist: Yarns can be twisted with
either a right hand twist (S-twist) or the left handed
twist (Z-twist). The direction of the twist conforms
to the centre bar of the letter. Various effects can be
obtained by combining yarns of different twist
directions.





S-TWIST Z-TWIST
FIGURE 2: S- AND Z-TWIST
YARNS


P
a
g
e
2
5

4.4 Yarn Number or Yarn Count:
Count of yarn: The count of a yarn is a numerical
expression which defines its fine ness. The count of
a yarn is the number indicating the mass per unit
length or the length per unit mass.
To calculate the yarn number there are
two systems:
Direct System
Indirect System
DIRECT SYSTEM
In this system the yarn number or count is the
weight of a unit length of yarn i.e. length is constant
and mass varies. It is used to measure manmade or
silk yarn i.e. filament yarns. Direct numbering can
de done by using either tex or denier
DENIER SYSTEM
It is a national system
Higher the denier, thicker the yarn
1 denier yarn is a yarn where 9000 meters ,if
weighed, would equal 1gram.It can be written
as:
9000m-1gm-1denier
9000m-2gm-2denier
Basic formula:
Denier=Gm X L ( 9000)/M
Den=denier no.
Gm=gram(wt)
L=Length in 9000 meters
M=meters



P
a
g
e
2
6

TEX SYSTEM
It is an international system
The tex system was introduced by the
international organization for standardization
(ISO)
The greater the weight the thicker the yarn and
consequently higher the tex number.
1tex=1gm/km
It is different from denier as 1000 meter length
is selected inspite of 9000 meters.
Tex number is always relatively smaller than the
equivalent denier because a shorter length is
used.
Basic formula:
Tex=1000 x Gm/meter
(1denier=9 x tex)
INDIRECT SYSTEM
It is used for cotton, woolen and worsted yarns. In
an indirect system the yarn number or count is the
number of units of lengths per unit of weight.
Indirect numbering can be done by using
cotton English system.
COTTON ENGLISH SYSTEM
It is an indirect system.
One in widest use
Based on length per unit weight
As length increases fineness increases
The yarn number is measured by the number of
840 yard hanks in 1 pound of the material.



P
a
g
e
2
7

Note:
Yarns are numbered by measuring the weight in
pounds of one 840-yard hank. In simpler words
it is the number of 840 yard hanks required to
weight one pound. For example if 840 yards of
cotton weight one pound the yarn number is 15;
if it requires thirty hanks to weigh one pound,
the yarn number is 30s. A heavy yarn is 15;
medium yarn is 30s and light weight is 160s.
The woolen yarn is measured by the number of
300 yard hanks per pound, where as worsted is
measured by the number of 560 yard hanks per
pound.
Silk and man made yarns are usually measured
using the denier system. The denier is equal to
the weight in grams of 9,000 meters of yarn.
Owing to the international scope of the textile
industry, an universal system for yarn numbering
or yarn count is used. This method called tex,
determines the yarn number by measuring the
weight in grams of kilometer (1,000 meters) of
yarn. The weight is the tex yarn number.


P
a
g
e
2
8

Lesson 5: Number of Yarn
Parts
Objective
To learn various types of simple & complex
yarn
Structure
5.1 Simple yarn/ yarn parts
5.2 Complex yarn
5.3 Classification of simple and complex yarn

5.1 SIMPLE YARN/YARN PARTS
An important characteristic by which yarns are
categorized is the number of parts used in yarn
formation and they are also known as simple yarn.
The three categories include single, ply, and cord or
cable.
1. Single yarn: is the most basic assemblage of
fibres, either staple or filament, suitable for
operations involved in making fabrics. These
yarns can be made from any fibre and by any of
the yarn construction processes described in the
previous chapter. Single yarns may be simple or
complex. A single yarn made to be a simple yarn
would be identified as a simple single yarn.
2. Ply yarn: is made by combining two or more
single yarns. These are twisted or plied
together. In the naming of a ply yarn, especially
a simple ply, the number of singles used
precedes the word ply. For example, if two
singles are used, the resulting yarn is called a
two-ply; if four singles are used, it is a four-ply.
When simple single yarns are combined to form


P
a
g
e
2
9

a simple ply yarn, the number is inserted as
follows: a simple x-ply yarn. The number used
indicates the number of singles in the yarn.
Complex ply yarns are discussed in the next
section.
3. Cord or cable yarns consist of two or more ply
yarns twisted together. In identifying a cord, one
must indicate the number of plies in the cord.
Thus, a 4, 7 ply cord indicates that each ply is
made of seven singles and that four of these
seven-ply yarns have been combined to make
the cord.
Note:
Single, ply, or cord yarns may be made of staple
fibres or filament fibres
(a) Cord
Yarn


P
a
g
e
3
0

In the case of ply and cord types may be made
of a combination of filament singles and staple
fibre singles.
Typically, however, simple yarns are generally
made of one fibre type, either all staple or all
filament fibres.

5.2 SIMPLE AND COMPLEX YARNS
1. Simple Yarns: Yarns that are even in size, have
an equal number of twists per inch throughout
their length, and are smooth and uniform are
called the simple yarns.
Simple yarns tend to produce smooth flat fabrics
which are durable and easy to maintain.
Crepe yarns are a variation of simple yarns. A
crepe yarn is given a very high degree of twist so
that the yarns tend to kink. This kinkiness results in
the rough surface texture that is a characteristic of
crepe fabrics.










P
a
g
e
3
1

2. Complex Yarns: Complex yarns are made
primarily for their appearance value. They are
characterized by irregularities in size, twist and
effect. Most complex yarns are either single or
ply yarns.

a) Complex Single Yarns
1. Slub Yarn A slub yarn may either be a single
or a 2-ply yarn. In a single slub, the yarn is left
untwisted or slackly twisted at irregular intervals.
In order to produce soft bulky sections e.g.
shawtung, butcher.
2. Flock or tweed yarns Flicks of short coloured
fibres are twisted into the yarn to add interest
tweeds are often made of wool.

b) Complex Ply Yarns
A complex ply yarn is made up of 3 parts
i. Core ply or ground or the foundation yarn
to give strength to the yarn.
ii. The effect ply is responsible for creating the
design and appearance.
iii. The tie or the binder ply holds the effect ply
and ply together (Fig. 5).


15.3 Complex ply yarns are novelty or
fancy yarns.
The following are typical novelty ply yarns:
(Fig. 4)



P
a
g
e
3
2

1. In ratine yarns, the effect ply is twisted in a
spiral arrangement around the ground ply. At
intervals, a longer loop is thrown out, kinks back
on itself, and is held in place by the binder.
These yarns are used primarily in furnishings.














P
a
g
e
3
3

2. The knot, spot, nub or knop yarn is made by
twisting the effect ply many times in the same
place. Two effect plies of different colours may
be used and the knots arranged so the coloured
spots alternate along the length of the yarn. A
binder is added during the twisting operation.
These yarns are used in apparel and furnishings.
3. In spike or snarl yarn, the effect ply forms
alternating open loops along both sides of the
yarn. These yarns are used in apparel and
furnishings.
4. Loop, curl, or boucle yarn has closed loops at
regular intervals along the yarn. These yarns are
used in fabrics to create a looped pile resembling
caraculs lambskin called astrakhan cloth. They
are also used to give textures to other fabrics.
Mohair, rayon, and acetate may be used for the
effect ply in apparel and furnishings.
5. Metallic yarns have been used for thousands of
years. For processing and use information.
Metallic yarns my be monofilament fibres or
combined in ply yarns. Metallic fancy yarns are
used primarily in apparel. However, some
metallic looking yarns are made from ultra fine
plastic fibres of nylon or polyester split film made
of 200 layers. These film yarns produce luminous
and iridescent effects without the comfort
problems of metallic monofilaments.
6. Chenille yarn is made by cutting a specially
woven ladder like fabric into warp wise strips.
The cut ends of the softly twisted yarns loosen
and form a fringe. Chenille or caterpillar yarn
may be woven to produce pile on one side or on
both sides.
7. Spiral or corkscrew: This effect is obtained by
twisting together yarns of different diameters or
different fibres.


P
a
g
e
3
4

Classification of Novelty or Fancy Yarns




Classification of Single Simple Yarns









P
a
g
e
3
5


Lesson 6: Textured Yarns
Objective
To learn different textured yarn and
processes
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Definition
6.3 Types of textured yarns
6.4 Methods of producing textured yarns

6.1 Introduction
As the name suggests, it means giving texture to
either a staple or a filament yarn. Textured yarns
may be regular or irregular so they bear superficial
resemblance to simple or complex yarns.

6.2 Definition
Texturing is the formation of crimp, loops, coils, or
crinkles in filaments. Such changes in the physical
form of a fibre (several examples of which are
shown in ) affect the behaviour and hand of fabrics
made from them.

6.3 There are 3 types of textured yarns:
(a) Stretch
(b) Modified Stretch
(c) bulked


P
a
g
e
3
6

Stretch yarns: have extremely high level of elastic
extensibility and recovery.
Modified Stretch :yarns have some degree of
stretch, but they have been stabilized by
processing, to control the stretch.
Bulked yarns: are special textured yarns designed
to contribute bulk to the fabrics. They are fluffy and
bulky and are used for sweaters, carpets and wool
like knits. These have very little or no stretch.
Textured yarns

6.4 METHODS OF PRODUCING TEXTURED
YARNS
a) Stuffer Box Crimping: The stuffer box
produces a saw tooth crimp on the yarn. The
crimp is heat set, so that when the filaments are


P
a
g
e
3
7

removed, the crimp remains. The most well
known stuffer box yarn is Ban-Lon; and nylon
and polyester are most frequently used for this
method.
b) Draw Texturizing: The filaments are twisted
partially, heat set and then untwisted. It is a
faster and cheaper way of making textured
yarns.
c) Air Jet Method: The process is a highly refined
rewinding operation that provides for a brief
exposure of a multi filament yarn to a turbulent
stream of compressed air. The air in
concentrated jets, blows the filaments apart and
forms loops in the individual fibres. The resulting
yarn is bulky and does not exhibit stretch. For
example Taslan.
d) Knit De knit: This involves knitting filament
yours into fabric, heat-setting the fabric, then
deknitting or unraveling the yarn. The unraveled
yarn exhibits crimp.
e) Gear Crimping: In gear crimping yarns under
controlled tension and temperature are carried
between rotating gear that give a saw-tooth
configuration to the filaments. Textured yarns
are good moisture absorbers. They have stretch
to give a freedom of movement and bulk to give
warmth. Care must be taken to avoid snagging.








P
a
g
e
3
8

































P
a
g
e
3
9


Lesson 7: Fibre Blends
Objective
To study the meaning of blend, mixture and
combination

A blend is an intimate mixture of fibres of different
generic type, composition, length, diameter, or
colour spun together into one yarn. In intimate
blends, both fibres are present in the same yarn in
planned proportions. Fibre types cannot be
separated; they are next to each other throughout
the yarn. When intimate blend yarns are untwisted
and examined through a microscope, both fibres are
visible in the viewing area.
Mixture refers to yarns of different generic types
within a fabric. In a mixture, yarns of one fibre type
are used in the warp and yarns of another type are
used in the filling. When fabrics of this type are
unraveled, the fibres can be separated by placing all
warp yarns in one pile and all filling yarns in another
pile.
In a combination, ply yarns are used. At least one
component of the ply yarn is of a different generic
fibre type from the other components of the ply
yarn. For example, many fabrics that incorporate a
metallic component are combinations because the
metallic component is part of a plied fancy yarn.
Blends, mixtures, and combinations produce fabrics
with properties that are different from those
obtained with one fibre only. This discussion relates
to blends because they are most common, but these
comments also apply to mixtures and combinations.


P
a
g
e
4
0

Blending is done for several reasons:
1. To produce fabrics with a better combination of
performance characteristics. Although blends
never perform as well in the areas of positive
performance as fabrics of only one fibre, blends
help compensate for poor performance. In end
uses for which durability is important, nylon or
polyester blended with cotton or wool increases
strength and resistance to abrasion, while the
wool or cotton look in maintained. For example,
100 percent cotton fabrics are not as durable as
polyester/cotton blends, and polyester/cotton
blends are less absorbent than 100 percent
cotton fabrics.
2. To improve spinning, weaving, and finishing
efficiency and to improve uniformity.
3. To obtain better texture, hand, or fabric
appearance. A small amount of a specialty wool
may be used to give a buttery or slick hand to
wool fabrics, or a small amount of rayon may
give luster and softness to a cotton fabric. Fibres
with different shrinkage properties are blended
to produce bulky, lofty fabrics or more realistic
furlike fabrics.
4. To minimize fibre cost. Expensive fibres can be
extended by blending them with less-expensive
fibres. Labeling requirements help protect
consumers from unscrupulous labeling practices.
5. To obtain cross-dyed or unique colour effects
such as heather, fibres with unlike dye affinity
are blended together and dyed at a later stage in
processing.
Blending is a complicated and expensive process,
but the combination of properties it provides is
permanent. Blends offer better serviceability of
fabrics as well as improved appearance and hand.


P
a
g
e
4
1

Summary:
Yarns are used to make fabric and threads are used
to stitch fabric into garment. Yarn twist help to hold
fibers together. It impart varies properties into the
yarn. Yarn can be twisted either in s or z
direction. Yarn number is the measure of linear
density. The unit used for measuring it are hanks,
denier or tex. Yarn can be divided into single, ply
and cord. Simple yarns are even in size and have an
equal number of twist per inch. It is of two types
tweed/flock and slub. Complex ply yarn is composed
of core ply, effect ply and binder ply. The fancy
yarns are also known as novelty yarn which are
classified as ratine, spiral, knot, boucle and
metallic, chenille. Textured yarns can be stretched,
modified stretch or bulked yarns. The process used
for imparting texture are stuffer box crimping, air
jet method, knit, deknit, gear crimping, draw text
rising. Blending is done with fibers of different
generic type, composition, length or colour to
produce a yarn. Mixture refers to yarns of different
generic types within a fabric. Blending increases
performance charactertics like increase strength,
abrasion resistance etc.

Revision points:
- Yarn is the turn usually applied when the
assemblage of fibers is employed in the
manufacture of fabric. Thread indicates a product
used to joint pieces of fabric together
- Twist is inserted to the fiber to help hold them
together
- There are 2 types of yarns balanced &
unbalanced
- Twist is either given in s shape or z shape


P
a
g
e
4
2

- Yarn number is the measure of the linear density
- Three parts of yarn ingle, ply and cord or cable
- Yarns can be simple or complex 1 fancy yarns
- Textured yarns are manufactured by 5 different
process
- Textured yarns are of 3 types stretch, modified
stretch & bulked.

Intext Question:
1. How does yarn twist contribute to yarn
properties?
2. What are denier and tex?
3. Name and explain with diagram the 3 parts of a
complex ply yarn.
4. Name the different kinds of Novelty yarns.
5. Explain the different methods of producing
textured yarns.

Terminal Exercise:
1. What is a yarn?
2. What is open-end rotor spinning?
3. What is the difference between carded and
ombed yarns?
4. What are S and Z twists?
5. What are balanced and unbalanced yarns?
6. What are denir and tex?
7. What is single yarn, ply yarn, cord or cable yarn?
8. Name and explain with diagram the 3 parts of a
complex ply yarn.



P
a
g
e
4
3

9. Name the different kinds of Novelty yarns.
10.Explain the different methods of producing
textured yarns.
11.What are fiber blends? Give reasons why
blending is done

Assignment:
Collecting swatches and maintaining a swatch file

Keywords:
1. Torque twisted wire
2. Tweed short fibers of wool
3. Kink twist in a rope/yarn
4. Crimp waviness in the yarn
5. Tension stretch given to the yarn


P
a
g
e
4
4










Unit - III
Lesson 8: Definition of weaving
Lesson 9: Woven fabrics
Lesson 10: Fancy weaves







P
a
g
e
4
5


Lesson 8: Definition of
Weaving
Objective
Defining weaving and to learn about warp and
weft
Structure
8.1 Fabric Construction

8.1 FABRIC CONSTRUCTION
A fabric is a pliable structure that can be made into
2 or 3 dimensional products that require some
shaping and flexibility. It is made up of yarns which
in turn are made up of fibres.
A fabric can be constructed by weaving i.e.
interlacing of yarns, knitting, lacing, braiding,
fusing, felting.
Weaving:
Weaving is one of the oldest and most widely used
methods of making fabric. It is done by interlacing
the yarns at right angles.
Warp Yarns are those yarns which lie in the
lengthwise direction of a fabric while it is being
woven. They are also known as ends.
Weft /Filling Yarn are those which, during
weaving are introduced between the warp yarns,
across the width wise direction The y are also known
as picks..
Woven fabrics are prepared on the loom. A loom
holds the warp yarns. Parallel to each other and the
weft is interlaced through the warp. Different


P
a
g
e
4
6

patterns of interlacing can give different surface
effects or patterns on the fabric.
Selvedge:
In a woven fabric, the selvage (or selvedge) is the
uncut edge of the fabric which is on the right- and
left-hand edges as it comes out of the loom. As such
it is 'finished' and will not fray because the weft
threads double back on themselves. Very often
fabric near the selvage is not usable as it may have
a different weave pattern, or may lack pile or prints
that are present on the rest of the fabric requiring
that the selvage fabric be cut off or hidden in a
hem. In hand knitting, the selvage may be
considered finished; it may also be used in seaming
garments, or finished and reinforced using crochet
or other techniques.

The Selvage of a piece of curtain
A selvedge is the lengthwise self-edge of a fabric
which is formed when the weft yarn turns to go
back across the fabric. It is found on both ends of
the fabric usually to broad.


P
a
g
e
4
7

The conventional loom makes the same kind of
selvedge on both sides of the fabric. Shuttle looms
have fringed selvedges. Taped selvedges are used in
sheeting materials. Split selvedges happen when
turns are woven side by side and cut apart after
weaving. Fused selvedges are found in narrow
fabrics of thermoplastic fibers.
Main purpose of selvedge.
Is to hold warp and weft yarns
It prevents fabric from raveling
It is usually much more compact than rest of the
fabric
There are more warp yarns in the area of
selvedge
Mostly ply is used for selvedge

Types of selvedge
a) Plain selvedge
Selvedge made in a plain weave with same size yarn
as in the rest of the fabric. But the yarns are packed
more closely together then rest of the fabric. Such
fabric are durable and firm.
b) Tape selvedge
It has same number of warp yarns/inch as the body
but the warp yarns are heavier but the weave may
be plain,rib,or basket. It gives higher strength to
the fabric.
c) Split selvedge
Fabrics of double the required width are made with
2 selvedges in the centre which is cut down with
scissors so that 2 fabrics will automatically have 2


P
a
g
e
4
8

cut edges which is then finished with chain stitch or
hem.
d) Fringed selvedge
It is found in shuttle less loom. It has two types
Tuck-in and Leno weave.
Tuck-in=A device is used to tuck in and hold the
cut ends into fabric edges.
Leno=The twisting weft passes through the
helical kind of structure.
e) Fused selvedge
Seen in case of thermoplastic fibers. Edges of the
fabric are heated ,fiber melts and fuse together .
Differentiating between warp and weft
is possible by carefully examining the
fabric.
1. Selvedge always runs in the warp or the
lengthwise direction.
2. Most fabrics have lower elongation in the warp
direction. The weft direction has more
elongation.
3. The warp yarns lie straighten and more parallel
because of the loom tension.
4. Fancy yarns are usually in the filling direction.
Grain
Grain refers to the geometry or position of the warp
yarns relative to the filling yarns in the fabric. A
fabric that is on grain has warp yarns exactly
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the weft
yarns. Handling, finishing, dyeing may cause the
fabric to distort and loose their on grain
characteristics. These fabrics are called off grain;
they cause problems in production and use. There
are 2 kinds of off-grain. Skew occurs when the filling


P
a
g
e
4
9

yarns is at an angle other than 90 to the warp.
Bow occurs when the filling yarn dip in the centre of
the fabric. It usually develops when the fabric centre
lags behind the 2 sides during finishing.
Fabric Width
The loom determines the widths of the fabric Hand
woven fabrics are narrow, often 27 to 36 wide.
Traditional fabric width are related to fibre type;
cotton fabrics are 45 or 60 wide; wool fabrics are
54 to 60 inches wide and silk type fabrics are 40 to
45 inches wide. Fabric widths have increased
because wide fabrics are more economical to weave
and allow efficient use during garment construction.
Some basic fabrics regardless of fibre type exceed
60 inches width.
Fabric weight: The fabrics are divided
into.
1. Light weight: Those that weigh less than
40z/yd
2
. They are soft, sheer, and drape well.
2. Medium weight: Those that weight from 4
to 6 oz/yd
2
. They are heavier and stiffer.
3. Heavy weight: Those that weight more
than 60z/yd
2
. They are durable, stiff and
thick.
Fabric count or fabric density or thread
count
This refers to the number of warp and weft yarns
per square inch of grey goods (fabric as it comes
from the loom). Count may increase due to
shrinkage during dyeing and finishing. Count is
written with warp first and then weft for e.g. 80x76
(read as 80 by 76) means, there are 80 warps and
76 wefts in one square inch of the fabric. This is
measured by the fabric yarn counter often referred
to as pick glass. Count is the indication of the


P
a
g
e
5
0

quality of the fabric. Higher the count better is the
quality of the fabric.
Balance is the ratio of the warp yarns to filling yarns
in a fabric. A balanced fabric has one warp yarn for
every filling yarn, or a ratio of 1:1 e.g. print cloth
which has a count of 78x78. An unbalanced fabric
has significant more of one set of yarns than the
other e.g. broad cloth with a count of 144x76 and a
ratio of 2:1.
Identifying the face and back of a fabric
For cutting and sewing purposes, it is necessary to
identify the face, or the right side of a fabric. When
the cloth is on a fabric role, identification becomes
easy because the fabric is wound or folded with the
right side inside to keep it clean.
Off the roll, the shinier or more lustrous is the face.
If a fabric is printed, the more distinct side is the
face. When the fabric has a rap, the face is, as a
rule, the fuzzier side. When a slub yarn is used,
they tend to be more outstanding on the right side.
Twills often have a diagonal distinct ridge on the
face. Satin weave is smooth and lustrous on the
face. Pile weave has a pile an the face.






P
a
g
e
5
1


Lesson 9: Woven Fabrics
Objective
To learn different weaves & woven fabrics
Structure
9.1 Plain Weaves
9.2 Balanced Plain Weaves
9.3 Unbalanced Plain Weave
9.4 Basket Weave
9.5 Twill Weave
9.6 Warp-Faced Twills
9.7 Satin Weave
9.8 Sateen


Introduction
The three basic weaves are plain, twill and satin.
These are woven without any modification on the
loom.
9.1 Plain Weaves: Plain weave is the simplest
form of weaving. It is formed by yarns at right
angles passing alternately over and under each
other. Plain weaves have a smooth even surface
unless novelty or textured yarns have been used.
They are durable and inexpensive.

9.2 Balanced Plain Weaves: The simplest plain
weave in which warp and filling yarns are the same


P
a
g
e
5
2

size and same distance apart so that they show
equally on the surface. These are discussed under:
Light weight sheer fabrics:
i. Nivon is a filament sheer, widely used for
curtains it is 100% polyester and hangs well.
ii. Georgette and Chiffon are made with
filament yarns, originally made in silk but now
they are made with different man-made
filaments. In Georgettes there is alternate S
and Z crepe twist for warp and filling yarns.
Chiffons have smaller yarns in a hard twist.
iii. Voile is a sheer fabric made with a high twist
of combed yarns of cotton or cotton blends.
iv. Organdy is the sheerest cotton fabric made.
Its sheerness and crispness are the result of
an acid finish on grey goods. It is very stiff
and prone to wrinkling.
v. Organza is the filament yarn counterpart to
organdy. It has a lot of body end crisp hand.
Both organza and organdy are suitable in
solid colorist prints.
Lightweight Opaque Fabrics:
Lightweight opaque fabrics are very thin and light
but are not as transparent as sheer fabrics. The
distinction between the two groups of fabrics is not
always pronounced. Fabric weight is less than 4.0
oz/yd
2
.

End uses include apparel and furnishings.
Organdy (a sheer fabric), lawn, and batiste begin as
the same gray goods. They differ from one another
in the way they are finished. Lawn and batiste do
not receive the acid finish and, thus remain opaque.
Better quality fabrics are made of combed yarns.
Lawn is often printed and is usually all cotton or
cotton/polyester.


P
a
g
e
5
3

Batiste is the softest of the lightweight opaque
fabrics. It is made of cotton, wool, polyester, or a
blend. Tissue ginghams and chambray are similar in
weight but are yarn-dyed.
China silk is similar to batiste, except that is made
from slightly irregular fine-filament yarns. It is a
soft fabrics that was originally made of silk and used
for womens suit linings and matching blouses.
Habutai is slightly heavier than China silk. Both
fabrics can be dyed or printed.
Challis (shal-ee) tends to be heavier than the
fabrics discussed so far and, depending on fibre
content and fashion, it may be a medium-weight
fabric. Challis is usually made with spun carded
yarns and may be slightly napped so that few fibre
ends are raised to the surface. A classic challis
fabric is wool in a paisley print. It is soft and drapes
well. Challis usually is printed and slightly napped
and frequently is made from rayon.
Low Count Sheer Fabrics:
Low count sheer fabrics include cheese cloth,
crinoline, buckram and bunting. They are
transparent because of open spaces between them.
They are functional fabrics that may be used for
decorative and industrial purposes, or as shaping
and support fabrics in apparel and furnishing.
Medium Weight Fabrics:
Medium-weight fabrics comprise the most widely
used group of woven fabrics. These fabrics have
medium sized yarns and a medium count. They may
be finished in different ways or woven from dyed
yarns. These are used for furnishing items bed and
table linen and some upholstery fabrics.
The fabrics in this group are converted from a gray
goods cloth called print cloth. Yarns can be carded
or combed, depending on the desired count, quality,


P
a
g
e
5
4

and cost of the finished fabric. For example, two
fabrics converted from print cloth are plisse and
embossed.
Percale is a smooth, slightly crisp, printed or plain
coloured fabric made of combed yarns. In percale
bed sheets, counts of 160, 180, 200 and 250 are
available. Percale is called calico if it has a small,
quaint, printed design; chintz if it has a printed
design; and cretonne if it has a large-scale floral
design. When a fabric is given a highly glazed
calendar finish, it is called polished cotton. When
chintz is glazed, it is called glazed chintz. Glazed
chintz is made in solid colours as well as prints.
These fabrics are often made with blends of cotton
and polyester or rayon. They are used for shirts,
dresses, blouses, pajamas, matching curtains and
bedspreads, upholstery, slipcovers, draperies, and
wall coverings.
Any plain-woven, balanced fabric of carded yarns
ranging in weight from lawn to heavy bed sheeting
may be called muslin. It is usually available in
counts of 112, 128, or 140. Muslin is also a name
for a medium-weight fabric that is unbleached or
white.
Napped fabrics may be of either medium or heavy
weight. Flannelette can be found as both balanced
and unbalanced-plain weave fabrics that are lightly
napped on one side. It is described as flannel and is
used for sheets, blankets, sleepwear. shirts,
dresses and jacket linings. Flannelette can be solid
colours, yarn-dyed or prinked. Ginghams are yarn
dyed fabrics in checks and plaids chambrays are
yarn dyed. Thin colour may look solid but have
white wefts and coloured warps. Ginghams and
chambrays are usually made of cotton and cotton
blends. When made in silk, it is called silk gingham
in wool, similar fabrics are called wool checks, plaids


P
a
g
e
5
5

and shepherds checks. Madras gingham has bold
checks and plaids in cotton.
[Note: The design checks is , regular squares all
over the fabrics. All squares are the same size
where as plaids are uneven checks all over the
fabric].
Pongee, is a filament yarn, medium weight fabric.
It has a fine warp of uniform yarns with slub filling
yarns, that are irregular in size. It was originally silk
with slub filling yarns, but is now made of a variety
of fibres. Honan is similar to pongee but has slub in
both warp and filling.
Heavyweight Fabrics:
Heavyweight fabrics are also known as suiting-
weight or bottom-weight fabrics. These fabrics
weigh more than 6.0 oz/yd
2
and are heavy enough
to tailor and drape well. Their filling yarns are
usually larger than the warp yarns and have a
slightly lower twist. Because of their weight, these
fabrics are more durable and more resistant to
wrinkling than are sheer or medium-weight fabrics,
but they tend to ravel more because of the lower
count.
Weavers cloth is general name for cotton suiting
that is converted from a gray goods cloth called
coarse sheeting. Cotton suiting is solid colour or
printed.
Homespun describes furnishing fabrics with slightly
irregular yarns, a lower count, and a hand woven
look.
Crash is made with yarns that have thick-and-thin
areas, giving it an uneven nubby look. It is often
linen or a manufactured fibre or fibre blend that
looks like linen. The irregular surface shows wrinkles
less than a plain surface does. Butcher rayon or
butcher cloth is a similar fabric of 100 percent rayon


P
a
g
e
5
6

or rayon/polyester. Heavier weights look like lined
crash.
Burlap or hessian has a much lower count than
crash. It is used in wall coverings. It has
characteristic coarse, thick-and-thin yarns and is
made of jute.
Osnaburg is a variable-weight fabric most often
found in suiting weight. Like muslin, it may be
unbleached or bleached. In general it is a lower-
quality fabric than muslin, with a lower count. Bits
of leaf and bark from the cotton plant produce a
characteristic spotted appearance. It is a utility
fabric used as a drapery lining, upholstery support
fabric, or substrate for tufted upholstery fabric.
When printed or dyed, it is used in upholstery and
drapery or apparel fabrics.
Flannel is a suiting fabric of woolen yarns that is
napped. It is used for womens suits, slacks, skirts,
and jackets. It may have a plain or twill weave.
Tweed is made from any fibre or blend of fibres and
is always characterized by novelty yarns with nubs
of different colours. Harris tweed is a hand woven in
the Outer Hebrides Islands and carries a certified
registered trademark. Donegal tweed is hand woven
in Donegal County, Ireland.
Tropical worsted suitings are made from long-fibre
worsted yarns and typically weigh form 6 to 10
oz/yd
2
. They are wool-like fabrics made for mens
suits, intended for use in warmer weather. Blends
are common.
Heavyweight balanced-plain weave fabrics are often
used in furnishings such as wall coverings,
upholstery, and draperies. Company-specific names
are common.


P
a
g
e
5
7

9.3 UNBALANCED PLAIN WEAVE
This is also called ribbed weave. Interesting patterns
can be created by this variation. The rib appearance
is produced by using heavy yarns in warp or welt
direction; by grouping yarns in specific areas of the
warp and filling (weft) direction; by having more
warps than filling (weft).
Lightweight Ribbed Fabrics: Crepe de chine,
traditionally a filling crepe-silk fabric, drapes
beautifully. It has a dry, pleasant hand and
medium lustre. The fabric is more commonly
found now as a filament polyester for blouses
and linings with filament warp and fine crepe
twist filling. There are many more warp yarns
per inch than filling yarns, but it does not have a
noticeable rib. Crepe de chine can be dyed or
printed.
Medium-Weight Ribbed Fabrics: Medium
weight (4.0 to 6.0 oz/yd
2
) is the largest group of
ribbed fabrics. Broadcloth has the finest rib of
any of the spun yarn fabrics because the warp
and filling yarns are the same size. However, the
fine rib is due to the much higher number of
warp yarns (2:1 or more). Better-quality fabrics
are made of long staple combed cotton, plied
yarns and may be mercerized for lustre. Slub
broadcloth is made with a yarn that contains
slubs at regular intervals. Silk broadcloth has
filament warp and staple filling. Some yarn-dyed
chambrays are similar to broadcloth in weight
and structure.
Taffeta is fine-ribbed, filament-yarn fabric with
a crisp hand. Note that taffeta is used to describe
both balanced-and unbalanced-plain-weave
fabrics. Iridescent taffeta has warp and filling
yarns of different colours. Moire taffeta has a
water-marked, embossed design.


P
a
g
e
5
8

Shantung has an irregular ribbed surface
produced by long, irregular areas in filling yarns.
It may be medium or suiting weight and of
various fibre types.
Heave weight Ribbed Fabrics: These fabrics
usually weigh more than 6.0 oz/yd
2.
Poplin is
similar to broadcloth, but the ribs are heavier
and more pronounced because of larger filling
yarns. Polyester/cotton/blends are widely used.
Some yarn dyed chambrays are similar to poplin
in weight and structure.
Faille (pronounced file) has fine, subtle rib with
filament-wrap yarns and spun filling yarns. Rep
(or repp) is a heavy, coarse fabric with a
pronounced rib. Bengaline is similar to faille, but
is has a slightly more pronounced rib. It may be
woven with two warps at a time to emphasize
the rib. Ottoman has alternating adjacent large
and small ribs, created by using filling yarns of
different sizes or by using different numbers of
filling yarns in adjacent ribs. Grosgrain
(pronounced grow-grane), usually produced in
ribbon width, also has a rounded rib.
Bedford cord is found most often in furnishing
fabrics such as bedspreads. It has spun warp
yarns that are larger than the filling yarns.

9.4 BASKET WEAVE
This is another variation of the plain weave. The
basket weave is generally defined as having two or
more warp ends interlaced as a unit with one or
more filling yarns. This construction is not so firm
and regular and has a lower strength. Basket
weaves are alternative and have interesting surface
effects.


P
a
g
e
5
9

Dimity is a sheer unbalanced fabric used for
apparel and window treatments. It has heavy warp
cords at intervals across the fabric. The cords may
be formed by yarns larger than those used
elsewhere in the fabric or by grouping yarns
together in that area. Either technique produces the
unique narrow band or stripe indicative of dimity.
Dimity is white or printed.
Oxford is usually a 2x1 or 3x2 basket weave. It is
most common as a 2x1 half-basket weave. It may
have a yarn-dyed warp and white filling and be
called oxford chambray. Oxford looks like a
balanced fabric because the warp yarns are finer
and have higher twist than the filling. Because of
soft yarns and loose weave, yarn slippage may
occur. Oxford fabrics are medium weight, soft,
porous, and lustrous.
Most basket weaves are heavyweight fabrics.
Common ones include sailcloth, duck, or canvas.
Sailcloth is the lightest in weight and made of single
yarns. Duck and canvas are made with single or ply
yarns. Different types of duck and canvas relate to
which yarns (warp or filling) are plied and how
many plies are used in the ply yarn. Duck is coarser.
Canvas is smoother, more compact, and the
heaviest of the three. Sailcloth is used in slacks,
skirts, summer-weight suits, and furnishings.
Usually 2x1 or 3x2 basket weaves, canvas and duck
are sued for slipcovers, boat covers, shoe fabrics,
house and store awnings, tarpaulins, and covers for
military and industrial uses.
Hopsacking is a coarse open basket-weave fabric of
spun yarns. It is primarily used for coats. Suits,
upholstery, and wall coverings.
Monks cloth friars cloth druids cloth, and mission
cloth are some of the oldest full basket weave
fabrics. They are usually off-white in colour. These


P
a
g
e
6
0

are usually off white in colour. These fabrics are
usually found in square counts: 2x2, 3x3, 4x4, or
6x6. They are used primarily in furnishings.

9.5 TWILL WEAVE
The second basic weave pattern used in the
manufacture of fabrics is the twill weave. This is
characterized by a diagonal line on the face of the
fabric. The diagonal face can vary from 14
0
angle
called redialing twill to a 75 degree angle called a
steep twill. At 45
0
degree angle it is called a

regular
twill.
The direction of the twill goes from lower left to
upper right as in wool fabrics, it is called right
handed twill and when from lower right to upper left
it is called the left handed twill.
Sheer fabrics are seldom made with a twill weave.
Twills are continuously not printed. They are heavy
weight fabrics and used for making sturdy working
clothes and upholstery. In twills with a high count,
the fabric is durable and air and water resistant.
Even-Sided Twills
Even-sided twills expose an equal amount of warp
and filling yarn on each side of a fabric. They are
also known as reversible twills because they look
alike on both sides, although the direction of the
twill line differs. Better quality filling yarns are used
in these fabrics as compared with warp-faced twills
because both sets of yarn are exposed to wear.
They are most often
2
/
2
twills and have the best
balance of all the twill weaves (table 12-5).
Foulard or surah is a printed or solid colour
filament fabric of
2
/
3
construction. Used in silk like
dresses, linings, ties, and scarves, it is soft, smooth,
and lightweight.


P
a
g
e
6
1

Serge is a
2
/
2
twill with a subdued wale with
combed or worsted yarns and a clear or hard finish
(not napped or brushed). Serge with fine yarns, a
high count, and a water-repellent finish is used for
jackets, snowsuits, and raincoats. Heavier serge,
with coarse yarns, is used for work pants. Serge
often weighs 10 or more oz/yd
2
.
Twill Flannel:-
Is a
2
/
2
twill. The filling yarns are larger low-twist
woolen or worsted yarns, made especially for
napping. Worsted flannels have less nap, take and
hold a sharp crease better, show less wear, and sag
less than woolen flannels. Even-sided flannel is used
in apparel and upholstery.
Sharkskin is a 2/2 twill with a sleek appearance. It
has a small step pattern because both warp and
filling yarns alternate one white yarn with one
coloured yarn. Sharkskin is used primarily for slacks
and suits.
Herringbone fabrics have the twill line reversed at
regular intervals across the warp to produce a
design that resembles the backbone of a fish, hence
the name herringbone. Two different colour yarns
may be used to accentuate the pattern. Herringbone
patterns can be very subtle or very pronounced.
Herringbone is used in both apparel and furnishings.
Hounds-tooth is a 2/2 twill fabric with a unique
small eight-point pattern. Two yarns in contrasting
colours in the warp and filling are used in groups of
four to create the distinctive pattern. Houndstooth
fabrics also are used in apparel and furnishings.

9.6 WARP-FACED TWILLS
Warp-faced twills have a predominance of warp
yarns on the face of the fabric. Since warp yarns are


P
a
g
e
6
2

made with higher twist, these fabrics are stronger
and more resistant to abrasion and pilling. Table 12-
6 summarizes warp-faced twills. Twill flannel and
herringbone also can be warp-faced twills, usually
with a 2/1 interlacing pattern.
Lining twill is a medium weight 2/1 fabric made
from filament yarns and usually piece-dyed or
printed in a small pattern. It resembles foulard in
appearance and use.
Denim is a yarn-dyed cotton twill available in
several weights, ranging from 6 oz/yd
2
to 14 or
more oz/yd
2
in a 2/1 or 3/1 interlacing pattern. Its
long-term popularity has made it a fashion fabric in
casual wear. It may be napped, printed, made with
spandex or other stretch yarns, or otherwise
modified for fashion.
Jean is a piece-dyed or printed medium-weight twill
used for sportswear, draperies, slipcovers, and work
shirts. Jean is not heavy enough for work pants.
Drill is a strong, medium to heavyweight twill
fabric. It is a 2/1 or 3/1 twill that is piece-dyed. It is
usually seen in work clothing and industrial fabrics.
Covert is a twill fabric with a mottled appearance
resulting from two colours of fibres combined in the
yarns or from two colours of plies twisted together
in one yarn. It is usually a 2/1 heavyweight twill
made of hard-twist worsted yarns.
Chino is a hard-wearing steep-twill fabric with a
slight sheen. Usually, combed two-ply yarns are
used in both the warp and the filling directions.
Chino is typically a summer-weight apparel fabric.
Gabardine is a warp-faced steep or regular twill
with a very prominent , distinct wale that is closely
set together and raised. It always has many more
warp than filling yarns. It can be made of carded or


P
a
g
e
6
3

combed single or ply yarns. The long-wearing fabric
may be heather, striped, plaid, or solid colour.
Cavalry twill also has a pronounced steep, double
twill line in which two diagonal Wales are spaced
very close together and separated by a little space
from the next pair of diagonal Wales.

9.7 SATIN WEAVE
This weave is characterized by long floats on the
face of the fabric. These long floats which are
usually the warps, create a shiny surface and reflect
light.
When warp yarns cover the surface, the fabric is a
warp-faced fabric and the warp count is high. When
filling floats cover the surface, the fabric is a filling
faced fabric and the filling count is high. These
fabrics are unbalanced, but the high count
compensates for the lack of balance.
All satin fabrics have a face and a back that look
significantly different. A high count gives them
strength, durability, body, firmness, and wind
repellency. Fewer interlacing give pliability and
resistance to wrinkling, but yarns may slip and ravel
easily.
Satin fabrics are usually made of bright filament
yarns with very low twist. Satin is almost always
warp faced; warp floats cover the surface. Because
of the bright fibres, low twist, and long floats, satin
is very lustrous. Fabrics are used in dresses, linings,
lingerie, draperies, drapery linings and upholstery.
It is good for linings because the high count makes
it very durable and smooth. Satin makes a more
pliable lining than taffeta because it does not split as
readily or hems. Quality is particularly important in
linings. Low-count satins pull at the seams and


P
a
g
e
6
4

rough up in use. Floats may shift in position and
bubble or wrinkle.
In crepe-back satin, the crepe yarns in the filling
give softness and drapeability, and the low-twist
warp give the smooth, satiny surface to the fabric.
In antique satin, novelty filling yarns add visual
interest to the fabric. Antique satin often is used
with the technical back as the fashion side in
upholstery and window treatments.

9.8 SATEEN
Sateen is a lustrous fabric made of spun yarns. In
order to achieve lustre with staple fibres, medium-
twist yarns form the float surface. Finishes are used
to enhance the lustre and durability.
Filling sateen is a smooth, lustrous cotton fabric
used for draperies, drapery linings, and apparel. It
is often made with carded yarns with a high filling
count. Warp yarns are similar in size to those used
in print cloth, but the filling yarns are slightly larger.
Combed sateens are usually finished for added
lustre.
Warp sateens are cotton fabrics made with warp
floats in a 4/1 interlacing pattern. They may have a
rounded wale effect that resembles a twill fabric.
They are stronger and heavier than filling sateens
because of the high warp count. They are less
lustrous than filling sateen and used where
durability is more important than lustre. Warp
sateens are used in slacks, skirts, bed sheets of 250
to 300 counts, pillow and bed tricking, draperies,
and upholstery fabrics. If any satin fabric is printed,
it is most likely a warp sateen.




P
a
g
e
6
5


Lesson 10: Fancy Weaves
Objective
To learn fancy weaves
Structure
10.1 Dobby Weaves
10.2 Extra Yarn Weaves
10.3 Pique Weaves
10.4 Jacquard Weaves
10.5 Momie Weaves
10.6 Leno Weaves
10.7 Double Cloth
10.8 Pile Weaves
10.9 Filling-Pile Fabrics
10.10 Ward Pile Fabrics
10.11 Slack Tension Weaves
10.12 Tapestry Weave
10.13 Narrow Fabrics


Introduction
Decorative weaves are called fancy, figure or
surface design weaves and one formed by pre-
determined interlacing of the warp and filling yarns.
This can be done by various attachments on the
loom that increase its flexibility. Weaving processes
in this category include dobby, jacquard, leno, and


P
a
g
e
6
6

double cloth weaves, as well as the use of extra
warp or filling yarns to produce surface designs.

10.1 DOBBY WEAVES
Dobby designs have small figures- such as dots,
geometric design and floral patterns woven into the
fabric. The design is produced by using a dobby
patterned chain with metal pegs or special pattern
rolls of paper or plastic.
Birds eye has small diamond-shaped filling-float
design with a dot in the centre that resembles the
eye of a bird. This design was originally used in
white silk fabric for ecclesiastical vestments. At one
time, a cotton version was widely used for kitchen
and hand towels and diapers. Huck or huck-a-back
has a pebbly surface made by filling floats. It is
used primarily in roller, face, and medical-office
towels.
Madras or madras gingham has small, satin-float
designs on ribbed or plain ground, Waffle cloth is
made with a dobby attachment and has a three-
dimensional honeycomb appearance. Waffle cloth is
used for blankets, dish and bar cloths, upholstery,
and apparel.

10.2 EXTRA-YARN WEAVES
Additional warp or filling yarns of different colors or
types are woven into the fabric to create a pattern
in an extra-yarn weave. When not used in the
figure, the extra warp or filling yarns float across
the back of the fabric and are usually cut away
during finishing. In hand woven fabrics the warp
yarns are manipulated by hand and the extra yarns
can be laid in where wanted by using small shuttles.


P
a
g
e
6
7

But in power looms an automatic attachment must
be used.
Extra-warp yarns are wound on a separate beam
and threaded into separate heddles. The extra yarns
interlace with the regular filling yarns to form a
design and float behind the fabric until needed for
the repeat. The floats are then clipped close to the
design or clipped long enough to give an eyelash or
fringed effect.
Many of the fabrics that have small-dot designs are
called dotted swiss. The dots may be extra-filling-
yarn structural designs: clipped-dot designs or
swivel-dot designs. Either side of these fabrics may
be the fashion side. Clipped-spot or clipped-dot
designs are made with low twist filling yarns
inserted by separate shuttles. By manipulating the
shedding, the extra yarns interlace with some warp
yarns and float across the back of others. A box
loom uses a wire along the edge to prevent the
extra yarns from being woven into the selvedge.
Clipped dot fabrics have many yarn ends per dot.
Swivel-dot designs are made on a loom that has
an attachment holding tiny shuttles. The fabric is
woven so the shuttles and extra yarns are above the
ground fabric. Each shuttle carrying the extra yarn
wraps around the warp yarns in the ground fabric
several times and then the yarn is carried along the
surface to the next spot



P
a
g
e
6
8



P
a
g
e
6
9

The yarn is cut away between the spots Swivel-dot
fabrics have only two yarn ends per dot. Swivel-dot
fabrics in the United states are imported designer
fabrics.

10.3 PIQUE WEAVES
The word pique (pee kay) comes from the French
word meaning quilted, because the raised effect in
these fabrics is similar to that in quilts. The pique
weave produces a fabric with ridges, called Wales or
cords, that are held up by floats on the back. The
Wales vary in width.
Stuffer yarns are laid under the ridges in better
quality pique fabrics to emphasize the roundness,
and their presence or absence is one way of
determining quality. The stuffer yarns are not
interlaced with the surface yarns of the fabric and
may be easily removed when analyzing a swatch of
fabric. Pique fabrics are woven on either a dobby or
jacquard loom, depending on the complexity of the
design.
Fabrics in this group are called pique, with the
exception of Bedford cord. Bedford cord is a heavy
fabric with wide warp cords used for bedspreads,
upholstery, window treatments, slacks, and
uniforms. Its spun warp yarns are larger than the
filling yarns. Length wise cords at intervals across
the fabric are formed by extra filling yarns floating
across the back giving a roused effect. Stuffer yarns
make a more pronounced cord, which may be the
same size or alternately larger and smaller.
Birds eye pique has a tiny design formed by the
wavy arrangements of the cords and by the use of
stuffer yarns. Bulls eye pique is made like birds eye
pique but has a much larger scale design. Both


P
a
g
e
7
0

fabrics have cross wise rather than length wise
cords and are used for apparel and furnishing.

10.4 JACQUARD WEAVES
Fabrics with extremely complicated and decorative
woven designs are manufactured using Jacquard
attachment on the looms. The Jacquard attachment
was developed by Joseph Moire Jacquard in 1801 in
France. The major advantage of the Jacquard
machine is its ability to control each individual warp
thread instead of a series of threads. Extremely
elaborate patterns can be woven into fabric, by
using the Jacquard attachment.
Fabrics made on a jacquard loom include damask,
brocade, brocatelle, tapestry and others. Damask
has satin floats on a satin background ; the floats in
the design are opposite those in the ground. If the
patterns is warp-faced, the ground is filling-faced.
Damask pattern are subtle but visible because of
slight differences in light reflected from the two
areas. Damask can be made from any fibre and in
many different weights for apparel and furnishings.
Damask is the flattest jacquard fabric and is often
finished to maintain that flat look. Quality and
durability are dependent on count. Low-count
damask is not durable because the long floats rough
up, snag, and shift during use.
Brocade has satin or twill floats in a plain, ribbed,
twill, or satin background. Brocade differs from
damask in that the floats in the design are more
varied in length and are often of several colours.
Brocatelle fabrics are similar to brocade fabrics,
except that they have a raised pattern. This fabric
frequently is made with filament yarns, using a
warp-faced pattern and filling-faced ground. Coarse
cotton stuffer filling yarns help maintain the three-


P
a
g
e
7
1

dimensional appearance of the fabric when used for
upholstery.
Originally, tapestry was an intricate picture that was
hand-woven with discontinuous filling yarns. It was
usually a wall hanging and was time-consuming to
weave. Todays jacquard tapestry is mass-produced
for upholstery, handbags, and the like. This tapestry
is a complicated structure consisting of two or more
sets of warp and two or more sets of filling
interlaced so that the face warp is never woven into
the back and the back filling does not show on the
face. Upholstery tapestry is durable if warp and
filling yarns are comparable. With lower quality
fabrics, fine yarns are combined with coarse yarns,
and the resulting fabric is not durable.
Wilton rugs are figured-pile fabrics made on a
jacquard loom. These rugs, once considered
imitations of Oriental rugs, are so expensive to
weave that the tufting industry has found a way to
create similar figures through printing techniques.

10.5 MOMIE WEAVES
Momie ( mo-mee) is a weave that presents no wale
or other distinct weave effect but gives the cloth the
appearance of being sprinkled with small spots or
seeds. The appearance resembles crepe made from
yarns of high twist. Fabrics are made on a loom with
a dobby attachment or electronic control. Some are
variations of satin weave, with filling yarns forming
the irregular floats. Some are even sided and some
have a decided warp effect. Momie weave is also
called granite or crepe weave. Any fibre can be sued
to make crepe-weave fabrics. Momie fabrics used
for apparel and furnishings.
Sand crepe is a medium to heavy weight fabric of
either spun or filament yarns. It has a repeat


P
a
g
e
7
2

pattern of 16 warp and 16 filling yarns and requires
16 harnesses. No float is greater than two yarns in
length.
Granite cloth combines high-twist crepe yarns and
crepe weave. The yarns plied yarns with one ply
made of a crepe-twist single yarn. Regular yarns
may alternate with the plied yarns, or they may be
used in the other direction. This fabric should be
treated as a high-twist crepe fabric. Moss crepe is
used in dresses and blouses.
Bark cloth is a heavyweight Momie-weave fabric
used primarily in furnishings. The interlacing pattern
uses spun yarns and creates a fabric with a rough
texture, resembling tree bark, hence the fabrics
name. The fabric may be printed or solid. The rough
texture adds visual interest and minimizes the
appearances of soiling.

10.6 LENO WEAVES
The leno weave is referred to as doup weave or
gauze weave. Doup is the name of the attachment
on the loom that controls the warp threads. This
attachment both horizontally and vertically
permitting the warp yarns to be interlaced gauze
LENO WEAVE: DIAGRAM (LEFT)
AND FABRIC (RIGHT)


P
a
g
e
7
3

indicate only an open-mash type of fabric, where as
leno applies to all fabric mode by this special
interlacing using the doup.
Fabrics made leno weave include marquisette,
mosquito netting, agriculture textiles to shade
delicate plants, and some bags for laundry, fruit,
and vegetables. Polyester marquisettes are widely
used for sheer curtains. Casement draperies are
frequently made with leno-weave and novelty yarns.
Thermal blankets are sometimes made of leno
weave. All these fabrics are characterized by
sheerness or open spaces between the yarns. The
crossed yarn arrangement gives greater firmness
and strength than plain-weave fabrics of a similar
low count and minimizes yarn slippage. Snagging
may be a problem in use and care, however.
Chenille yarns are made by using a leno weave. The
fabric is produced with fine warp, and low twist
fillings. It is cut apart parallel to the warp, and the
filling untwists to produce the fuzzy chenille yarn.

10.7 DOUBLE CLOTH
The two sides of double-cloth fabrics usually look
different because of the fabrication method. Double
clothes tend to be heavier and have more body than
single clothes. A single cloth, such as percale, is
made from two sets of yarn; one set of warp yarns
and one set of filling yarns. Double cloth is made
from three or more sets of yarns.
There are three types of woven double cloth fabrics:
Double cloth-coat fabrics: Melton and kersey.
Double weave-apparel and upholstery fabrics;
matelasse.
Double faced blanket cloth, double-satin ribbon,
lining fabric, and silence cloth.


P
a
g
e
7
4

True double cloth can be separated by pulling out
the yarns holding the two layers together. It can be
used in reversible garments such as capes and
skirts. Double cloth is expensive to make because it
requires special looms and the production rate is
slower than for single fabrics. Double cloth is more
pliable than single fabrics of the same weight
because finer yarns can be used. The two specific
fabrics that may be either true double cloth or single
cloth are Melton and kersey. Both of these heavy
weight wool coating fabrics are twill weave fabrics
that have been heavily finished so that it is difficult
to identify the weave.
Melton tends to have a smoother surface than
kersey. Kersey is usually heavier than melton and
has a shorter, more lustrous nap. Both fabrics are
used in winter coats, overcoats, riding habits, and
military uniforms.
Double weave is made with four sets of yarns,
creating two separate layers of fabric that
periodically reverse position from top to bottom,
thus interlocking the today two layers of fabric.
Between the interlocking points the two layers are
completely separate, creating pockets in the fabric.
Double weave fabrics are also known as pocket
fabrics, pocket cloth, or pocket weave. They are
most commonly seen in high quality upholstery
fabrics. Their main advantages are the designs that
can be achieved, their heavier weight, and their
good durability.
Matelasse is a double cloth construction with either
three or four sets of yarns woven on a jacquard or
dobby loom.
Double faced fabrics are made with three sets of
yarns: two warp and one filling, or two sets of filling
and one set of warp. Blankets, satin ribbons,
interlinings, and silence cloth are made this way.


P
a
g
e
7
5

Blankets with each side a different colour are
usually double faced fabrics. One set of warp yarns
is used, with tow sets of different coloured filling
yarns. Sometimes designs are made by
interchanging the colours from one side to the
other. Double faced blankets are usually wool and
are expensive.
Silence cloth is a heavy cotton fabric that has been
napped on both sides. Available only in white, it is
used under fine table clothes to quiet the noise of
china and silverware while dining.

10.8 PILE WEAVES
Woven-pile fabrics have an extra set of warp or
filling yarns interlaced with the ground warp or
filling. Pile comes from the Latin word piles
meaning hair.
Pile fabrics can be both functional and beautiful. A
high thick pile adds warmth as either the shell or
the lining of coats, jackets, gloves, and boots. High
count fabrics produce beautiful and durable carpets,
upholstery, and bedspreads. Low-twist yarns
produce absorbent towels and washcloths. Other
uses for pile fabrics are stuffed toys, wigs, paint
rollers, buffing and polishing clothes, and
ducubicare pads for bedridden patients.
Interesting effects can be achieved by combinations
of cut and uncut pile. Pile of various heights, high
and low twist yarns, areas of pile on a flat surface,
flattening pile, or forcing pile into a position other
than upright.
In pile fabrics, the pile receives the surface abrasion
and the base weave receives the stress. A durable
base structure contributes significantly to
satisfactory pile fabric. A compact ground or base
weave increases the resistance of a looped or uncut


P
a
g
e
7
6

pile to snagging and of a cut pile to shedding and
pulling out. A dense pile stands erect, resists
crushing, and gives better cover. Care must be
taken in cleaning and pressing to keep the pile
erect. Cut pile may look better if dry cleaned, but
some pile fabrics such as pinwale corduroy can be
washed, depending on the fibre content. Incorrect
pressing may flatten the pile and result in a fabric
that appears lighter in colour. Special pressing aids
or techniques are used with pile fabrics, like using
needle boards or steaming.
Many pile fabrics are pressed during finishing so
that the pile slants in one direction, giving an up
and down look. It is important that the pile be
directed in the same way in all pieces of product.
Otherwise, light will be reflected differently and the
product will appear to be made of two colours.

10.9 FILLING-PILE FABRICS
The pile in filling pile fabric is made by long filling
floats on the surface that are cut after weaving.
Filling pile fabrics are always cut pile. Two sets of
filling yarns and one set of warp are used. The
ground fabric is made with one set of filling yarns
and the warp yarn set. During weaving, the extra
filling yarns float across the ground yarns,
interlacing occasionally. In corduroy, the floats are
arranged in lengthwise row; in velveteen, they are
scattered over the base fabric.

10.10 WARD PILE FABRICS
Double cloth method is one of the most commonly
used to make these. Pile with a W shape interlaces
with more filling yarns and that with V pile
interlaces with less filling yarns. For example Velvet.
Different types of velvet finishing is used to create


P
a
g
e
7
7

other looks for velvet. Crushed velvet is made by
mechanically twisting the wet cloth. The surface
yarns are randomly flattened in different directions.
Pane velvet is an elegant fabric with the pile pressed
flat by heavy pressure in one direction to give it
high lustre. If the pile is disturbed or brushed in the
other direction, the smooth, lustrous look is
destroyed. Velour is a warp-pile cotton fabric used
primarily for upholstery and draperies. It has a
deeper pile than velveteen and is heavier. Plush has
deeper pile than velour or velvet as and is usually
longer than inch.
Fur like fabrics may be finished by curling, shearing
sculpturing or printing to resemble different kinds of
real fur.
Terrycloth is used for bath towels, beach robes,
and sportswear. Each loop acts as tiny sponge.
Sheared loops are brushed to loosen and intermesh
the fabrics of adjacent yarns. The surface becomes
more compact, less porous, and absorbs more
slowly as compared with loop pile terry. Institutional
cotton/polyester terry towels have blended ground
yarns and cotton pile; the pile yarns are for
absorbency and the polyester ground yarns are for
strength and durability, especially in selvages.
There is no up and down in terrycloth unless it is
printed. Some friezes are made by this method.
Another slack-tension fabric, shagbark, has spaced
rows of occasional loops.

10.11 SLACK TENSION WEAVES
In slack-tension weaving two warp beams are used.
The yarns on one beam are held at regular tension
and those on the other beam are held at slack
tension. As the reed beats the filling yarn into place,
the slack yarns crinkle or buckle to form a puckered


P
a
g
e
7
8

stripe and the regular-tensioned yarns form the flat
stripe. Loop-pile fabrics, such as terrycloth, are
made by a similar weave (see the previous section).
Seersucker is a fabric made by slack tension weave.
Seersuckers are made in plain colours, stripes,
plaids, checks and dresses.

10.12 TAPESTRY WEAVE
A tapestry weave is a hand-produced, filling-faced,
plain-weave fabric. The discontinuous filling yarns
are arranged so that as the colour in the weave
changes, the pattern is created. Discontinuous filling
means that one filling yarn rarely travels across the
fabric from one side to the other. Each colour of
filling yarn moves back and forth in a plain-weave
interlacing pattern as long as the pattern calls for
the colour; then another colour is used. In
tapestries, filling yarns are not always straight
within the fabric and may interlace with the warp at
an angle other than 90 degrees. Durries, rugs and
some shawls are woven using this technique.

10.13 NARROW FABRICS
Narrow fabrics encompass a diverse range of
products that are upto 12 inches wide and made by
a variety of techniques. Woven narrow fabrics will
be discussed here. Narrow fabrics include ribbons of
all sorts, elastics, zipper tapes, Venetian-blind
tapes, couturiers labels, hook and loop tapes such
as Velcro, pipings, carpet-edge tapes, trims, safety
belts, and harnesses. Webbings are an important
group of narrow fabrics used in packaging, cargo
handling, furniture, and for animal control, like
leashes or lead ropes for dogs, horses, and show
cattle.


P
a
g
e
7
9

Narrow-fabric looms weave many fabrics side by
side. Each fabric has its own shuttle but shares all
other loom mechanisms. Plain, twill, satin, jacquard,
and pile weaves are used.
Woven elastics are made using a variety of weaves.
They are used in apparel for which tight fit and
holding power are needed, such as in
undergarments. They have better stability and
rigidity than knit elastics and are less prone to riding
up, but are more expensive.


P
a
g
e
8
0



P
a
g
e
8
1

Summary:
Weaving is interlacing of warp yarns and weft yarns
at right angle. Lengthwise yarns are warp or end
those run crossover are called weft yarns or filling
yarns or picks. Selvedge is of 4 types fringed,
taped, spilt & fused. Warp and weft are
distinguished by 1) selvedge as it runs in lengthwise
direction, 2) how elongation in warp direction, 3)
warp yarns lie straighten & more parallel than weft
4) fancy yarn are usually in the filling direction,
grain refers to the position of warp yarn relative
filling to filling yarn in the fabric. There are 2 kinds
off grain skew and bow. Fabric width various from
27 to 60. Some basic fabrics regardless of fibre
type exceed 60 width light weight are those which
weigh less than 40z/yd2. Medium weight weigh
from 4 to 60 oz/yd2 and heavy weight fabric weigh
more than 60z/yd2. Fabric count refer to the
number of warp and muff yarns per square inch of
grey goods count is written with warp first & then
weft. This is measured by the fabric yarn counter
often referred to as pick glass. Identifying face of
the fabric is easier when it is one role as fabric is
wound with right side inside. Off the roll, the shiner
or more lustrous is the face. There are three basic
types of weave plain, twill and satin. Refer table
no. 5 for brief understanding. Decorative weaves
are produced by various attachments on the loom
that increase its flexibility. Weaving processes in
this category include dobby, jacquard. Leno and
double cloth weave, as well as the use of extra warp
or filling yarns to produce surface design. For brief
explanation of fancy weaves refer take number 8.





P
a
g
e
8
2

Revision Points:
- Weaving is done by interlacing the yarn at right
angles.
- Selvedge is the lengthwise self edge of a fabric
which is formed when the weft yarn turn to go
back across the fabric.
- Warp and weft are distinguished by carefully
examine the fabric.
- Loom determine the widths of the fabric
- Fabric are divided into 3 categories based on
their weight, light, medium and heavy.
- Fabric count refers to the number of warp & weft
yarns per square inch of grey goods.
- The three basic weaves are plain, twill and satin.
These are woven without any modification on the
loom.
- Decorative weaves are called fancy, figure or
surface design weave and one formed by
predetermined interlacing of the warp and filling
yarns.

Intext Questions:
1. Explain weaving and how to identify face & back
of a fabric
2. Explain plain weave in detail
3. Explain Momie weave and double cloth


P
a
g
e
8
3

Terminal exercises:
1. Write short notes on .
- selvedge
- Fabric count
- Basket weave
2. What is the difference between denim & jeans
3. Describe filling pile fabric and warp pile fabrics

Assignment:
Collecting swatches and maintaining a swatch file

Keywords:
1. Pliable : flexible
2. Thermoplastic fibre fibers sensuality to heat
fibers that melt or glaze at relatively low
temperature.
3. Off grain refers to a fabric when warp and
filling yarns do not cross each other at a 90
angle
4. Quaint old fashioned



P
a
g
e
8
4




Unit - IV

Lesson 11: Other Methods of Fabrication.
Lesson 12: Leather Science.









P
a
g
e
8
5

Lesson 11: Other
Methods of Fabrication
Objective
To study various other methods to produce fabric
except weaving.
Fabric is made in many ways other than
weaving. Brief explanation of these procedures is
given below.
Structure
11.1 Fabrics from solution
11.2 Fabrics made from fibers
11.3 Fabrics from yarn
11.4 Knitting
11.5 Composite fabrics
11.6 Stitch bonded fabric
11.7 Animal products

Introduction
Fabrics can be made in different ways and with the
help of different methods. Raw material of each
method is different and properties of the fabric
depends entirely on the raw material and method
used. Here some methods are used.

11.1 Fabrics from solutions
a) Film fabrics
Are made directly from a polymer solution by
melting and extruding through narrow slits. They


P
a
g
e
8
6

may be made from vinyl or polyurethane solutions.
Vinyl films are washable but become stiff in dry-
cleaning solvents and lower temperatures.
Urethane films remain soft in washing and dry-
cleaning solvents and do not became stiff in cold
weather.
Films are waterproof, impermeable, stiff, low cost,
resistant to soil and non-fibrous. They have a poor
drapeability and are weak unless supported by a
fabric back. Films are used for shoes, shower
curtains, upholstery and plastic bags.
b) Foam fabrics
Are made by incorporating air into an elastic like
substance, polyurethane is most common. The
outstanding characteristics of foams are their bulk
and sponginess. They are used as carpet backings,
furniture padding, pillow foams, and cleaning
sponges.

11.2 Fabrics from fibers or non-woven
Some fabrics are directly made from fibres and
there is no processing of fibres into yarns e.g. felt
and tapa cloth. Thus fabrics are often referred to as
non-woven. In the textile industry, non-woven
refers to a fibre-web structure. Fibre webs are quick
and inexpensive to produce. The basic steps include
selecting the fibres, laying the fibres to make a web
and bonding the web together to make a fabric. Any
fibre can be used to make a web. The web is made
into a fabric through a mechanical needling process,
application of chemical substances or adhesives or
heat.
Non woven are used for disposable goods, such as
diapers and wipes and padding for furniture. They


P
a
g
e
8
7

are cheaper than woven and knitted fabrics and
make good and durable items.
Felt is a web of wool, wool or cotton, wool or
thermoplastic fibres. It is held together by the
interlocking of the scales present on the wool fibre.
Felting is one of the oldest methods of making
fabric. Primitive people made felt by washing wool
fleece and spreading it out while still wet and
beating it until it had matted and shrunk together in
a fabric like form.
A very good example of felt is the Numdan felt rug
made in Kashmir.
Felts have no grain. They do not fray or ravel. They
have poor pliability, strength and stretch recovery.
Felts are used in apparel-accessories, crafts,
industrial matting, padding, sound proofing,
insulation.

11.3 Fabrics from Yarns
Braids are narrow fabrics in which yarns interlace
lengthwise and diagonally. They are made by
interlacing 3 or more yarns. They have good
elasticity and are pliable and curve around the
edges. Shoe laces are circular braids. Braids have a
good elasticity and thus stretch easily. Flat braids
are used as trims. Braids can be joined together to
make wider widths.
Lace is another basic fabric made from yarns using
several different fabrication methods. Yarns may be
twisted around each other to form open areas. Lace
has complex patterns or figures and can be hand or
machine made. Types of hand made laces are
needlepoint, bobbin, crochet and Battenberg. Laces
make beautiful decorative trims and are widely used
for fabric decoration.


P
a
g
e
8
8

11.4 Knitting
Is the formation of a fabric by the interloping of one
or more sets of yarns. Knitting has been the
traditional method of producing items such as
sweaters, underwear, hosiery and baby blankets.
Fabric density is defined by describing the number
of stitches in a specific direction. Wales are vertical
columns of stitches in the knit fabric. Courses are
the horizontal rows.
A knitted bulky structure provides insulation by
trapping air. Knits are less likely to wrinkle during
use, care, packaging and storage, but is strongly
influenced by fiber and yarn type. Snagging is a
serious problem with knit fabrics. They have a good
resilience and excellent elasticity.
Some of the single knit fabrics sold are jersey,
jacquard jersey, stockinet, intarsia lisle, knit terry
cloth, velour, fake fur, fleece, frenchterry.

11.5 Composite Fabrics
Are fabrics that combine several primary or
secondary structures atleast one of which is a
recognized textile structure, into a single structure.
This broad category includes diverse fabrics as
coated fabrics, tufted and flocked structures,
laminates and stitch bond structure.
A coated fabric combines a textile fabric with a
polymer film. The coating sprovides protection from
environmental factors such as water chemicals, oil
and abrasion. Coated fabrics are strong and stable
than unsupported films and are used for making
luggage, bags, apparel and upholstery.
Poromeric Fabrics or micro porous fabrics are
made of films but are included under a separate
category because of a unique characteristic. The


P
a
g
e
8
9

pores in the fabric are small enough to allow the
passage of water vapor but do not allow a water
drop to pass through. They are used for making
waterproof and wind proof fabrics. Other used
include tents sleeping bags, medical products.
Famous trademarks are gore-tex, dartex, breath-tex
Tufted pile fabric
Tufting is a process of making pile fabrics by
stitching extra yarns into a fabric base or substrate.
The ground fabric could be a thin sheeting or a
heavy woven or knitted structure. It is used for
making carpets, rugs, bedspreads and hooked rugs
at a low cost.
Laminates are fabrics in which two layers of the
fabric are combined into one with an adhesive or
foam. Laminate usually refers to a fabric in which an
adhesive is used and bonded usually refers to the
fabric in which foam is used.
-Lamination produces lightweight fabrics for
outerwear.
-They have a body but do not hold sharp creases.
-Used for apparel, furnishing, shoes, and industrial
products.

11.6 Stitch-Bonded Fabrics:
Stitch bonded fabrics combine textile structured by
adhering fabric layers with fibre or yarn loops,
chemical adhesives, or fusion of thermoplastic
fibres. These are produced at high speeds and are
used for table clothes, window treatment fabrics,
vegetable bags, dish clothes and outerwear. As a
knit,

Maliwatt

and Malimo

are some trademarks

Quilted Fabrics are composite fabrics consisting of
three layers: face fabric, fibre fill or batting and


P
a
g
e
9
0

backing fabric. These three layers are stitch bonded
with thread, chemicals or heat. Quilted fabrics are
bulky warm and decorative. They are used in ski
jackets, robes, comforters, quilts and upholstery.
Supported scrim structures include the foam and
fibre-type blankets currently in the market. A nylon
scrim and a loose warp-knit fabric are sandwiched
between 2 layers of polyurethane foam. These
blankets are inexpensive, attractive and durable e.g.
vellux and velluxplus.

11.7 Animal Products
The category of animal products include leather and
fur. These are animal skins that are processed to
main flexibility, in order to use the skin, the animal
must be killed. Animal right activists object to using
animals in this way.











P
a
g
e
9
1


Lesson 12: Leather
Science
Objective
To explain the turn leather.
How it is finished
what is the nature of leather industry.

Structure
12.1 Leather Science
12.2 History and Development
12.3 Organization and Operation
12.4 Organization
12.5 Sources of Leather Supply
12.6 Layers of Hides and Skins
12.7 Grain Pattern
12.8 Chemical Composition of Hides and Skins
12.9 Characteristics of Surface
12.10 Identification of Different Types of Leather
12.11 Processing of Leather
12.12 Post-Tanning Operations
12.13 Finishing
12.14 Leather Goods
12.15 Leather Hardware
12.16 Joining the Leather
12.17 Wet and Dry Adhesives
12.18 Defects of Hides And Skins
12.19 Ante mortem Defects
12.20 Nature of The Leather Industry
12.21 Leather Marketing & Merchandizing
12.22 Research and Development
12.23 Industry Trends




P
a
g
e
9
2

12.1 LEATHER SCIENCE
Although much older than the production of fibre
and fabrics, the processing of leather is not as
sophisticated and it takes much longer. Lately,
however production methods have improved,
greatly increasing the supply and variety of leather.
Leathers are preserved animal hides and skins, by-
products of the meat industry. Cattle hides provide
the most leathers, but deers; goat; pig, and
sheepskins are also widely used. The worlds largest
exporter of cattle hides is the US, most goat skins
come from India and China, and most sheep skins
come from Australia. Developing countries,
particularly those with abundant raw material
supplies such as Argentina,

Brazil, and India, impose export controls or taxes in
order to encourage the growth of their own tanning
and leather product industries.
Hides and skins are differentiated by weight. Skins
come from smaller animals such as goat, deer, pigs,
and calves and weigh less than 25 pounds each.
Hides come from large animals such as steers,
cows, buffaloes, and horses and weigh over 25
pounds each.
Leather making is a time-consuming and very highly
specialized process. Because of this time factor, the
leather industry has always had to anticipate and


P
a
g
e
9
3

predict trends in advance of other fashion material
suppliers.
Leather producers most decide on which production
methods to use to obtain the desired colours,
textures and finishes from 8 to 16 months before
the leather is used by apparel and accessory
manufacturers. The coordination of colours,
textures, finishes, and other fashion variables is
vital to the leather industry for a number of reasons.
Other fashion producers often look to the leather
industry for leadership in colour. They also look to
this industry in many instances for long-range
forecasts relative to textures and finishes.















The process of transforming animals skins into
leather is known as tanning. The term tanning
comes from the Latin word for oak bark, the
material used in the earliest known treatment of
animal skins. Tanning is the oldest craft known.
Primitive people not only killed animals for food, but
also devised ways to treat the skins for use as body


P
a
g
e
9
4

covering. The modern tanning industry receives
almost all of its hides as by-products of the meat-
packing industry. After these animals have fulfilled
their primary function, tanners covert the hides to
leather.

12.2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
In the many years that Indian tribes roamed the
North American continent, long before the arrival of
the first European colonists, the tanning of leather
was an important part of tribal life. Indians used
deerskins to make clothing, soft yet sturdy
moccasins, and tepee homes. By todays tanning
standards, their methods would be considered
limited and primitive, yet the techniques they used
to transform raw animal hides into a variety of
products certainly served them well.
In 1623, not long after the arrival of the Pilgrims to
Massachusetts, the first commercial tannery in the
American colonies was established in Plymouth by
an Englishman with the fitting name of Experience
Miller. Later Peter Minuit, Governor of New
Amsterdam, invented the first machinery used for
tanning in the colonies. His invention was a horse-
driven stone mill that ground the oak bark then
used in converting animal skins into leather.
Many years passed before more important
mechanization of the leather industry took place.
But in 1809, a giant step was taken. Samuel Parker
invented a machine that could split heavy steer
hides 25 times faster than men could do by hand.
These more rapidly split hides produced a lighter
and more supple leather, just what the people
wanted for their shoes and boots and other clothing.
Today there are new machines that do much of the
manual work formerly required to stir hides and


P
a
g
e
9
5

skins as they soaked. Other machines dehair and
deflesh them. Still others split the skins and emboss
patterns on them. Machinery has taken much of the
human labour out of the processing of leather. In
addition, chemistry has provided new tanning
agents that reduce the time required to transform
hides and skins into leather, and that achieve a
great variety of finishes.
However, even this mechanization has had little
effect in reducing the total amount of time needed
for the actual tanning process. Prolonged exposure
to a series of treatments is a must in the
transformation of hides and skins into leather. For
example, the production of kid leather takes weeks
of actual tanning and finishing. This is in addition to
the time required to purchase the skins, ship them
to a tannery, receive and inspect them, and start
them on their way through the tanning process. The
final fashion product, though, reflecting the rich
beauty that belongs only to fine leather, certainly
proves that all the time taken to achieve that
beauty was time well spent.

12.3 ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION
Tanning was once a household industry, and in
some of the less developed areas of the world it still
is. Today tanning has become a relatively big
business in the United States. Nearly 21,000
workers are employed in this countrys tanneries,
turning out $2 billion worth of leathers a year for
widely divergent uses.
The mergers, consolidations, and affiliations
prevalent in the textile industry during and
immediately following World War II had parallels in
the leather industry. In 1870 there were 4,500
tanneries in operation in the United States; today


P
a
g
e
9
6

there are fewer than 500. The trends toward
mergers and fewer and larger plants continue.
The processes involved in tanning are basically the
same as they have been for thousands of years.
Although the grease and brains of an animal are no
longer used to treat its pelt, tanners still soak pelts
to soften them, remove any flesh or hair that may
adhere to them, and treat them to retard
putrefaction. As recently as a century or two ago,
tanners still relied principally on such natural
materials as oak or hemlock bark to process skins.
But today tanners have a vast range of chemical
and natural agents at their disposal: chrome salts,
synthetic tanning agents, and oils, for example. As a
result, the variety of colours, textures, and finishes
available to the fashion industries today is infinitely
greater than it was even 50 years ago. This is true
even though the variety of animals whose skins are
used has decreased. Some animals have been
placed on state, national, and international
endangered-species lists and their commercial uses
are restricted or banned.

12.4 ORGANIZATION:
The leather industry in this country is divided into
three major types of companies: regular tanneries,
contract tanneries, and converters. Regular
tanneries purchase and process skins and hides
and sell the leather as their finished product.
Contract tanneries process the hides and skins to
the specifications of other firms (mainly converters)
but are not involved in the final sale of the leather.
Converters buy the hides and skins from the meat
packers, commission the tanning to the contract
tanneries, and then sell the finished leather.
However, in recent years, converters have been


P
a
g
e
9
7

buying finished leather from both regular and
contract tanneries.
The leather industry is highly specialized because
the methods and materials used vary according to
the nature of the hides or skins being treated and
the end product for which each is intended. Tanners
of calfskin do not normally tan kidskins; tanners of
glove leathers do not normally produce sole leather.
Leather is largely a by-product of the meat packing
industry in the United States. Its cost has therefore
been lower than it would have been had the animals
been raised for their skins alone. Some recent
developments in world economics, however, have
begun to change this. Because of an expanding
market for hides in other countries, the trend
toward smaller herds of cattle in the United States,
and the growing use of leather in apparel and home
furnishings markets, U.S. leather hides are
becoming very expensive. This is leading to imports
of less expensive foreign leather.
Most U.S. tanneries are located in the north-east
and north central states. In these regions are also
clustered the industrys major customers: shoe,
apparel, and accessory manufacturers. Like textile
producers, however, most leather firms maintain
sales offices or representatives in New York City for
the convenience of their customers.

12.5 SOURCES OF LEATHER SUPPLY
Almost all leather comes from cattle. But the hides
and skins of many other animals from all parts of
the world are also used in fashion. Kid and goatskins
come from Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America;
capeskin comes from a special breed of sheep raised
in South Africa and South America; pigskin comes


P
a
g
e
9
8

from the peccary, a wild hog native to Mexico and
South America; buffalo comes from Asia.
The variety of glove leathers alone illustrates how
worldwide the sources of leather are:
Cabarets from South American sheep
Calfskin from young calves of the United States
and elsewhere
Goatskin from South America, South Africa,
India, and Spain
Kidskin from Europe
Pigskin from Yugoslavia, Mexico, and Central and
South America
Buckskin from deer and elk in Mexico, South and
Central America, and the Peoples Republic of
China
Mocha from Asian and African sheep
Over the next few years, the U.S. tanning and
leather finishing industries will show a decline in
value of shipments, due mainly to lower raw
materials prices. The U.S. Commerce Department
predicts that total employment in leather-related
fields will gradually decline by approximately 5 to 7
percent.

12.6 LAYERS OF HIDES AND SKINS
1. Epidermis/Outer Layer: 1 to 2%
Made of epithelial or epidermal cells. The nails,
hooves, hair, scales is the outer most layer. It has
to be removed otherwise it cracks the leathers by
arresting chemicals.




P
a
g
e
9
9

2. Dermis/Corium: 75-90%
It is the main layer. It is made up of connective
tissues that combine to form collagen fibres in a 3D
weave. These fibre bundles are held together by
reticulum fibres.
The White Blood Cells (WBC) make Micelles. The
Micelles develop into Fibrils, Fibrils into Fibres and
Fibres into Fibre bundles that make the raw hides or
skins.
The Corium is made of two parts.
i) Corium Minor/Grain/Thermostat:
(10-25%)
It is the negative imprint of the epidermis. It is
made of sweat glands, fat glands, hair roots, hair
follicles and muscles. The sweat and fat glands
help maintain constant body temperature. The
arrangement of hair follicles and nerve endings
determines the grain structure.
ii) Corium Major/Proper: (75-90%)
It is called the reticular layer due to net like
woven structures that are long, thick, loosely
packed, more voids and fibres as compared to
corium minor.
3. Hyaline Layer -
Between the grain layer and epidermis is a thin
structure less parent membrane that gives polish
and smoothness to the hides/skins is called the
Hyaline layer or glossy layer.
4. Flesh/Adipose Layer
This is the lowermost layer made of loose
connective tissue, adipose tissue, elastin fibres,
blood vessels, micelles and nerves.


P
a
g
e
1
0
0

12.7 GRAIN PATTERN
1. Buff: Greasy and uneven grain. Has less hair
pores with random distribution and uneven
diameter. Has numerous nerve projections.
2. Cow: Smooth and flat grain. Has numerous hair
pores of uniform diameter and uniform
distribution.
3. Goat: Has a smooth, flat surface with two types
of hair pores i.e. fine and coarse. The fine hair
pores follow coarse pores that are found in trio
formation.
4. Sheep: Has an uneven surface with 2 types of
wool pores i.e. fine and coarse. They are distinct
and numerous and there are bulges between the
pores.
The factors that determine grain pattern
are:
1. Presence or absence of nerve
endings/projections
2. Presence of hair follicles or wool.
3. Type of hair i.e. long or coarse and fine or short
4. Nature of distribution of the pores.

12.8 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HIDES
AND SKINS
Chemical compositions are the chemicals that
constitute different layers.
1. Water
2. Proteins
3. Fats
4. Minerals


P
a
g
e
1
0
1

5. Traces of pigments, carbohydrates
Water and Proteins constitute the major
components of hides and skins.
Water:- 60% 70%
Proteins:- 33%
Fats vary on the basis of types of hides and skin.
For Cow and Buff (Buffalo) it is 2%
Goat 2 to 10%
Sheep 5 to 30%
Minerals:- 5%
Traces of pigments, carbohydrates and other
materials. It is about 1% and below.

12.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE


P
a
g
e
1
0
2

1. Substance: (Thickness)
a) Butt Good quality fibres, highly dense, tight,
uniform thickness.
b) Middle Lighter than butt, less even than the
butt.
c) Shoulder Lighter than middle, less evenly
distributed than the middle and butt. The growth
or stretch marks are easily available/visible due
to ageing of the animal. They are prominent on
buff hides and sheep and calf skins.
d) Neck Same or lighter thickness as shoulder,
non-uniform thickness and distribution.
e) Belly Poor quality, substance and loose fibre
structure.






P
a
g
e
1
0
3

1. COLOUR

Good quality fibres and chemical constitution effect
colour absorption. If area is highly porous physical
absorption will be more but the retaining of colour
will be less. The dye will pass out through the pores.
Highly porous and good fibre structure are present
in cow.
The Belly area is highly porous due to loose, thin
fibre structure so colour absorption is more but
retention is less.
a) Butt More colour retention.
b) Middle Uniform colour.
c) Shank Uniform colour.
d) Shoulder Non-uniform.
e) Neck Non-uniform.
2. TENSION & STRETCH
It determines the strength, durability etc. of
material.


P
a
g
e
1
0
4

Tightness:
Stretchness:

3. QUALITY
The quality is analysed in terms of properties and
characteristics of the material. The surface, cross-
section, smoothness, uniformity in colour, absence
of defects and patches, good substance, feel of the
material, uniform texture and performance of
material are determining factors for the good quality
of hides and skins.

12.10 IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF LEATHER
Leathers can be mainly categorized as Grain and
Non-Grain leathers.


P
a
g
e
1
0
5

Kangaroo leather with its unique grain structure and
features of softness, lightness, amazing strength
and durability is sourced from animals which roam
in the wild.
Non-grain leathers Nubuck, suede, split, Fur.

1. GARMENT LEATHERS
a) Nappa (Grain Leather)
It has a smooth elastic natural grain surface. Very
soft in feel. It may be shiny, matte or semi-shiny.
Types of Nappa Cow, Sheep, Goat.



P
a
g
e
1
0
6

b) NDM Natural Dry Milled Leather
It has an uneven pattern on leather. It has
patterned grain structure that is synthetic and
artificial. This pattern is obtained by an operation
called dry-milling. It is softer. Types: Cow, Buff.
c) PDM Printed Dry Milled
It has an even pattern because it is artificially
printed. It is harder as compared to NDM. Types:
Cow, Buff
d) Oil Pull Up
Leather will be of two shades of same or different
colours. One is the base colour, another is the top
colour. If a pull or pressure to this leather is given
the top i.e. darker shaded colour will spread and
base i.e. lighter shaded colour will be visible. Types:
Cow, Goat, Buff.
e) Antique
Leather that has a surface of having older look and
contrast shades. It is one colour with different
shades.
f) Two-Tone
Two colours and two shades, both are possible. Two
colours are visible prominently. Need not be
smooth. It is shiny. It may be printed or milled.
Nappa can also have a two-tone effect.










P
a
g
e
1
0
7

1. SHOE LEATHERS

Non-Grain Leathers
Nubuck. Leather which has short, fine, velvety Nap
on grain layer.
Nap is the short open fibre structure which makes
the texture. By rubbing the leather surface using
sand or emery paper the grain surface can be made
Nap.
Suede. Leather which has fine, velvety Nap on flesh
side. It is softer than Nubuck. The Nap may be short
or long and is coarse compared to Nubuck.
Snuffing operation on grain layer produces Nubuck.
Buffing operation on flesh layer produces suede.
2. SPLIT LEATHERS
Splitting is the process of dividing the hides in two
layers i.e. upper grain layer and flesh layer.


P
a
g
e
1
0
8


grain split layer is used for making grain garments
and shoes.
The flesh split layer is used for making split suede
garments, shoes and linings.
Splitting is based on thickness of grain layer. Mainly
cow and buff are used since the thickness of sheep
and goat is very less. For hides which have more
thickness i.e. >2.5mm splitting is preferred. For
primary usage grain layer is used and for secondary
usage flesh layer is used.
For thinner leathers where thickness is below
2.5mm shaving is preferred. Shaving is also a
method of dividing layers of thinner skins producing
shaving dust that can be used for filling or stuffing


P
a
g
e
1
0
9

purposes e.g. filling sofa covers etc.
Leathers for footwear
a) Buff Nappa, Softy, DD*, Burnish*, Nubuck,
CG*.
b) Cow Nappa, Softy*, Smooth, Nubuck, Suede,
PDM, DD, Embossed*.
c) Goat Nappa, Nubuck.
d) Sheep Nappa, Suede. Nubuck is not possible
because sheep skin is very thin.
*DD Drum Dyed.
Burnish A special type of finish on leather where
brush is applied. Rest of the portion is matte.
CG Corrected Grain
In defective grain surfaces of buff snuffing is done
by rubbing emery paper to make the leather
uniform. After snuffing, finishing is done and then
Haircell print is applied i.e. a natural pattern of grain
is obtained artificially.
Embossed Artificial patterning through press
pattern plates of an embossing machine.
Softy Same as Nappa but more soft.
RANGE OF THICKNESS
Footwear Leathers
Children/Ladies Footwear - 0.8 to
1mm
Ladies/Gents - 1.0 to 1.2
/1.4mm
Lined/Unlined Shoes - 1.6 to
1.8mm
Unlined Shoes (Heavy Footwear) - 1.8 to
2.0mm


P
a
g
e
1
1
0

Heavy Footwear - 2.0 to 2.2mm
2.2 to 2.4mm
2.4 to 2.6mm
2.6 to 3.0mm
The ranges vary based on different qualities and
types of leather.
Garments
Suede, Sheep Nappa - 0.6 to
0.8mm
Buff, Cow Nappa for Jackets - 0.8 to
1.0mm
Maximum thickness for garments is - 1.2mm
For Ladies Garments - 0.6 to 0.8mm
For Gents Garments - 0.8 to 1.0mm
Beyond this the garment becomes very heavy and
uncomfortable.

12.11 PROCESSING OF LEATHERS
The leather trade divides animal skins into three
classes according to weight. Animal skins that weigh
15 pounds or less when shipped to the tannery are
referred to as skins. Calves, goats, pigs, sheep, and
deer are among the animals producing skins. Animal
skins weighing from 15 to 25 pounds, such as those
from young horses and cattle, are referred to as
kips. Animal skins weighing over 25 pounds, such as
those from cattle, oxen, buffaloes, and horses, are
referred to as hides.
The process by which skins, kips, and hides become
leather is a lengthy one. There are three basic steps
in processing leather. Pre-tanning, tanning, and
finishing.


P
a
g
e
1
1
1

The process of leather starts from the stage of
slaughtering of animals to obtain the hides/skins in
the slaughterhouse followed by cleaning and salting.
The slaughterhouse operations include slaughtering
of animals, then cleaning the skins and salting them
i.e. sprinkling salt over them to preserve them from
decaying. Then the skins go to the tannery where
the main processing takes place




P
a
g
e
1
1
2

Pre-tanning, the first, is basically a cleansing
process in which the leathers are soaked and rid of
all flesh, hair and dirt. The Pre-tanning operations
include Sorting, Soaking, Liming, Fleshing,
Pasting, Scudding, Deliming, Scudding, Bating,
Pickling, Depickling.



P
a
g
e
1
1
3

Next is tanning, which preserves the skin and
improves its natural physical properties. The varied
tanning methods employ such substances as oil,
vegetable substances, alum, formaldehyde,
zirconium and, most commonly used in the US,
Chrome. The technical term in the blue refers to
hides, skins, or kips that have been chrome-canned
but not yet finished.
The choice of agent for tanning depends mainly
upon the end use for which the leather is being
prepared.
Minerals: There are two important tanning
methods that use minerals. One uses alum; the
other uses chrome salts. Alum, used by the ancient
Egyptians to make writing paper, is rarely used
today. Chrome tanning, introduced in 1893, is now
used to process nearly two-thirds of all leather
produced in this country. This is a fast method that
produces leather for shoe uppers, gloves, handbags,
and other products. Chrome-tanned leather can be
identified by the pale, blue gray colour in the centre
of the cut edge. It is slippery when wet. It is usually
washable and can be cleaned by sponging.
Vegetable Materials: Vegetable tanning, which is
also an old method, uses agents such as tannic
acids from the bark, wood, or nuts of various trees
and shrubs and from tea leaves. Vegetable tanning
is used on cow, steer, horse, and buffalo hides. The
product is a heavy, often relatively stiff leather used
for the soles of shoes, some shoe uppers, some
handbags and belts, and saddlery. Veg-tanned
leathers can be identified by a dark centre streak.






P
a
g
e
1
1
4


After tanning the leathers are washed, then piling
i.e. layering the leathers is done. During piling some
chemical reactions take place such as
polymerization of complexes. Then again washing is
done to remove free acids and salts. The next step
is samming where excess of water is removed and
the leather is flattened. This is done through felt
conveyers. Splitting is then done to reduce the
thickness of leather. Then the edges are trimmed
and shaving dust is cleaned. The last step in tanning
is sorting and weighing.

12.12 POST-TANNING OPERATIONS
Neutralization: To neutralize the free acids present
on leather and to impart softness to leather the
hides are treated with sodium formate and
bicarbonate for an hour in a Drum float. The process
is known as neutralization.
Retanning: To complete the tannage process and
to obtain properties like fullness, grain tightness and
leveling the neutralized leathers are treated with


P
a
g
e
1
1
5

retanning syntans and the process is known as
retanning.
Dyeing: After completing the tannage process the
leathers are coloured using dyes. There are basically
four types of dyes:
Acid dyes (sodium salts of coloured acids)
Basic dyes (sodium salts of coloured bases)
Direct dyes (like acid dyes but bigger particles)
Metal complex dyes (neutrally charged metal
atmos + dye stuff) in the cut edge.
It is resistant to moisture and can be cleaned by
sponging. Vegetable-tanned leathers are fuller, have
good buffability, good dye penetration, less
shrinkage temperature, less tensile strength, less
durability but good embossing effect. Vegetable
tanning is the slowest tanning method and takes
months to complete. Because it is so labour
intensive, there is relatively less vegetable tanning
done.
Oil: Processing with oils is one of the oldest
methods of turning raw animal skins into leather. A
fish oil usually codfish is used. Today, oil
tanning is used to produce chamois, doeskin, and
buckskin relatively soft and pliable leathers are
used in making gloves and jackets.
Chemical: Formaldehyde used in a relatively new
process is the most widely used chemical for
tanning. This is the quickest method of tanning. The
leather is white when tanned and thus can be dyed
easily. Leather tanned by formaldehyde is washable
and is often used for gloves and childrens shoe
uppers.
Combinations: It is possible to combine tanning
agents. A vegetable and mineral combination, or
retanning is used for products such as work shoes


P
a
g
e
1
1
6

and boots. Combinations of alum and formaldehyde,
and oil and chrome, give leather different qualities.
Drying: Different methods of drying include
1. Hook drying by hanging.
2. Natural drying by exposing the leather in sun.
3. Vacuum drying is done in a vacuum drying
machine by creating a vacuum in a heat setting
plate machine.
Conditioning: The leathers are again sprinkled with
water using an auto spray machine.
Staking: The leather is then stretched and pulled
by a Slocomb Machine and Mollisa Machine to get
softness and dimensional stability.
After staking, the Leather are Buffed or Snuffed to
remove loose fibres, improve absorbency and get
good appearance. Then they are dusted-off,
trimmed and sorted. At this stage the leather is
called as crust leather which means tanned dry
leather before Finishing.

12.13 FINISHING
To improve the life of leather i.e. more durability,
better fastness, better resistance to rubbing, to
water, to acids, and to alkalics, a coat on the
surface of leather is applied using chemicals i.e. film
forming materials.
The different methods of dyeing include
Drum Dying
Paddle Dyeing
Tray/Trough Dyeing
Brushing/Padding
Spray Dyeing


P
a
g
e
1
1
7

The dyeing should be uniform and levelled to hide
defects uniformly. There should be through and
through penetration for proper anchorage of dye
stuff with the fibres leading to rub fastness, water
fastness and resistance to dry cleaning.
Fat Liquoring:
The process of treating leather with oils to get
softness and to lubricate the fibres. An emulsion of
oil and water is used for fat liquoring. It improves
shine, durability, grain smoothness, water
resistance, softness and fastness. Vegetable oils,
synthetic oils and marine oils are used as fat liquors.
The duration of treatment is 60 to 80 minutes. The
next steps include washing of leather, then piling
overnight and then setting.
Setting:
To flatten the leather to remove folds and wrinkles
and to remove excess of water the leather is passed
in-between rollers.
The leathers may be reset as per requirement.
The main chemicals used for finishing leather in the
top layer:
1. Fixing Chemicals
2. Feel Modifiers
3. Dye Solution (if required)
The chemicals used for final finishing are:
Pigments
Dye solution
Film forming materials (Binders)
Wax emulsion
Softners/Plasticizers
Solvents


P
a
g
e
1
1
8

Fixing agents
Fillers
Matting agents to reduce shine
NH
3
(Ammonia) as a stabilizer
Pigments provide colour by superimposition and
layer formation.
Dye provides colour by chemical means.
The different kinds of binders used are :-
Resin binders used for resin finishes.
Protein binders used for protein on aniline
finishes
The different types of finishes are :-
1. Aqueous (in water)
Resin, Protein/Aniline and pigmented.
2. Non-Aqueous (in mild solvents)
Lacquor and Polyurethane (PU)
Different applications of finishing are :-
1. Auto Spray
Spraying through rotating guns on a conveyer belt.
The mixer is mixed thoroughly or pumped. Air is
sent through guns. The guns then spray the mixer
evenly throughout the surface.
2. Roller Coating
It uses rollers, roller coaters through which material,
mixture is passed.
3. Brushing/Padding
Applying finishes only on samples because it is done
manually using a sponge or pad.
The leather is then dried by the process of Ageing.


P
a
g
e
1
1
9

Then final plating is done followed by grading and
measuring. After plating protein binders are applied
and rubbed to give a shine. This process is called
glazing. Finally the leather is polished using stone
roller. Other finishes include embossing, which
presses a pattern onto leather, often to stimulate
expensive alligator or snakeskin.

A worker doing finish grading on sides of leather

12.14 LEATHER GOODS
Indian leather goods industry is mostly in the small
scale and cottage sector. The industry is at present,
engaged in manufacturing a wide range of leather
goods. The leather goods could be classified broadly
as (i) Shanti Niketan Leather Products, (ii) Carry on
items like wallets, money dips, purses, key cases,
bill folds, belts, watch straps etc., (iii) Leather travel
goods, (iv) Saddlery and accessories, (v) Leather
garments, (vi) Hand tags, (vii) Gloves and (viii)
Leather novelties.


P
a
g
e
1
2
0




P
a
g
e
1
2
1

The leather goods industry is widely dispersed in the
country with concentration in some regions of the
country on the basis of its own peculiarity and
history, Shanti Niketan leather products are being
manufactured in and around Calcutta only, saddlery
items in Kanpur; carry on items in Bombay and
Industrial gloves in Calcutta and Bombay; leather
garments; hand bags and leather travel goods in
Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Bangalore, and
Kanpur.
Airplane glues such as Duco and Testors are also
inflexible and can dry out, become brittle, and crack
or break under extreme heat or with time. They are
soluble in lacquer thinner or nail polish remover, set
in half an hour, and dry overnight. Like epoxy, they
stain leather and are difficult to wipe up.
Dry adhesives are applied to both surfaces to be
glued and must be allowed to become dry to the
touch, completely losing their shiny, wet look before
joining. They are flexible, and accept stains and
dyes fairly well, dry adhesives include rubber
cement, craft cement, mirror cement, contact
cement, barge and masters cements.
Application of glues can take place with literally
anything, an old knife, sticks, the fingers,
toothpicks, an unbent paper clip, pieces of stiff
cardboard, a roller, and the shaft or bristles of a
brush.

12.15 LEATHER HARDWARE
Leather hardware consists of metal objects which
directly fasten parts together or join parts together
to which other parts can be added, such as snaps
for buckles and eyelets for lacing. Hardware is also
called fasteners or findings. Hardware should be
selected for both function and appearance. Colour,


P
a
g
e
1
2
2

size, and quantity play a part in the decoration of a
piece. Hardware should never interfere with or
overwhelm the design. Most hardware is available in
gold and silver coloured metals as well as black and
brown. Some, however, such as snaps, eyelets,
studs, zippers, and bag clasps can be found in many
colours.

12.16 JOINING THE LEATHER
Methods of joining leather can be purely functional,
decorative, or both. Care should be taken in the
selection of a method so that there is a visual unity
created and maintained with the design of the piece.
As with all technical aspects of leather, visual
continuity must be evaluated with each new step
and process. Leather joining is a versatile field and
offers many alternatives.

12.17 WET AND DRY ADHESIVES
Wet adhesives are those which are applied in a wet,
shiny condition. All surfaces must be joined wet
prior to setting and drying. These glues run when
pressed together, must be clamped overnight to
dry, and because of their chemical composition, do
not accept colour or stain very well. Some easily
available wet glues are the epoxy glues, airplane
glues, vinyls or the white glues such as Elmers and
Sobo. Epoxy glues containing a resin and hardener
in separate parts, are mixed just prior to use. Most
epoxy is good for joining leather to non-porous
surfaces such as metal, foil, glass, mirrors, or to
glue down boxes, stones and appliqu, if the leather
is backed with a solid substance. There is an epoxy
which hardens in a little over 5 min and another
which takes 24 hrs. The flesh side or suede leathers
must be sealed with vinyl glue so the epoxy will not


P
a
g
e
1
2
3

leak to the grain side. There is also an epoxy for
porous surfaces.

12.18 DEFECTS OF HIDES AND SKINS
Hides and skins can be classified into three
categories based on the defects:-
1. Antemortem Defects
2. Postmortem Defects
3. Processing Defects

12.19 ANTEMORTEM DEFECTS

I. Microorganisms/Insects
a. Dermatitis: It is a skin disease caused by
infections on the abraided/scratched portions of
animal hides/skins. It is signified by discoloration
and patches.
b. Antharax: it is caused by bacteria on
hides/skins. This bacteria is present in the
tannery effluents. It causes animals to die and
also infects humans.
c. Mange: It is caused by Mangemites an insect.
Small pinholes are formed. It affects the texture
of leather by weakening the fibre structure.
Nodules will be formed, can be removed by
snuffing.
d. Ticks: They are blood sucking insects which
make holes throughout cross-section. Holes of
ticks are bigger than mites. These holes cannot
be rectified.
e. Leaches: They suck blood and affect the tender
regions. They also eat the fibres. So that they


P
a
g
e
1
2
4

get eroded. The defected portion has to be
removed.
f. Biting Insects: Mosquitoes, cornflies make
holes and destroy surface by destroying fibre
structure.
g. Pox: It is a viral disease. It causes boils, dents,
blemishes. The depth of pox marks goes upto
the corium layer.

II. Mechanical Defects
a. Bruises causes discolouration.
b. Scratches Caused due to horns, wire fencing,
thorns.
c. Brand Marks For identification some people
put stamps on their animals.
d. Good Marks Caused by thrashing with a
wooden stick with a nail at tip.

III. Postmortem Defects
After the death and investigation of the animal hides
and skins defects may be caused due to decaying or
during slaughter house operations. The marks of
using tools on removing the hides and skins and
then preserving them may be left.

IV. Processing Defects
During the various tanning and finishing procedures,
cracks stains or marks of processing, dyeing,
colouring, splitting, embossing, drumming, on any
one of the several procedures may be caused on the
hides or skins.



P
a
g
e
1
2
5

12.20 Nature of the Leather Industry
The leather tanning and finishing industry is made
up of establishments primarily engaged in tanning,
curing, and finishing animal hides and skins to
produce leather. Also included are leather
converters and dealers who buy hides and skins and
have them processed under contract by tanners for
finishers. The output of the leather tanning and
finishing industry in 1985 was valued at $1.7 billion.
In that year, there were some 300 establishments in
the industry, of which about 160 were directly
involved in tanning and finishing hides and skins.
Employed workers totaled 15,800. Since leather is a
by-product of the meat packing industry, the
industry tends to be cost-efficient. The packing
houses derive their primary revenue from the
carcass; the skins and hides, which have no food
value, are sold to the leather trades.
Processing of the hides and skins is done largely in
small plants located mostly in the North Central and
North-eastern states. Three major types of
companies involved (1) converters, who buy the
hides and skins from meat packers and contract
them out to tanneries for finishing, (2) contract
tanners who finish skins but do not market them
directly, and (3) regular or complete tanneries that
purchase and process skins and hides and sell
finished leathers.
Like the fibre and fabric producers, the leather
industry promotes and sells its products to
manufacturers of apparel and accessories. Yet,
unlike fibre and fabric companies, the tanning
companies do not make their names known to the
consuming public. Advertising for leather garments
and accessories may include the name of the
fashion designer, the manufacturer, and the type of
leather, but never the name of the producer of the
leather.


P
a
g
e
1
2
6

12.21 LEATHER MARKETING &
MERCHANDIZING
Because of problems in coordinating leather with
textile fashions, leather producers do not merely
stay abreat of fashion, they must keep ahead of it.
Its decisions as to colours, weights and textures are
reached early and presented early.
As a result, they are among the best and most
experienced forecasters in the fashion business.
They have to be especially those who work with
the skins or hides of foreign animals.
Having made their assessments of fashion trends
very early, leather tanners, like fibre and fabric
producers, share their conclusions with their
customers. Individually or through industry
associations, tanners retain fashion experts to
disseminate this information. These experts advise
manufacturers, editors, and retailers on future
fashion trends in leather.
A typical activity of leather producers is the
preparation of fashion booklets for distribution to
manufacturers, retailers, the press, and other
interested persons. Such booklets are sometimes
available a year or more before consumers are likely
to wear or use the leather products described. The
booklets include comments on general fashion
trends. They describe the leather colours and
textures suitable for classics, boutique merchandize,
and promotional use. Finally, they include samples
of important textures and looks in leather.
Another typical activity of individual producers and
industry associations is the assignment of a fashion
expert to work with retailers, manufacturers, and
the press to help them crystallize their fashion
thinking. This service might take the form of
individual conferences, participation on a committee


P
a
g
e
1
2
7

of producers or retailers, or of fashion presentations
to industry, retail, or consumer groups.
Yet with all this activity, individual tanners are not
known by name to the public. A fashion editor
describing a leather garment, glove, or shoe is not
likely to mention the leather producer. Nor are
leather producers likely to be named in retail store
advertising or in the advertisement placed by the
manufacturers of the finished products. As a result,
a consumer who could recall names of several fabric
and fibre producers would probably have a hard
time naming even one tanner.
Tanners work together to promote their products,
through associations that disseminate technical and
fashion information to producers, consumers, and
the press. Some associations, like the Sole Leather
Council and the Auto Leather Guild, strive to
promote a particular kind of leather. Others, such as
Tanners Council, function on an industry wide basis,
working to promote all kinds of leather. Formerly
such associations were primarily concerned with
serving segments of the market that were already
customers. Today their major effort is to broaden
the market for all types of leathers. Markets that
once used only leather, such as the shoe industry,
are now using other products as well, making it
necessary for the leather industry to defend its
frontiers. Markets that traditionally used little
leather, such as dresses, skirts, and coats, now are
being widely cultivated by the leather industry.
At the retail level, the leather industrys associations
are a valuable source of information in fashion
planning and selection. They are also an important
source of fashion and technical information for sales
people. For consumers, the industry associations
provide fashion and technical material which is
made available to schools, distributed with


P
a
g
e
1
2
8

merchandize purchased in retail stores, and
publicized through the fashion press.

12.22 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The leather industry retains and expands its
markets by adapting its products to fashions
changing requirements. Before World War II,
relatively few colours and types of leather were
available in any one season, and each usually had a
fashion life of several years. Today, a major tannery
may turn out hundreds of leather colours and types
each season, meanwhile preparing to produce more
new colours and textures for the next season. To
protect and expand their markets, leather producers
constantly broaden their range of colours, weights,
and textures. They also introduce improvements
that make leather an acceptable material where it
formerly had either limited use or no use at all.
Leather has the weight of tradition behind it; people
have regarded fine leather as a symbol of luxury for
centuries. But today leather shares its hold on the
fashion field with other and newer materials.
Through product research and development,
producers are attempting to meet the competition
not only of other leathers but also of other
materials. The Tanners Council Research Laboratory
at the university of Cincinnati and the Eastern
Regional Research Laboratory of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture in Philadelphia have
research efforts on behalf of the industry. The
Tanners Council has contracted with the U.S.
Buxean of Mines for research on chromium in the
tanning industry. The objective is to develop
improved technology to recycle or recover
chromium from tanning wastes.


P
a
g
e
1
2
9

12.23 INDUSTRY TRENDS
Until just a few decades ago, the leather industry
concerned itself primarily with meeting consumer
needs in relatively few fashion areas mainly
shoes, gloves, belts, handbags, luggage and small
leather goods. The use of leather for apparel was
restricted largely to a few items of outerwear, such
as jackets and coats. These were stiff, bulky, and
primarily functional in appeal. Today, the leather
industry is changing. These changes are the result
of several trends: enlarging market opportunities,
increased competition from synthetics, and
increased foreign trade.
Enlarging Markets:
Improved methods of tanning are turning out
better, more versatile leathers with improved
fashion characteristics. In general, these
improvements fall into two categories:
1. The new leathers are softer and more pliable.
Much of this new suppleness is due to tanners
splitting full-grain leather thinner and thinner.
2. The new leathers can be dyed more successfully
in a greater number of fashion colours.
Because of these new characteristics, the markets
for personal leather goods and leather furniture
continue to have the most growth potential. In
cowhide leathers, the demand is high for the lighter-
weight, mellow, natural-looking, full-grain leathers.
Especially desirable are the glazed, rich-coloured,
aniline-dyed types that accentuate the natural
beauty of the grain. These are used predominantly
in luggage, portfolios, and furniture. The sheep and
lamb tanners are very encouraged by the sustained
growth of and demand for glazed and suede
leathers in the leather apparel market.


P
a
g
e
1
3
0

Increased Competition from Synthetics:
Some of the potential market for leather is being
taken away by synthetic materials. For instance,
synthetics are replacing leather in some shoe parts.
The traditional leather heel lift is now almost always
made of plastic. Synthetics are also replacing
leather in other accessories. Synthetics are used in
making handbag that look and feel like leather but
are less susceptible to scratches and can be cleaned
more easily. Synthetics are even taking over some
of the potential leather apparel market. Today
fabrics made of natural and man-made fibres look
and feel like various types of leather but are easier
to clean and care for. An outstanding example of a
synthetic that has replaced leather and suede in fine
clothing is Ultrasuede. Famous designers such as
Halston and Yves St. Laurent are using Ultrasuede
in almost all of their collections. Many mens-wear
designers and manufacturers have adopted
Ultrasuede for many of their designs, and today
consumers feel that Ultrasuede is a fine-quality
fabric even though it is a synthetic.
Increased Foreign Trade:
The demand for leather throughout the world
continues to increase. American packers and hide
dealers, able to get higher prices for their hides
from tanneries in countries where demand outstrips
supply, have sharply increased their export of hides.
Domestic leather-products manufacturers have been
severely affected in the last two decades by
imported products. This in turn has promoted
domestic tanners to concentrate on exploiting
foreign markets more fully. Developing foreign
markets for U.S. leather products represents growth
potential for this industry. Impetus may come from
government programmes designed to stimulate
export expansion for small businesses.


P
a
g
e
1
3
1

Industry Growth Factors:
Factors that can contribute to the growth of the
leather industry over the next 5 years are:
Consumer demand for products manufactured
from genuine, natural-looking leather, which, in
contrast to synthetic materials, symbolizes
quality and value to the consumer.
A supply of raw cowhide is large enough to allow
for real growth in production.
Strong industry efforts to develop foreign
markets and increase exports.
Success of industry and governmental efforts to
secure relaxation or elimination of foreign trade
barriers on U.S. leather.
Expanded research and development to raise the
levels of technology.


P
a
g
e
1
3
2

LEATHER INDUSTRY FLOW CHART














farmer, cattle,
raiser, tapper
meat packer
tanner
manufacturer
retainer
consumer
converter


P
a
g
e
1
3
3

Summary:
Fabrics are not only made up weaving technique but
can also be produced by number of other methods
also. For classification summary refer table no. 9
leather is a natural product which is much older
than the production of fabric. Leather is finished
skin/hide.
The process of transforming animal skins into
leather is known as tanning, leather is used for
making garments, goods & shoes.

Revision Points:
- Fabrics are made in many ways other than
weaving
- The different methods are knitting, fabrics
from solution, non wovens, fabrics from yarns,
composite fabrics, stitch bonded fabrics and
animal products.
- Leather is preserved animal hide / skin
- It is by product of meat industry.
- The process of transferring animal skins into
leather is called tanning
- Hide/Skinhas 5 layers
- By grain pattern, type of animal can be
determined.
- By surface, colour, tension and stretch absence /
presence of defect, quality of material is
determined.
- Nappa, NDM, PDM, Oil pulk up, antique, two tone
are used in garment.
- Nubuck and surde are shoes leathers


P
a
g
e
1
3
4

- Post tanning & finshing operation are
neutralization, dyeing drying, conditioning, fat
liquoring setting.
- types of defect are ante mortem defects
postmortem
processing

Intext Question:
1. What are film and foam fabrics?
2. What are the properties and uses of felts?
3. What are quilted fabrics?
4. Describe layers of hide / skin
5. Indentify deff type of leather
6. How leather is processed

Terminal exercises:
1. What are the methods of fabrication other than
weaving (enlist).
2. What is the principle on which poromeric fabrics
work?
3. what is hide and skin
4. Differentiate between Nappa & Nubuck
5. What is spilt leather
6. What is tanning
7. Classify leather goods.

Assignment:
Collecting swatches and maintaining a swatch file


P
a
g
e
1
3
5

Keywords:
- Impermeable do not permit
- Substrate base fabric
- Scrim binning fabric
- Hide it is obtained from large animals weighing
over 25 pounds each
- Tanning the process of transforming animal
skin into leather.
- Neutralization The process of importing
softness to leather the hides are treated with
sodium format & bicarbonate for an hour in a
drum float.
- Ante mortem These are defects caused by
microorganism, insect or mechanical defect on
living animals.
- Postmortem these are defects investigated on
dead animal hides or skin caused due to
decaying or slaughter house operation.


P
a
g
e
1
3
6






P
a
g
e
1
3
7





Unit V

Lesson 13: Collection of swatches and
maintaining a swatch file.


P
a
g
e
1
3
8

Lesson 13: Collection of
Swatches and Maintaining
a Swatch File
Objectives:
To collect swatches & learn the glossary of
fabrics.
Structure
13.1 Glossary of Fabric


Introduction
The students are to do a market survey and collect
fabric swatches of all the typical fabrics available
under basic and fancy weaves.
These samples have to be maintained in a swatch
file of size 12x12. The swatches have to be
window mounted (double) so that the fabric can be
easily examined.
One or two swatches can be put on each sheet.
Information about the swatch either in the form of
paragraph or points has to typed under each
swatch. No information should be hand written. All
sheets have to be neatly spiral bound.









P
a
g
e
1
3
9

13.1 GLOSSARY OF FABRICS

- Airplane Fabric: Plain weave. Closely woven,
desized, durable medium weight and lightweight
fabric originally used in the manufacture of
airplane wings and body parts. Originally made
of combed and mercerized yarns, now also made
of nylon or polyester/cotton blends for rainwear
and sportswear, usually in square weave.
- Albatross. Soft, plain woven, napped wool or
wool blend fabric. Fleecy surface resembles
texture of albatross breast. Usually light
coloured. Used for infants wear, negligees etc.
- Alpaca. The lower grades of alpaca were
originally used as linings, and the better grades
for fine dress goods. The fabrics sometimes sold
as alpaca merely resemble an alpaca fabric in
finish; the use of the term for such fabrics is
incorrect. True alpaca cloth of alpaca hair is soft
and lightweight.






P
a
g
e
1
4
0

- Alpaca Crepe. Plain woven fabric of two-ply
yarn (generally rayon) made to stimulate coarse
woven wool fabric.
- Altar Linen: See Bisso Linen.
- Amara. Trademark for an imitation suede fabric
made of 60 percent nylon fibre and 40 percent
polyurethane foam.
- Armure. Drapery fabric with a small woven
design, usually on a rep foundation, can be
either Jacquard or dobby weave. Pattern is made
by floating warp threads over the surface, giving
a raised, pebbled, or embossed effect.
- Art Linen. Closely woven round-thread linen,
used chiefly for embroidery, generally in the
plain weave. Bleached, unbleached and colours.
Also used for dresses and table linens.
- Aquasuede. Trademark for an imitation suede
fabric woven with stretch textured polyester
warp and filling of yarn made of hollow fibres of
conjugated polyester and nylon microfibres.


P
a
g
e
1
4
1

- Astrakhan. Rough fabric with closely curled face
resembling Astrakhan lambs pelt. Woven or
knitted usually with base yarns of cotton and pile
of wool, mohair, acrylic, or modacrylic fibres.
- Backed Cloth. Fabrics with extra warp or filling,
usually of cotton or wool, added for weight and
warmth. Twill or satin weave frequently used in
the design. Used for vests, suitings, shirts, dress
goods.
- Backing or Back Cloth. Gray goods, usually
print cloth, used to take up surplus dye and to
reinforce fabric on the printing machine.
- Bagheera Velvet. Fine, uncut-pile velvet with
rough surface. Crush-resistant. Used for evening
gowns.
- Balloon Cloth. Plain weave of fine 60s to 100s
combed yarns. High thread count. The extremely
fine yarns give the fabric lustre. Usually
mercerized. When used for balloons, given a
special coating. Also used for dresses, shirts,
type-writers ribbons.
- Banbury Plush. English pile fabric of cotton
warp and wool filling.
- Barathea. Three distinct types: (1) Silk or
manmade fibre fabric of a broken rib weave
construction with a pebbly surface. Used for
neckties. (2) Fine dress cloth with silk warp and
worsted filling, woven with a broken filling rib
that is completely covered by the warp. (3)
Smooth-faced worsted uniform fabric constructed
of an indistinct twilled basket weave of fine two-
ply yarns.
- Barege. Sheer fabric usually woven of cotton,
wool, or silk. Originally made at Bareges in the
Pyrenees.


P
a
g
e
1
4
2

- Bark Crepe. Originally a wool fabric of crepe
construction producing the rough effect of tree
fibres. Used in womens wear, particularly coat
material.
- Baronet Satin. Very lustrous satin weave fabric
of cotton warp and rayon filling. Good draping
qualities, washes easily but surface catches
particles and abrades easily.
- Bathrobe Blanketing. Double-faced fabric
woven with tightly twisted warp and two sets of
soft spun filling yarns. Usually napped to produce
soft, thick, warm material. Made of cotton, wool,
polyester, acrylic, and blends of these fibres.
- Beach Cloth. A strong, coarse fabric of plain
weave, heavy yarns, and low thread count. Has
the appearance of crash. May be made of all
cotton or cotton warp and mohair filling. There
are a number of versions of this fabric.
- Beaded, or Cut, Velvet. Velvet with a cutout
pattern pile effect, made on Jacquard loom.
Drapes well. May be fragile. Used for evening
wear, drapery, decorative material.
- Beaver. Heavily napped, face-finished fabric of
high quality woolen yarn. Soft hand with nap
longer than that of wool broadcloth. Used for
coats.
- Bedford Cord. A walled, or cord, material. Two-
ply warp yarns and heavier single or ply yarns
used as a backing. These heavy yarns are caught
at intervals in the weaving of the fabric. Single
yarns sometimes used in cheaper versions; the
effect of the cord is obtained in the weaving.
Wale runs in warp. Can be napped in back,
bleached, dyed, or printed. The face of the fabric
may be given a suede finish.


P
a
g
e
1
4
3

- Bengaline. Pronounced rib in filling direction.
Similar in appearance to faille, but heavier;
lighter than grosgrain. Fine warp, originally of
silk, wool, or rayon, now often made of acetate
or polyester. Heavy filling may be of two or
three-ply yarn of cotton, worsted, or manmade
yarns. Used for dresses, coats, drapery,
trimmings.
- Birds-Eye. Three types: (1) A clear-finish
worsted fabric woven to produce small
indentations suggesting the eye of a a bird. (2)
Also known as Diaper Cloth. Fabric woven on a
dobby loom of carded yarns in tiny geometric
designs that look like the eye of a bird, or in
diamond effect. Heavier filling yarns are loosely
twisted, making the fabric absorbent. Usually
made of cotton, rayon, or blends of them. (3)
Knit fabric with a speckled effect on the back
caused by use of different coloured yarns
appearing as a design on the face.



P
a
g
e
1
4
4

- Billiard Cloth. Two-up and one-down twill
weave of highest grade wool-Saxony, Silesia, or
Australian Merino. Compact, good body, even,
smooth. Dyed green.
- Bisso Linen (Altar Linen). Fine, sheer linen.
Made of wiry yarns. Has a crisp feel. Used for
altar cloths.
- Blanket Cloth. Plain or twill weave. Thick, soft
filling yarns, heavily napped both sides. Often
yarn-dyed in plaids or stripes.
- Bolivia. A soft, plush like fabric of wool, usually
containing some special hair fibre, such as alpaca
or mohair. The term is properly applied only to
an all-wool product, closely woven and of fine
stock. Diagonal lines may be visible on the face.
Used for coats and suiting.
- Book Cloth. Coarse, plain-weave print cloth or
sheeting. Dyed, heavily sized, often pyroxylin
coated or embossed.
- Bouche (Bluche). Plain weave, undyed, woolen
fabric. Originally used as shirting material,
particularly by the clergy in southern France.
- Boucle. A fabric woven or knitted from curled or
specially twisted yarn which has small loops on
the surface, giving a kinky appearance. The curls
do not cover the entire surface but occur at
intervals, distinguishing it from astrakhan. Often
made in coating weights but also in lighter
weights for dress goods and sweaters.
- Bourette. Fabric with hairy effect on surface
caused by nubby yarns.
- Bourrelet. Double-knit cloth with raised loops
running horizontally across the surface giving a
corded or rippled effect.


P
a
g
e
1
4
5

- Box Cloth. Coarse melton. Very heavy, water-
repellent. Used for coats.
- Box-loom. Fabrics made with right-hand and
left-hand twist in filling, notably box-loom crepe.
Ginghams and plaids are also made on box-
looms.
- Brilliantine. Plain or twill weave. Fine, smooth,
wiry fabric of cotton warp and worsted or mohair
filling. Used for linings, suits.
- Broadcloth. Three major types: (1) Originally,
silk shirting fabric so named because it was
woven in widths exceeding 29 inches (74cm). A
fine, smooth, closely woven fabric in plain
colours or in woven stripes; also known as silk
shirting. It has a plain weave. Used for shirts and
dresses. (2) Plain, closely woven fabrics of either
carded or combed cotton or polyester/cotton
yarns with a filling wise rib effect. Originally a
poplin or adapted form a poplin construction
broadcloths are of lighter weight with a finer rib.
Ribs are made by using finer and medium filling.
Many more warp threads than filling. Better
broadcloths are of combed ply yarns and high
thread counts of 144x76. Coarser fabrics often
have both ply and single carded yarns. (3) A fine
wool fabric of twill weave, filled to achieve
uniform texture. The surface is then napped,
closely sheared, and polished to give glossy
velvety hand. Good draping qualities. Used for
suits and coats.
- Brocade. Basic weave is satin. Elaborate
lustrous design woven on a Jacquard loom. Has a
raised appearance , usually on a filling-faced
satin ground but often on twill or rep. The
design, on the surface only, made of contrasting
coloured yarns; may have metallic threads. Made


P
a
g
e
1
4
6

of any of major textile fibres. Used of evening
wear, drapery, upholstery.

- Broacatelle. Similar to bracade but with designs
in high relief. Woven on a Jacquard loom with
two, three, four, or more picks. Ordinary warp
yarns but fewer twists in filling yarns. Has extra
backing threads. The floating warp yarns over
the backing yarns make the design stand out in
relief.
- Bunting. Loose, open, plain weave of print cloth
yarns with low thread count. Originally of cotton
or worsted yarns, now made from nylon or
acrylic. Bunting may be dyed or printed.
- Burlap. Coarse, heavy, plain weave fabric of
jute or similar yarn. Natural colour is brownish,
may be dyed or printed. Used for wrappings,
curtains.
- Butcher Linen. Plain weave of thick-and-thin
linen yarns in warp and filling. Stiff, durable.
Now also made of rayon, polyester/rayon, and
polyester/cotton but may not be called butcher
linen.
- Butcher Rayon. Coarse, plain weave fabric of
spun rayon yarns made to resemble butcher
linen.


P
a
g
e
1
4
7

- Calico. A low count or medium count cotton or
cotton / manmade print cloth with small early
American designs. Used for aprons, dresses,
curtains, quilts.
- Cambric. Fine, lightweight closely woven fabric
of linen or cotton with a high thread count. Plain
weave, white and colours. Sized and calendered.
Used chiefly for handkerchiefs, childrens
dresses, underwear, nightgowns.

- Camel Hair. In undyed from, camel hair is light
tan and with a soft nap. Fabrics that merely have
this distinctive colour can not be correctly called
camel hair. The best grade is very expensive,
and even then camel hair is sometimes mixed
with sheeps wool or other fibres.
- Candlewick. (1) Muslin base fabric tufted with
heavy plied yarns providing fuzzy designs. (2) A
soft woolen dress fabric made in imitation of the
candlewick bedspread, with tufted patterns
similarly constructed.
- Canton Crepe. Generally silk or rayon fabric of
crepe weave with heavy filling and finer warp
providing a pebbly surface. Heavier than crepe
design. Durable,drapes well. Used chiefly for
dresses.
- Canton Flannel. Warp-face cotton or cotton
blend twill flannel with a heavy, soft filling and


P
a
g
e
1
4
8

lighter warp than filling yarn. Has a ling nap on
one side only. For work gloves, infants wear,
linings.
- Canvas. (Also see Duck.) Many fabrics come
under this heading. Two principal types: (1)
Openmesh canvas used for embroidery; made of
hard twisted yarns; very durable. Most popularly
known in this group is Java canvas. (2) Close-
woven canvas made from coarse hard-twisted
yarns from 2- to 14 ply in the plain weave; in
various weights. Finishes range from heavily
sized to soft.
- Casement Cloth. General term for sheer fabrics
for curtains of plain weave variations or Mali-
type constructions. May be of fine or combination
of fine and heavy yarns using any kinds of fibres
and blends.
- Cashmere. A real cashmere fabric is woven only
from the hair of the Cashmere goat. It is of fine
close twill weave, napped and extremely soft.
The total amount of cashmere hair available is
severely limited.
- Cassimere. (Not to be confused with
Cashmere.) Compact twill weave of cotton or
worsted warp and woolen or worsted filling. Light
to medium weight, harsh hand, somewhat
lustrous. Some times classed as serge with a
pattern.
- Cavalry Twill. Pronounced raised 63
0
right-hand
double twill line of woolen, worsted, or manmade
spun yarns. Strong, rugged. Used for coats,
suits.
- Challis. A lightweight, plain weave, thin fabric
traditionally of all worsted or of silk warp and
worsted filling. Sometimes made with a woven
pattern but more often printed with designs after


P
a
g
e
1
4
9

weaving. The designs are commonly of the type
found in silk goods. Challis is made of fine yarn;
it is very thin, light in weight, and soft and
pliable. Sometimes made of cotton , spun rayon,
or polyester.
- Chambray. Pattern is formed by the use of
coloured yarn warp and natural or white filling.
This gives a tiny check or mottled effect. There
are endless variations of this fabrics, such as
stripes and satin stripes. The end to end
chambrays are woven with alternate coloured
and natural or white yarns in filling, or vice
versa. Many novelties on the market.
- Charmesue. Silk, rayon, or cotton satin weave
fabrics with semilustrous surface and dull back.
Used for dresses, gowns, pajamas.
- Charvet Silk. Diagonal, rib weave with stripes.
Soft, drapers well. Used for neckties.
- Cheesecloth. Plain weave, low count, soft,
cotton, or cotton blend fabric. Sometimes called
Gauge.
- Chenille. Fluffy or fuzzy-faced fabric made with
a chenille filling yarn that has a fuzzy pile
protruding from all sides. Some imitations made
by tufting , using no chenille yarn. Other
versions are knitted with or to imitate chenille
yarn.
- Cheviot. Rough, somewhat harsh woolen fabric,
woven from finer yarns than used in typical
tweeds. Usually in plain colours or herringbones
but may be in other fancy patterns. Woven from
woolen yarns except for more expensive cheviots
made from worsted yarns, generally in high
colours, and referred to as worsted cheviots.
- Chiffon. A transparent sheer fabric in a plain
weave of fine highly twisted yarn. Extremely


P
a
g
e
1
5
0

lightweight but very strong. Usually has a soft
finish. Used for evening dresses, lingerie,
blouses, and scarves.







P
a
g
e
1
5
1

- Chiffon Velvet. Two different types (1) Silk or
manmade clear pile fabric in many qualities (2)
Similar to woolen broadcloth but lighter in
weight, with fine, smooth hand.
- China Silk. A very soft, extremely lightweight
silk made in a plain weave, used chiefly for
linings. Irregularities of threads, caused by the
eotreme lightness and softness of China silk, are
characteristics of the fabric.
- Chinchilla. A thick heavily napped fabric with a
close curled surface. May be double-face, woven
or knitted. Sometimes has cotton back with the
wool surface. Generally dyed in the piece in solid
colours. Used for womens and childrens coats
and hats.
- Chino. Cotton or cotton blend compact plain or
twill fabric made popular as summer wear for
armed forces.
- Chintz. A cotton print cloth of high-count plain
weave with bright, attractive floral or geometric
designs, both large and small. Singed, sized,
glazed, friction calendered. Often given a
permanent or semi permanent glaze, then known
as glazed chintz. For draperies, slipcovers,
dresses.


P
a
g
e
1
5
2



- Cisele Velvet. Pile of cut and uncut loops form a
patterned velvet.
- Coburg (Cobourg) Lining and dress goods fabric,
two-up and one-down right hand twill of cotton
warp and worsted filling. Piece dyed or printed.
- Cloque (cloky). Fabric woven with small
irregularly raised figures giving a blistered effect.
- Corduroy. A ribbed pile fabric with high, soft
lustre. Made with extra filling threads or extra
warp threads. In weaving, the extra filling yarns
form loops or floats over the ground threads.
After weaving, the loop threads are cut on a
special machine. Threads are then brushed,
forming a pile.
- Cottonade. Generally a three-harness, left-
hand, warp-face twill of coarse yarns. Comes
mostly in dark stripes on a solid or medium dark
ground. Durable finish.
- Coutil. A strong three harness herringbone or
reverse twist twell weave of high count. For
suits, corsets, and items requiring a durable
fabric.
- Covert. A medium weight or medium lightweight
fabric with warp face left hand twill. Usually of


P
a
g
e
1
5
3

woolen or worsted highly twisted two ply warp
yarns and single or two ply filling. Mixed yarns,
such as natural and colour in warp and matching
colour alone in filling. Has a mottled appearance.
Often made with yarn consisting of two rovings,
one white and one colour in warp and all colour
in filling. May also be made of cotton and spun
manmade fibre. Used for coats, suits,
sportswear.
- Crash. Name given to fabrics having coarse,
uneven linen or linen like yarns in both plain and
twill weaves. Used for toweling and drapery
purposes. In lighter weights, used for suits and
dresses.
- Crepe. Has a pebbly or crinkled surface
produced by use of special crepe yarns. Can be
either crepe, granite, or plain weave. Generally,
mixed twist crepe yarns used in both warp and
filling, occasionally crepe yarns used only in the
warp or the filling. Mostly woven on a box-loom.
Crepe effects can also be obtained by chemical
treatment and embossing.
- Crepe-back Satin or Satin Crepe. Satin weave
of silk or manmade of fibre with a crepe-twist
filling. As the fabric is reversible, interesting
effects can be obtained by contrasting the
surfaces. Used for dresses, blouses, linings.
- Crepe Charmeuse. Smooth, soft lustre fabric of
grenadine silk warp and filling, with latter given
crepe twist. Body and drape of satin. Used for
dresses, evening wear.
- Crepe de Chine. Soft, lightweight, but strong
fabric that has a crinkled effect produced by
alternately S and Z twist filling yarns. Two types:
one of medium lustre, originally woven from raw
silk and then de gummed to obtain to obtain
crepe; the other is more lustrous, originally


P
a
g
e
1
5
4

made of spun silk warp and thrown silk filling.
Today, often made of manmade fibre, such as
polyester, with low alternating wrap and filling
crepe twist. Used for dresses, blouses, lingerie,
scarves.
- Crepe de laine. Thin, sheer, lightweight fabric
of plain or crepe weave, originally made of wool.
Used for dresses.
- Crepe Marocain. Heavy crepe fabric simulating
texture of canton crepe, usually made of silk or
rayon. Used for dresses.
- Crepe Meteor. Similar to georgette in
construction on the reverse side. Satin
construction on its face, thus showing more
lustre than any of the flat crepes. Light in
weight, drapes well, has a soft feel and finish.
- Crepe (Wool). Wool crepe is a lightweight
worsted fabric with a more or less crinkly
appearance, obtained by using wrap yarns that
are tightly twisted in alternate directions. The
term is often applied to lightweight worsted
fabrics for womens wear that have little or no
crepe surface.
- Cretonne. Usually plain weave, but may be twill,
medium or heavy weight cotton fabric. Has large
printed pattern similar to chintz but not glazed.
Used for curtains, furniture coverings.
- Crinoline. Heavily sized, stiff, open weave
usually plain but some types may be twill or of
satin construction. Generally made of cotton.
Comes in shades of white to gray to black. Used
for interlinings.
- Damask. Firm, compact fabric with lustrous
jacquard pattern that is flatter and smoother
than brocade. Made of any natural or manmade
fibre. Two types; single and double. Single


P
a
g
e
1
5
5

damask has a five-shaft satin construction;
thread cont ranges from 100 to 200 to the
square inch (40-80/cm
2
); if given a high thread
count, it is more durable than double damask.
Double damask is more lustrous because of the
longer float of the eight-shaft construction;
reversible because the design is made on both
sides; thread count ranges from 165 to 400 the
square inch (65-160/cm
2
).

- Denim. Firm, left-hand two-up and one-down or
three-up and one-down twill weave of white
filling and coloured warp, usually blue. Strong,
durable. Heavier weights used for work clothes
and sports wear. Lighter weights come in colours
and patterns, are softer and may be used for
sportswear and furnishings.



P
a
g
e
1
5
6

- Dimity. A sheer white, dyed, or printed fabric of
plain weave with a spaced rib made with warp
cords. This rib may be single, double, or in
groups. Comes also in checks and other novelty
versions. For example crossbar dimity which has
cords in both warp and filling. Coarser small
check dimities are known as pajama checks.
- Dobby. Woven on a dobby loom. All material
with small figures, such as dots and geometric
designs; very small floral patterns woven in the
fabric, such as certain shirtings also huck towels,
diaper cloth, certain dress goods, drapery and
upholstery fabrics. Can be dyed, bleached, or
yarn-dyed in many colours.
- Doeskin. Two different types: (1) Fine quality,
close compact wool fabric, of five- or eight shaft
satin weave. Smooth face, light nap finish. Used
for suits and coats. (2) Rayon twill or small satin
with face nap. Used for suits, coats, sportswear.
- Dommett Flannel. See Outing Flannel.
- Dorian. A stripped muslin.
- Dotted Swiss. Generally a voile or lawn
construction woven with either clip spots or
swivel dots. The clip spot is the more popular
version. The fabric is given crisp, clear finish,
which may be permanent or semi permanent.
Often yarn-dyed dots are woven on white
ground, or a dark ground has white dots. Many
imitations on the market, for example pigment
and flock dots.
- Drill. A durable fabric of medium weight.
Usually, three-harness warp-face left hand twills
made of carded sheeting yarns. Comes in various
weights and thread counts. When dyed, known
as Khaki, tickings, Silesia, herringbones. Warp
goes over two filling yarns, then under one.


P
a
g
e
1
5
7

- Duck. Cover a wide range of fabrics. It is one of
the most durable fabrics made. A closely woven,
heavy material. The most important fabrics in
this group are known as number duck, army
duck, and flat or ounce duck. Number and army
ducks are always of plain weave with medium or
heavy ply yarns; army ducks are the lighter.
Ounce ducks always have single warp yarns
woven in pairs and single or ply filling yarns.
Other variations of these fabrics are sail duck,
belt duck, hose duck, tire duck (such as breaker,
cord, chafer), wide and narrow duck, biscuit
duck, harvester duck, boot duck, canvas, and so
on. Generally of ply yarns in war and yarns of
various sizes and weights in filling. Thread
counts range from 54x40 to 72x40.
- Duvetyne. Originally of cotton warp and spun
silk filling. Sometimes made of fine woolen
yarns. Constructed of six, seven, or eight shaft
satin weave and face-finished to give smooth,
plush texture. Soft hand, drapes well, wears
well, but spots easily.
- Ecru Silk. Fabric of thrown filament silk from
which a small amount of the sericin (natural silk
gum) has been removed. Natural, unbleached
colour.
- Elastique. Similar to cavalry twill but with finer,
double diagonal rib which gives a smoother
surface and hand.
- Eponge. Three prinicipal types: (1) Soft,
spongy, woolen fabric. Low count with one yarn
novelty, the other plain. Cloth is bleached, dyed;
used for dress goods. (2) Rayon eponge is some
what like terry cloth-soft, loose, spongy. Novelty
weaves used for lightweight coats, sportswear.
(3) Cotton eponge: Ratine.


P
a
g
e
1
5
8

- Etamine. Open weave fabric, usually with leno
or mock leno construction or pattern. Used for
dress goods.
- Express Stripe. Warp-face twill with a woven
stripe. A durable fabric. An even number of
unbleached and dyed warp yarns are used in the
pattern, forming a stripe.
- Faconne Velvet. Etched or burnt-out velvet
providing a cut pile pattern on the flat, usually
sheer, background.
- Faille. A silk, rayon, or other manmade fibre
fabric of the gross grain type. In plain weave
with flat ribs in the filling. Has good body and
wears well if not too loosely, constructed. Usually
slightly lustrous finish. Used for dresses, coats,
and handbags.
- Faille crepe. Lighter weight than faille with
creped filling. Used for dresses.
- Faille Taffeta. Stiff and crisp with a fine cross
ribbed appearance. Usually of silk, rayon, or
acetate. Used for dresses and coats.
- Farmers Satin. Warp-based twill weave,
sometimes smooth construction of cotton and
worsted. Glossy surface. Used for apparel linings.
- Fearnaught. Heavy British fabric of cheviot
group Filling yarn contributes to shaggy face
finish. Shoddy and other recycled fibres often
used.
- Flannel. A fulled and napped woven fabric,
made generally of wool yarn but sometimes with
other yarn. Usually woven with a twill weave,
which may be obscured by the nap.
Distinguished for its softness. Used for
bathrobes, skirts, mens suits and trousers.
Cotton flannel or flannelette is similar in
appearance.


P
a
g
e
1
5
9


- Flannelette. Flannel type fabric usually made of
cotton.

- Flat Crepe. Similar to crepe de chine but with a
flatter surface.
- Fleece. Fabric with deep, soft nap. Term
properly applied to flat woven or knit fabrics as
well as to those woven on the pile principle. The
long nap or pile provides many air spaces,
resulting in a fabric with high insulative
properties.
- Florentine Twill. Lightweight, lustrous fabric of
eight-shaft twill construction. Used for dresses.
- Foulard. A lightweight fabric of silk or manmade
filament fibre with a soft finish. Made with a twill
weave. Usually printed with small figures on dark
and light backgrounds. Suitable for dresses,
robes, scarves, and ties.


P
a
g
e
1
6
0

- Frenchback. Fabric of corded twill back with
different weave on face, which has clear finish.
Back may be of cotton and face of worsted yarn,
usually of two warps and one filling construction.
Good hand and drape. Used for formal and
informal wear.
- Frechback Serge. Serge of two warps and one
filling twill. Medium weight. Used for suiting.
- French Serge. Fine quality serge with lofty,
springy hand. Warp may be singles or doubles,
filling is usually single. Worsted yarns are
cylindrical. Used for womens wear.
- Frieze or Frise. Three types: (1) Heavy woolen
fabrics with rough, frizzy face. Harsh, boardy
hand. Wide variation in quality, frequently
adulterated with recycled wool and flocks. Used
for overcoats. (2) Lightweight, sometimes double
cloth construction, of spun rayon and wool. Used
for overcoats. (3) Uncut pile fabric. Sometimes
patterned by shearing pile at different heights.
Used for upholstery.
- Friezette. Lighter weight than frieze and less
harsh. Rib or rep effect made with single or ply
yarns of alternated regular and slack tensions.
Wears well. Used for upholstery.
- Frise (Sometimes called Cotton Frieze or Frieze).
May have rayon or other manmade fibre content.
Usually has uncut loops; pile may be cut at
various heights to provide a pattern.
- Fuji. Originally of silk, now made of rayon,
acetate, or other manmade fibre. Made of fine,
cylindrical yarns providing smooth, supple hand.
Used for sport shirts and blouses.
- Gabardine. A distinctive 45
0
or 63
0
warp-face
twill of carded or combed cotton, rayon, or
worsted yarns. Twill is to the left if made with all


P
a
g
e
1
6
1

single yarns, and to the right when ply warp and
single filling are used.

- Galatea. Rugged material usually made of
cotton. Left hand twill eave, though sometimes a
plain weave. Comes in white, colours and stripes.
Harsh, lustrous finish. Used for childrens
clothing, nurses uniforms, linings.
- Gamsa. A crepe back satin made with a twill
weave as the base. Usually of rayon. Wears well.
Used for dresses.
- Gauze. Comes in various forms. May be of
cotton, wool, silk, rayon or other manmade fibre.
Usually plain weave, sometimes leno-weave,
occasionally knitted. Sheer, lightweight. Cotton
gauze sometimes used for bandages. Some silk
or rayon gauze used for curtains, trimmings.

- Georgette. Sheer lightweight fabric with crepe
weave of alternating two ends of right-hand with
two ends of left-hand hard twist yarns. Crinkly


P
a
g
e
1
6
2

texture, harsh, more opaque than chiffon. Comes
in solid and printed colours. Drapes well, wears
well. Used for dresses, blouses.

- Germantown. Coarse fabric of four-ply worsted
knitting yarn, which originated in Germantown,
Pa.
- Gingham. Plain-weave medium or light-weight
fabrics. Can be either carded or combed cotton
or cotton blend yarns. Usually woven on a
boxloom. Coloured and white yarns or multi
coloured yarns form the pattern. Same number
and variation or yarns in the warp as in the
filing, forming squares, plaids, and similar
patterns. Strange to say, a solid colour gingham
is called a novelty gingham. Endless variations in
colour and design. Tissue ginghams are sheer
ginghams made with lighter weight yarns.


P
a
g
e
1
6
3

- Glissade. Satin weave, polished fabric
originating in England.
- Gloria. When made of silk, also called Gloria
silk. Very closely woven, lightweight fabric
usually of plain weave, but may be of twill or
satin construction. Sometimes made with silk
warp and worsted or cotton filling, or all cotton,
or of nylon. Used for umbrellas.
- Gossamer. Very soft, gauzelike veiling originally
of silk.
- Granada. Fine, face-finished fabric with granular
surface. Made of worsted yarn. Often dyed black.
- Granite. (also Mummy, Momie Cloth). Although
this fabric has the appearance of crepe with a
crinkled surface, it is not made with crepe yarns
but with ordinary yarns and is woven with an
irregular wide twill on a dobby loom. Can be
bleached, dyed, or printed.
- Grass Cloth (China Grass Cloth). Woven of such
bast fibres such as jute, hemp, or ramie with
uneven textures. Often used for wall coverings.
- Grenadine. Fine, loosely woven leno fabric
similar to marquisette. May be made on Jacquard
loom. Used for curtains, blouses, dresses.
- Gros de Londres. Lightweight plain weave
fabric with alternating narrow and wider flat
filling ribs. May be piece dyed or warp printed.
Glossy finish. Used for dresses.
- Grosgrain. A fine plain weave, silk or manmade
fibre cross-ribbed fabric of close texture having a
heavy filling, which is sometimes made of cotton
yarns. Ribs are rounder than those in faille;
heavier than those in poplin. Used chiefly for
ribbons and trimmings.


P
a
g
e
1
6
4

- Habutai. Soft, lightweight fabric of natural
thrown silk. Ecru is its natural colour. Similar to
China silk but heavier. Used for blouses, dresses,
curtains, lingerie.
- Handkercheif Linen. Same as linen cambric,
sometimes called linen lawn or linen batiste.
Plain weave, often corded.
- Hessian. See Burlap.
- Hickory Cloth. Resembles ticking somewhat,
but of lighter weight and not so firm a weave.
Used for work clothes.
- Himalaya. Plain weave with irregular slubs in
filling similar to that of shantung. Generally
made of cotton.
- Holland. Usually a low-count cotton print cloth
or high-count cheesecloth. Also comes in muslin
weights. Heavily sized and calendered for
smooth, bright finish. May be glazed by treating
with starch, oil, or pyroxylin.
- Homespun. A coarse and loosely woven woolen
material made to simulate homemade clothin
effect a coarse, rough plain weave fabric. Yarn is
usually heavy and contains coarse wool fibre
unevenly spun. Sometimes called (erroneously)
tweed.
- Honan. Two different types: (1) Silk pongee-
type fabric made from very best grade of wild
silk from Honan area of China. Very uniform
colour. (2) Linen-textured rayon fabric with small
checks, squares, or oblongs made by wider yarns
used in the cloth. Usually solid colour. Used for
dresses.
- Hopsacking. Three types: (1) Originally a type
of burlap. (2) Made of cotton yarns about the
same weight as osnaburg in a loose and low
thread count. Sometimes made with spiral yarns.


P
a
g
e
1
6
5

It has a soft texture and is of the homespun
family of cottons. Sometimes made with fine
warp and heavier filling in basket weave. Many
versions of this fabric. Used for dresses,
decorative fabrics. (3) A rough open-weave
woolen fabric made of coarse yarn, usually in a
basket weave. Used for novelty effects.
- Huck (Huckaback). Originally of linen, now
made of cotton, rayon, and blends. Heavy
toweling of slackly twisted filling for absorbency.
Dobby weave with honeycomb effect.
Embroidery called Swedish weaving done by
picking up the woven-in floats.
- Indianhead. Trade name for a porous fabric of
a plain weave. The yarn is somewhat thick. The
fabric feels wiry, resembling butcher linen but
not as stiff or as lustrous.
- India Silk. Very thin, soft, hand-loomed plain
weave fabric made chiefly in India.




P
a
g
e
1
6
6

- Irish Poplin. Two types: (1) Originally a fabric
constructed with silk warp and wool filling in
plain weave with fine rib. (2) Fine linen or cotton
shirting also made in Ireland. Sometimes used
for neckwear.
- Italian Cloth. See Farmers Satin.
- Jaconet. Thin cotton fabric somewhat heavier
than cambric. Glazed to produce high luster. May
have stripes or checks.
- Jaspe- A durable, narrow woven stripe made on
a dobby loom with multi coloured threads or with
different shades of the same colour. Has a
shadow effect. Sometimes printed versions are
shown in the market. Often small dots are woven
into the fabric. Used for draperies and slipcovers.
- Jeans-Three-harness warp-face twills of light
weight sheeting yarns. One warp thread goes
over two or more filling threads, then under
moving one pick higher for each return filling
thread. Sometimes made in chevron or
herringbone versions.
- Jersey- Two different types: (1) flat or circular
knitted, plain or ribbed. Some tricot is also
referred to as jersey. Many of all kinds of textile
fibres. Elastic, but may sag. Serviceable, drapes
well. Used for dress goods, shirting, underwear,
sportswear. (2) Woven of silk yarn into shirting
and dress goods.
- Kasha Cloth- Flannel with napped face and
mottled colour. Usually tan or brown. An
unbleached soft-filled sheeting. Mixed yarns are
used with sized warp yarns that take dye and
filling yarns with natural wax that do not take
dye. When bale-dyed, has a mottled appearance.
- Kersey- A medium-weight woolen fabric, well
fulled in the finishing, with a napped and closely


P
a
g
e
1
6
7

sheared surface that obscures the weave. Often
more fulled than beaver, has shorter nap and
higher lustre. Used extensively for military and
civil uniforms.
- Kerseymere- A fancy type of cassimere woolen
fabric.
- Khaki- Tan or dusty coloured warp face twill;
softer and finer than drill. Name derived from
East India word meaning earth colour. Fabric
made of cotton, linen, wool, worsted, or
manmade fibres and blends.
- Lame- Fabric in which flat metal threads form
the pattern or the background. Used chiefly for
evening wear.
- Lampas- A Jacquard fabric made with two warps
for one or more fillings. Warps are yarn-dyed in
one colour, fillings yarn-dyed of one or more
colours producing a two-tone or multi coloured
cloth.
- Lawn- Thin, sheer fabric of carded or combed
cotton or of linen with sized finish that may be
temporary. Sizing makes it crisper than voile,
but not as crisp as organdy. May be white, dyed,
or printed. Used for dresses, blouses.



P
a
g
e
1
6
8

- Loden Cloth- Heavily fulled or felted fabric
originating, in Austrian Tyrol. Wool may be
blended with camel hair or alpaca. Thick, soft,
waterproof without chemical treatment.
Sometimes given fine nap. Used for coats.
Sportswear.
- Longcloth-Also known as Fineplain. A plain-
weave, closely woven, high-count fabric. The
weight is between a printcloth and lawn.
Generally combed finer yarns, and with more
threads to the square inch than percales. A few
are made of printcloth yarns.
- Luana- Plain weave fabric with a crosswise rib
made of spun yarn filling and filament yarn warp.
- Lyons Velvet-Thick, stiff, erect cut silk warp pile
on cotton or rayon back. When made entirely of
manmade fibre, called Lyons-type velvet.
- Mackinac (Mackinaw)- A heavy woolen fabric,
heavily fulled or felted, napped, with the result
that no weave is apparent on the surface. In
general construction, the same as melton except
that the latter is usually made in plain colours,
whereas mackinac cloth is commonly woven with
large distinctive plaids or colour effects. Usually
made of the coarser wools.
- Madras. Cotton fabric of plain weave of coarse
yarns. Usually comes in stripes, checks, or
plaids. Colours may bleed. Used for shirtings.
- Marble Silk. Lightweight silk fabric of warp
printed yarn or multicoloured filling which
imparts mottled appearance. Used for dresses.
- Marquisette. Lightweight open-mesh fabric of
low thread count. Can be either a ganze or leno-
weave. Made with ply or single yarns. Dots and
figures can be woven in. Either carded or
combed cotton, silk, rayon, nylon, polyester, or


P
a
g
e
1
6
9

glass fibres. When made of silk, may be called
silk gauze.
- Marvella (Marvello). Heavyweight, high-
quality, high-luster, pile fabric for coats. Usually
worsted warp with filling of mohair and silk, but
other fibres may be used, depending upon
quality.
- Matelasse. A fabric having a raised figured
pattern in a blistered, quilted effect. Woven on a
Jacquard or dobby loom. Double warp-face
material stitched together in warp and filling.
Face of cloth has a fine warp and filling, the back
a fine warp and heavy filling. Comes in various
weights and used for blouses, dresses,
upholstery.
- Matelasse Crepe. Soft double or compound
matelasse type fabric made with crepe yarns.
Used for blouses, dresses.
- Marceline (Merceline). Thin, sheer,
lightweight, closely woven silk fabric.
- Melton. Well-fulled or felted overcoating fabric
with smooth, hard finish and close-cropped nap.
Generally in plain colours. Coarser meltons
similar to mackinac cloth, but sometimes made
of fine, soft wools of produce smooth coating
fabric with finish like broadcloth. Also made with
wool blends.


P
a
g
e
1
7
0

- Merveilleux. An all-silk, silk-and-cotton, or all
rayon fabric in twill weave. Used as lining in
mens outer apparel.
- Messaline. Usually of silk, five-shaft satin weave
made with two-thread organize and three-
thread tram yarns. Soft, lustrous. Used for
dresses, gowns.
- Middy Twill. White, medium-weight cotton fabric
of either right or left-hand twill. May be
mercerized. Serviceable, durable.
- Mignonette. See tricolette.
- Milanese. Warp knitted fabric with distinctive
diagonal. Made of any filament fibre. Used for
gloves, lingeric.
- Mohair. Yarns and fabrics of mohair are bright
and lustrous. Warp yarns of cotton or worsted
generally used in flat mohair fabrics. Mohair pile
fabrics used in automobiles and for upholstery
usually have pile introduced as warp, but in such
fashion that the special system of threads is not
subjected to severe tension.
- Moire. Watermark designs embossed on plain-
weave fabrics that have crosswise ribs. Usually
of silk, rayon, acetate, or nylon. Marking
permanent on the thermoplastic fibres. Cotton
moir made with compact plain weave and given
finish that is permanent if washed with care in
lukewarm water, mild soap, no bleach.



P
a
g
e
1
7
1


- Moleskin. Heavy fabric, sateen weave usually
with twice as many fillings as warps. Two picks
of soft spun face-filling to one pick of back filling.
Thick soft nap on back to simulate mole fur.
Used for linings, work clothes.
- Monks (Druids) Cloth. Basket weave, a
variation of the plain weave. Made with heavy
rough yarns. Can be a 1x1, 2x2, 4x4 or 8x8
thread; the best known is the 4x4. These four
threads in warp and filling are placed flat
together and woven over and under in a plain
weave; the resulting appearance is that of a
basket. Used for drapery and upholstery.


P
a
g
e
1
7
2







P
a
g
e
1
7
3

- Moscow. Heavy, napped, shaggy fabric
resembling Shetland. Many types and grades.
Used for coats.
- Mousseline de Laine. French for wool muslin.
Lightweight, worsted, plain weave. Quality
varies. Often printed. Used for dresses.
- Mousseline de Soie. French for silk muslin.
Originally of silk, now also of rayon and other
manmade filament yarns. Sheer, transparent silk
in a plain weave. Similar to chiffon but with a
more open texture and a stiffer finish produced
by the use of sizing. Used chiefly for evening
dresses.
- Mozambique. Grenadine-type fabric with large
floral patterns in relief. Originally of silk, now,
often of rayon or acetate.
- Mummy Cloth. Two different types: (1) Fine,
closely woven linen fabric used in Egypt for
wrapping mummies. (2) Dull crepe fabric of silk
or cotton warp and wool filling.
- Muslin. Coarse type of plain weave fabric made
of carded cotton or polyester/cotton yarns; of
various thread counts heavier than longcloth
upto 140. Gray printcloth and lightweight
sheeting known as unbleached muslins.
-


P
a
g
e
1
7
4

- Nacre Velvet. Velvet with pile of one colour and
back of another, giving as mother-of-pearl,
changeable appearance.
- Nainsook. Lightweight, plain weave fabric of
fine combed cotton, similar to batiste but a bit
heavier. Often mercerized. English version has
soft finishing; French is calendered. Used for
infants wear, blouses, lingerie.
- Netting. A lightweight or heavy open-
construction fabric made by knotting or twisting
yarns together, thereby forming geometric
patterns such as squares or hexagons. Ranges in
weight from very sheer to very heavy fabrics,
from fine nets to finishing or laundry nets.

- Nuns Veiling. A fine, Lightweight plain-weave
fabric, very soft and thin, originally for veils but
now used for womens and childrens dresses.
Plain colours. Originally of wool, now also of
manmade fibre.
- Oilcloth. Sheetings or printcloth that are
printed, bleached, or dyed, and given a special
linseed oil and pigment preparation. Used for
table coverings, waterproof outerwear; now
largely replaced by plastic-coated and vinyl
materials.


P
a
g
e
1
7
5


- Oilskin. Cotton, linen, silk, or manmade material
treated with linseed oil, varnish for
waterproofing. Used for rainwear.
- Onde. Cross-dyed fabric of cotton warp and wool
filling. Used for dresses.
- Opaline. Fine quality cotton lawn with soft
finish.
- Organdy. Sheer, stiff, wiry, plain weave fabric of
combed cotton yarns that may be as fine as 150s
in warp and 100s in filling. Stiffness may be
temporary or permanent, the latter sometimes
referred to as Swiss organdy. Temporary sizing
requires restarching after laundering. Crushes
easily. Shadow organdy has faint, self-colour
print. Used for curtains, dresses.



P
a
g
e
1
7
6

- Organza. Sheer, thin, stiff, wiry, plain weave
fabric of hard-twisted silk or manmade filament
fibres. Crushes easily but can be readily pressed.
Used for evening gowns, trimmings.



P
a
g
e
1
7
7

- Osnaburg. A plain weave made of low-grade
cotton, or polyester/ cotton medium or heavy
coarse yarns. Low thread count. When made of
waste mixed with low-grade cotton, it is known
as part-waste osnaburg; when of short staple,
low-grade white cotton known as clean
osnaburg. Woven with coloured stripe and check
effects, known as crash toweling. Comes in both
wide and narrow widths and in innumerable
variations in weight and thread count. Known
also under the names of drapery crash,
hopsacking, suiting. Has a variety of uses.



P
a
g
e
1
7
8

- Ottoman. Heavy, plain weave fabric with wide,
flat crosswise ribs that are larger and higher than
in faille. Sometimes comes with alternating
narrow and wide ribs. When made of narrow ribs
only, it is called soleil. Warp may be silk or
manmade fibre, filling may be cotton, silk, wool,
or manmade fibre. Used for dress coats and
suits, trimmings.






P
a
g
e
1
7
9

- Outing (Domett) Flannel. Can be either plain
or twill weave of lightweight or medium-weight
soft-filled single yarn with nap on both sides.
Mostly yarn-dyed. Woven in stripes, plaids, or
checks. Sometimes bleached or piece-dyed, and
occasionally printed. Domett is generally white
with a longer nap.
- Oxford. A plain basket weave of medium or
heavy weight. Made with a variety of cotton,
rayon, or polyester/cotton yarns. The majority of
oxfords are of combed yarns, with heavier filling
than warp yarns. Cheaper grades are mixed
carded and combed yarns, and sometimes all
carded yarns. Two warp yarns, placed flat next
to each other, are woven over and under one
heavier filling thread. Usually mercerized. A
number of variations of this weave are on the
market. For shirtings, dresses, and similar
purposes.

- Paddock. Twill weave, worsted fabric similar to
gabardine.
- Pajama Check. A lightweight or medium-weight
plain weave fabric with small-sized or medium-


P
a
g
e
1
8
0

sized cord checks. Usually carded yarns. One of
the dimity family.
- Palm Beach Cloth. Trademark for lightweight
summer suiting fabric. Plain weave of cotton
warp and mohair filling, clear finish. Skein or
piece-dyed.
- Panama. Lightweight summer suiting. Plain
weave, usually with cotton warp and worsted
filling. Skein or piece-dyed.
- Panne Satin. Lightweight silk or manmade fibre
satin fabric with very high luster achieved with
aid of heavy roll pressure. Crushes easily. Used
for evening wear.
- Panne Velvet. A velvet with a special luster
produced by pressing the pile in one direction.
- Paper Taffeta. Lightweight taffeta with crisp,
paper like finish.
- Peau de Soie. Skin of silk, soft, compact silk
or manmade fibre, satin weave fabric with fine
crosswise rib back and grainy, dull surface.
Single or double faced. Used for dresses, evening
wear.
- Percale. Plain weave of medium-weight, carded
or combed cotton or polyester/cotton yarn.
Fabric in the printcloth group. Usually given a
firm finish. Can be bleached, dyed, or printed.
Sheeting percale generally of finer yarn, higher
count.


P
a
g
e
1
8
1


- Percaline. In the lightweight, low-count
printcloth or lawn group with a bright, soft finish.
Usually mercerized. Made in both fine and cheap
versions. Used for the lining of furs.
- Pigment Taffeta. Taffeta woven with pigmented
yarns. Surface has dull appearance.
- Pilot Cloth. Heavy, bulky woolen fabric of two-
up and two-down twill. Fulled, napped, brushed,
Drab appearance.
- Pique. Two different types: (1) Medium to
heavy-weight fabric that has a warp or filling
wale or cord, Usually warp. Can be carded or
combed yarn. It is usually woven on a dobby
loom or with a dobby motion. A heavy stuffer
yarn is used in back of the cloth; this heavy yarn
is caught at intervals by a filling thread. Groups
of fine warp yarns are woven on the surface over
the back stuffer yarn, forming a rib. Many of the
cheaper or lighter versions are woven without
this stuffer yarn. Other versions of pique are
irregular or novelty wales, woven dots, birds-
eye, diamond, square, ladder effects. (2)
Double-knit fabric usually with fine dots in the
stitch pattern


P
a
g
e
1
8
2



- Plaid Back. A type of construction used in over
coatings. The face may be finished like melton
fleece, or similar fabrics. The back is a fancy or
tartan plaid.
- Plisse. A plain-weave crepe or crinkled fabric
that has been specially treated. The plain fabric,
which can be printcloth, lawn, or lightweight
sheeting, is bleached, dyed, or printed, then
covered with a gum in the desired pattern
stripe, check, floral, or geometric. The fabric is
then passed through a caustic soda bath. The
soda crinkles or crepes the fabric, leaving the


P
a
g
e
1
8
3

gummed sections plain. When the gum is
washed off, the crinkled pattern is revealed.
When thermoplastic fibres, such as nylon, are
used, fabric is embossed with hot rollers to
achieve permanent crinkle.


- Plumetis. Lightweight cotton or wool fabric with
a raised pattern giving a feathered effect on a
plain background.
- Plush. Compactly woven fabric with warp pile
higher than that of velvet. Made of cotton, wool,
silk, or manmade fibre, often woven as double
face fabric and then sheared apart. Higher pile


P
a
g
e
1
8
4

gives bristly texture. Usually piece-dyed but may
be printed. Used for coats, upholstery.
- Poiret Twill. Worsted fabric of pronounced twill,
usually 45
o
diagonal three-up and three-down
construction, but may have 63
o
diagonal. Yarns
have high twist. Medium-weight fabric of soft
hand, excellent drape. Used for dress goods.
- Polo Cloth. Comes in various forms. May be
woven with plain, twill, or basket construction, or
knitted and given a heavily napped finish, or it
may have pile construction. Made of wool
blended with hair fibre. Medium to heavy weight.
Used for coats, sportswear, blankets.

- Pongee. Two types (1) (also Tussah Silk). Made
from wild silk. Has a rough, uneven texture.
Generally is in its natural colours of cream to
light brown, but may be dyed. Used for dress
goods and household decoration. (2) Plain-weave
cotton fabric adapted from the early silk fabric of
that name. Generally combed yarns. More and
heavier filling yarns than warp. Schreinerized
and mercerized to have a silk like finish.


P
a
g
e
1
8
5






P
a
g
e
1
8
6

- Poplin. Two major types: (1) Originally a fabric
having a silk warp and a filling that consisted of
a wool yarn heavier than the silk, thus producing
a ribbed surface something like a rep. (2) Now
made of staple fibre, usually cotton or blends, in
plain weave. Heavier filling than warp yarns and
more threads in the warp than filling, giving a
heavier rib effect than broadcloth. Printcloth
yarns mostly. Combed yarns in the better cloths.
Many mixtures made. Poplin comes in many
variations, such as slubs, nubs, and yarn-dyed
checks and stripes. Mainly dyed solid colours or
printed. Often given special finishes, such as
water-repellent, fire-retardant, mildwproof.



P
a
g
e
1
8
7

- Printcloth. Carded cloth made with cotton or
blended yarns. Most printcloths are made in
narrow widths. Given a range of finishes, thus
producing cambric, muslin, lawn, longcloth, and
printed percales.
- Ratine. A loosely woven cotton or rayon fabric of
plain weave, with a rough, nubby appearance.
This is obtained by the use of ratine yarns; that
is, one heavy and two fine, twisted together at
different tensions, thus forming a knotty ply
yarn. In less expensive versions, ordinary yarn is
used in the warp with ratine yarn in the filling.
Can be bleached, dyed, or printed, and given a
high luster or other finishes.
- Rep (Repp). Plain weave. Has a rib running
across the fabric. The rib stands out more than
in poplin. Usually given a high luster, although
not always.
- Romaine. Originally of silk, now also of wool or
manmade fibres. Fairly sheet fabric of creped
yarns. Used for dresses.
- Sailcloth. Heavy, strong canvas of cotton, linen,
jute, nylon, polyester, or other suitable
manmade fibre used for sails. Lighter sportswear
versions often 2x1 basket weave.


P
a
g
e
1
8
8


- Sateen. A cotton fabric usually woven so that
the surface is smooth and the finish lustrous,
resembling satin. Can be either a strong warp-
face sateen or a softer filling-face sateen. Often,
though not always, filling sateens have a softer
finish than warp sateens. Either carded or
combed yarns.


P
a
g
e
1
8
9

- Satin. Originally silk, now also of filament
manmade fibres with a high lustrous surface and
usually a dull back. Made in different weights
according to its uses, which vary from lingerie
and dress goods to drapery and upholstery
fabrics. May be made with a cotton back.
Sometimes double-faced for use as ribbon.

- Saxony. (1) A term applied to certain flannels
and to soft, smooth woolen fabrics made from
fine wools similar in nature to Saxony wools.
Sometimes has fancy yarn effects similar to
those of tweed. (2) Carpet with highly twisted
pile evenly sheared to medium height.

- Scrim. A durable plain weave. Generally ply
yarns and low thread count. Somewhat similar to
voile but a much lower thread count.


P
a
g
e
1
9
0

Cheesecloth with a stiffening finish is often
referred to as scrim. Comes in many variations.
Usually has a selvage. Generally carded, but a
few combed varieties.

- Seersucker. Light-to medium-weight fabric of
cotton or manmade fibre, of plain or crepe weave
with crinkled stripes in cloth made by alternating
tight and slack twist warp yarns. Usually has a
selvage. Generally carded, but a few combed
varieties.
- Seersucker. Light-to medium-weight fabric of
cotton or manmade fibre, of plain or crepe weave
with crinkled stripes in cloth made by alternating
tight and slack twist warp yarns. Usually with
dyed warp yarn producing stripes. Imitations are
chemically treated or embossed plisse. Used for
summer suits, dresses, bedspreads.




P
a
g
e
1
9
1



- Serge. Medium-weight fabric of wool worsted,
cotton/worsted, or other blend with a two-up and
two down 45
o
diagonal twill. Usually with clear
finish, but may have a semifinish. Twill visible
on face and back. Considerable range in quality.
Drapes well, holds shape, but develops a shine
that cannot be removed.



P
a
g
e
1
9
2

- Shadecloth. Plain weave cotton or linen fabric,
heavily sized and treated to be opaque (See
Holland).
- Shantung. Plain weave. Has a rib effect formed
by slub filling yarns. Certain parts of the yarn are
not given the usual number of twists. These
places form the slub in the rib. Made of cotton,
silk, rayon and other manmade fibres. Low in
luster, heavier and rougher than pongee.
Sometimes used to describe a heavy grade of
pongee made in China. Also sometimes called;
nankeen, rajah, tussah.


P
a
g
e
1
9
3

- Sharkskin. A term descriptively applied to wool
fabrics woven in a two and two right-hand twill,
with a one and one colour arrangement of yarns
in the warp and filling. This combination of
weave and colour results in colour lines running
diagonally to the left, opposed to the direction of
the twill lines, and a distinctly sleek appearance
and feel that suggests the textures of the skin of
the shark. Modifications of this design are often
loosely designated as sharkskin. Also made of
rayon, acetate, triacetate, other fibres, and
blends. Used for suiting, sports-wear.

- Sheers. General classifications for thin,
lightweight fabric of any one of several open
weave constructions. May be made of any
natural or manmade fibre.
- Sheetings. Plain weave. Mostly carded but
occasionally combed yarns in all weights light,:
medium, and heavy. Generally about the same
number of yarns in warp as in filling, but often
warp yarns are heavier than filling. Sheeting
come in both wide and narrow widths. Yarn sizes
range from 10s to 30s. May be dame of cotton or
any other major natural or manmade fibre.


P
a
g
e
1
9
4

- Shepherds check or plaid. Twill weave with
check produced by four dyed warp yarns
(frequently black) and four white filling yarns.
Made of cotton, wool, silk, or manmade fibres.

- Shetland. Three different types: (1) Originally,
soft, napped fabric of wool from the Shetland
Islands. Herringbone twill is common. (2) Soft,
knitted fabric of Shetland wool with a soft
handle resembling that of Shetland but does not
contain that
- wool.(3) A woven or knitted fabric.
- Silesia. Generally a lightweight cotton twill lining
with a calendered glaze.
- Slipper Satin. Compactly woven, strong fabric
originally used for womens evening shoes.


P
a
g
e
1
9
5

Made of silk or manmade filament fibres in white,
solid colours, and brocade designs.
- Soleil. (See Ottoman.)

- Stockinette. Elastic, jersey knitted fabrics,
usually of cotton, worsted, or part worsted yarn.
Often has a fleece back. Used for work cloths,
jackets.
- Suede cloth. A fine fabric with closely clipped
nap made to imitate leather.




P
a
g
e
1
9
6


- Suede21. Trademark for an imitation suede
fabric knitted with yarn of biconstituent 75
percent polyester and 25 percent nylon micro
fibres, and given a polyurethane finish. Has hand
resembling antelope suede.
- Surah. Originally of silk, now also made of
manmade filament fibres. Soft, supple fabric of
twill weave. May come in plaid or printed
pattern. Used for neckwear, scarves, blouses,
dresses.
- Taffeta. A smooth, closely woven fabric in a
plain weave. Originally of silk, now often of
manmade filament fibres. Often weighted to
produce its characteristic crispness. Solid
colours, but sometimes of one colour warp and
another colour filling to give iridescent, or
changeable colour effect, sometimes called shot
taffeta. May also be striped or plaid,
occasionally printed. Sometimes has a moir
pattern. Used for dresses, suits, coats, and
lingerie.


P
a
g
e
1
9
7


- Tamise. Sheer, diaphanous fabrics similar to
marquisette. Made of wool, silk, manmade fibres.
- Tapestry. A closely woven yarn dyed figured
material with two or more sets of war and filling,
often plied. Woven on a Jacquard loom in a
design that usually depicts a scene. Comes in
both fine and coarse versions. The reverse side is
smooth.
- Tarlatan (Tarletan). Heavily sized, thin or thick
scrim of carded or combed cotton or linen. Used
for waistband, interlinings, theatrical gauze
(when flameproofed).
- Terry Cloth. A war pile fabric having uncut loops
on both sides. Woven on a dobby loom with terry


P
a
g
e
1
9
8

arrangement. Various sizes and numbers of
yarns used in picks and ends, forming different
versions of terry cloth. Can woven on Jacquard
loom to form designs. Can be yarn-dyed in
different colours to from patterns. May also be
knitted. Bleached, piece-dyed, even printed.
Used for towels, robes.
-
- Theatrical Gauze. Thin, plain or leno-weave
fabric. Sized for stiffness and body. Used for
stage scenery, curtains.
- Tibet(Thibet). Originally of wool from Tibet
mountain sheep. Medium to heavyweight, piece-
dyed fabric with soft, smooth, clear finish Broken
weave construction using a face filling and a
back filling. Made of woolen or worsted yarns


P
a
g
e
1
9
9

that may have shoddy or waste fibres, producing
various qualities.
- Ticking. A variety of fabrics is known by this
name. The main weave is a closely woven, thick
yarn twill. Spaced, coloured, and natural or white
yarns repeated in the warp, and all natural or
white in the filling, forming a stripe. Several
colour combinations used, as blue and white,
brown and white, red and white. Heavy warp-
face sateens as well as heavy sheetings are
printed and sold as tickings.

- Jacquard damask ticking woven in damask
effects also sold for this purpose, as well as other
fabrics, such as drills.
- Tobacco Cloth. A wide cheesecloth of coarse
cotton yarns of 28s warp and 30s to 40s filling
with a count of 8x8 up to 48x48. Used for
shading tobacco and other plants.
- Toile. Three general types: (1) broad (French)
refers to many plain or twill linen fabrics; (2)
sheer cotton or linen fabrics; (3) design printed
on fabric or woven in lace


P
a
g
e
2
0
0


- Towelling. General name that covers all types
of linen, cotton, polyester/cotton woven in
special widths for towels. Some are terry,
huckaback, crash, birds-eye.
- Transparent Velvet. Lightweight, soft, sheer
velvet of silk or rayon pile and silk or rayon back.
Drapes well. Used for evening gowns, negligees.
- Tricolette (Mignonette). Fine gauge silk or
rayon fabric made on circular knitting machine.
Porous, elastic. Used for lingerie, dresses.
- Tricot. Warp-knit fabric with fine vertical wales
on face and slightly angled course wise rib on
back. May have stripes, mesh, or patterns in
structure. Mostly manmade filament yarns. Used
for gloves, lingerie, dresses.



P
a
g
e
2
0
1

- Tricotine. Usually medium-weight worsted
fabric with 63
0
double diagonal twill. Tailors,
drapes well. Used for suiting.
- Tropical Weights. Lightweight, clear finish plain
weave fabrics of wool or wool/polyester 2/60s or
better, worsted yarns, usually the later, used for
mens and, less frequently, for womens summer
suits. The weave should be firm but open,
because the fabric is especially designed for hot
weather wear.
- Tsumugi Silk. Made in central Honshu, Japan
Characterized by yarn-dyed striped or plaid
patterns. Has a somewhat coarse, homespun
quality and handsome appearance.
- Tulle. Fine, lightweight stiff net of hexagonal
mesh. Generally made of silk, rayon, or nylon.
Used for ballet costumes, bridal dresses, and
veils

- Tweed. A term broadly applied to the sturdier
types of fabrics made of the coarser grades of
wool. Tweed fabrics originally derived their
interest from the colour effects obtained by
mixing stock-dyed wools. More recently the term


P
a
g
e
2
0
2

includes monotones, which derive their interest
form weave effects. The most popular weaves for
tweeds are the plain, the twill, and variations of
the latter. Now also made of other fibres.

- Ulster Heavy overcoat material, loosely woven
with right-hand twist warp and left-hand twist
filling. All types of fibre used, quality varies
accordingly. Given a long nap that is pressed
down.

- Ulterasuede. Trademark of an imitation suede
fabric composed of polyester micro fibres
combined with polyurethane foam in a nonwoven
structure. Hand and appearance resembles
sheep suede.


P
a
g
e
2
0
3


- Velour. Several types: (1) A smooth, sleek,
medium to heavyweight fabric with a closely cut
warp pile face. The upright pile, which yields in
any direction, gives the fabric and exceedingly
smooth feel. Back may be plain, twill, or satin
weave, Made of cotton, wool, silk, mohair,
manmade fibres and blends. Used for dresses,
jackets, coats, drapery, upholstery. (2) Knitted
pile fabric with appearance and hand similar to
that of woven velour. (3) A felt with a velvety
texture. Used for hats. (4) A thick, close-napped
coating fabric with soft hand.


P
a
g
e
2
0
4

- Velvet. Compact short warp pile of silk or
manmade fibre and usually a cotton or ,
perhaps, rayon back. Similar to plush but shorter
pile and softer.
-
- Velveteen. Filling pile fabric, usually of cotton,
but sometimes of rayon. Pile is short and
compact, but construction and quality varies
from 175 to 600 picks with 80 ends per inch.
Better qualities made with twill weave back of
combed yarn, and may be mercerized. Pile may
be waxed to improve luster. Piece-dyed, but may
be printed. Used for dresses, trimmings,
upholstery


P
a
g
e
2
0
5


- Velveteen Plush. Similar to cotton velveteen
but with a higher cut pile.
- Venetian. (1) Durable warp-face eight-harness
sateen of fine reverse-twist yarns. (2) Also,
lustrous finished warp-face worsted twill
resembling gabardine.
- Vicuna. Short, soft, exceedingly fine hair fibre,
very valuable because of the limited supply. It is
rarely used by itself, although a few vicuna coats
are manufactured each year. Sometimes mixed
with wool to produce special soft coating fabrics.
The term and certain derived and coined names
have been much misused.
- Viyella. Trademark for lightweight British
napped fabric usually of two-up and two-down
twill of 55/45 blend of wool and cotton . Some
variations in fibre content qualities, and weights.
Used for shirts, dresses.
- Voile. A soft yet firm, sheer fabric of plain
weave. Generally made of combed hard-twisted
single yarns, although ply yarns are also used.
About the same number of yarns in warp as in
filling. Has clinging effect. Occasionally dots are
woven in and a crisp finish given the fabric: then
is sold as dotted swiss. Used for childrens wear,
blouses, dresses.


P
a
g
e
2
0
6


- Waffle Cloth. Similar to pique in texture.
Honey-comb weave made on dobby loom.
Usually of cotton.
- Whipcord. Compact, medium-weight fabric of
prominent right-hand 63
2
warp-faced twill. May
be made of cotton and may be mercerized. Often
made of good quality woolen or worsted yarn.
May be of rayon, nylon, other manmade, or
blends. Yarn is bulkier than that used for
tricotine or gabardine, and fabric is heavier. Very
serviceable, used for suits, coats, uniforms.
- Wigan. Usually made of print cloth or light
weight sheetings. Dyed in dark colours and
starched and calendered. Used mostly for
interlinings.






P
a
g
e
2
0
7

SWATCH FILE
Poly Blends
Cotton Twills




P
a
g
e
2
0
8

Canvas, Duck, Denim, Cord, Camo

Micro Fiber, Taslan, and Knits

Wool Blends, Mesh, Broadcloth, and Tricot



P
a
g
e
2
0
9

Close Out Cards
Other Products & Services























P
a
g
e
2
1
0

Books for Further
References
1. Cropman Bernard P 1983, Textiles-Fibre to
Fabric, McGraw-Hill International Edition.
2. Joseph Marfory L 1980, Essentials of Textiles,
Hold Rinehart and Winston.
3. Langerford Anna 2002, Textiles, Pnintic Hall.