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levels, in Group I
than in the Group NIV (Table 5). Despite the statisti-
cally signicant differences in these values, all values
remained within the reference interval. There was not a
signicant difference between PaCO
2
or base excess
levels between groups.
Pre- and post-ventilation radiographs revealed that,
apart from the presence of air in the esophagus of cats
that had been ventilated noninvasively, no other radio-
graphic abnormalities were apparent. Gastric disten-
Table3: Mean cardiovascular parameters, drug requirements, and sedation-anesthesia scores for invasively and noninvasively
ventilated cats
Parameter Group I (CI) Group NIV (CI) P-value
Heart rate (bpm) 141.25 (117.83164.67) 153.18 (129.7176.66) 0.48
Systolic BP (mm Hg) 117.38 (107.04127.73) 126.44 (116.6136.29) 0.16
Diastolic BP (mm Hg) 68.34 (58.3578.35) 78.93 (68.9388.94) 0.13
Mean BP (mm Hg) 84.77 (74.8197.19) 94.44 (83.50106.98) 0.23
Temperature (1C) 37.66 (37.3437.98) 37.72 (37.4238.03) 0.74
Total propofol (mg/kg) 42.69 (37.4647.94) 41.89 (36.6547.13) 0.82
Total butorphanol (mg/kg) 2.14 (2.022.27) 2.22 (2.102.35) 0.36
Sedation-Anesthesia Score 5.7 (5.555.91) 5.6 (5.445.78) 0.31
I, invasively ventilated; NIV, noninvasively ventilated, CI, condence interval; BP, blood pressure.
& Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2009, doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2009.00458.x 419
Noninvasive Ventilation in Cats
sion was not evident in any of the subjects. The average
decrease in packed cell volume over the course of the 2
ventilation episodes was 6% (range: 211%).
Of the 16 arterial catheter placements, 6 (38%) were
dorsopedal, 7 (44%) were coccygeal, and 3 (19%) were
femoral. Because of the potential impact of catheter lo-
cation on the study results, catheter location was in-
cluded as a covariable in the statistical analysis of the
data. There were signicant differences in body tem-
perature, total and mandatory respiratory frequency,
peak inspiratory pressure, expiratory tidal volume, and
lactate between catheter locations. Body temperature
was lower in cats requiring femoral arterial catheters.
The differences in the other parameters were not
clinically signicant as they remained within reference
intervals.
Application of NIV required continuous monitoring
and involved more intensive patient care than was an-
ticipated. Because small movements such as a shift in
head position or licking of the lips resulted in mask
displacement and air leaks, the cats required constant
monitoring to ensure appropriate mask position.
Also, active humidication of the inspired air caused
condensation accumulation within the mask, necessi-
tating intermittent (every 12 h) water removal. Com-
plications, necessitating discontinuation of NIV, were
encountered in 2 cats. Cat 5 became markedly hyper-
capneic (PaCO
2
71.8 mm Hg) approximately 90 minutes
into the NIVepisode. At that time, the PaO
2
was 101mm
Hg and had decreased from 122 mm Hg measured
30 minutes prior. The episode of hypercapnia and
relative hypoxia (expected PaO
2
with FiO
2
of 35% is
140175 mm Hg) was associated with paradoxical
breathing that was asynchronous with the ventilator.
Adjustments in ventilator settings and mask position
failed to ameliorate the elevated PaCO
2
and mechanical
ventilation and propofol infusion were discontinued.
Thoracic radiographs revealed a radiopaque area in the
region of the right middle lung lobe and a cardiac shift
to the right side. These changes were consistent with
atelectasis. Initially, the cat had been positioned in ster-
nal recumbency with both hind limbs to the right. Two
hours after discontinuation of NIV, the hypercapnia
had resolved. With the cat in sternal recumbency and
the hindlimbs out to either side, NIV was reinstituted
and continued for the full 6-hour study period without
further adverse events.
Cat 4 also became hypercapnic but had normal ox-
ygen tension (PaCO
2
51.7 mm Hg, PaO
2
162 mm Hg)
after 45 minutes of NIV and breathing efforts were
asynchronous with the ventilator. The cat had been in
full sternal recumbancy. NIV was discontinued for 30
Table5: Mean arterial blood gas values for invasively and noninvasively ventilated cats
Parameter Group I (CI) Group NIV (CI) P-value
pH 7.35 (7.337.37) 7.32 (7.37.34)
n
o0.001
PaCO
2
(mm Hg) 40.32 (38.5742.07) 42.2547 (40.5144.0) 0.15
PaO
2
(mm Hg) 172.16 (168.73175.59) 165.58 (162.29168.86)
n
o0.001
HCO
3
,
each value remained within the target range (see Table
5) and the differences described were not considered
clinically important.
Of the cats ventilated in this study, none showed ra-
diographic evidence of gastric insufation or pneumo-
thorax. In humans, gas distension of the stomach is a
relatively common complication of NIV, occurring in 5
10% of patients who receive NIV.
5,10
Placement of a
nasogastric tube typically resolves the problem and it
can be prevented by maintaining peak inspiratory pres-
sure below the resting upper esophageal sphincter
pressure that is reported to be 33 12
9
or 25 mm Hg
43
in humans. In the study reported here, all the cats had
normal lungs and peak inspiratory pressures were eas-
ily maintained below 20 cm H
2
O (14.7 mm Hg), sub-
stantially lower than reported normal feline lower
esophageal sphincter pressures (40 mm Hg).
44
Low in-
spiratory pressures and the short duration of ventila-
tion likely prevented the development of gastric
distension, pneumothorax, and other manifestations
of barotrauma.
Two cats developed hypercapnia and asynchrous
breathing within the rst 2 hours of NIV. Both events
necessitated discontinuation of NIV for a short period
of time. In 1 cat, radiographic ndings were consistent
with atelectasis. Radiographs of the second cat were not
& Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2009, doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2009.00458.x 422
J.E. Brown et al.
obtained. Hypercapnia resolved rapidly in both cats
once mechanical ventilation and sedation were discon-
tinued. Following their respective episodes, each cat
was successfully ventilated noninvasively for 6 consec-
utive hours without further complications. Explana-
tions for these events are not readily apparent as
hypercapnia is an unexpected complication of a ther-
apy intended to provide ventilatory support. Four pos-
sible reasons are (a) decreased minute ventilation due
to air leakage around the mask, (b) CO
2
rebreathing
secondary to increased dead space of the mask, (c)
trigger-associated asynchrony, or (d) delayed cycling.
Hypoventilation occurs due to decreased effective
alveolar minute ventilation. It is possible that the per-
sistent leak from the mouth and mask edges resulted in
impaired lung ination, ineffective breaths, and hypo-
ventilation in the 2 cats that developed hypercapnia.
This likely contributed to the development of atelectasis
in 1 of the cats. Masks contribute a larger amount of
static volume to the ventilator circuit than do endotra-
cheal tubes. Theoretically, this increase in dead space
could cause rebreathing of CO
2
that is not ushed out
of the mask. However, this possibility is unlikely for
several reasons. First, evaluation of CO
2
rebreathing in
humans receiving NIV has revealed a weak correlation
between static mask volume and degree of dead space.
This is because the movement of gas through the mask
can effectively reduce dynamic dead space to less than
what it would be during spontaneous ventilation with-
out positive pressure. Maintaining positive end-expira-
tory pressure 44 cm H
2
O has also been shown to
reduce rebreathing in some NIV ventilators
45
and the
levels of positive end expiratory pressure in this study
were maintained at 5 cm H
2
O in all of the subjects. Fi-
nally, had mask dead space been the problem, it would
not have resolved with repositioning and cessation of
anesthetic drugs; all cats were ultimately successfully
ventilated with the masks, despite initial failures.
Another possible explanation for the hypercapnic
episodes observed is trigger-associated asynchrony,
which arises when a large leak is erroneously detected
by the ventilator as an inspiratory effort, triggering a
breath.
46
This aberrant triggering leads to the admin-
istration of breaths irrespective of the subjects efforts,
resulting in a reduction in alveolar ventilation and pre-
cipitation of NIV failure.
45,47
A related problem is de-
layed cycling, which refers to the failure of ventilator to
appropriately cycle into expiration. This can occur
when a leak prevents the ventilator from meeting its
pressure target and the expiratory trigger fails to detect
the expiratory efforts of the patient. Alternatively, de-
layed cycling occurs if the programmed inspiratory
time is inappropriately long. This leads to a reduced
expiratory time and reduced lung emptying, causing
dynamic hyperination. With hyperinated lungs, the
subject is less able to effectively trigger breaths and
work of breathing is increased.
46
In this study, the
baseline inspiratory time was set based on maintaining
an inspiratory to expiratory (I:E) ratio of 1:2 with a
mandatory respiratory rate of 10 breaths per minute.
These settings resulted in an inspiratory time setting of
2 seconds. During the study, the inspiratory time was
found to be excessive and may have contributed to de-
layed cycling. Overall, the extent to which leak-related
pulmonary underination, trigger-associated asynchro-
ny, and delayed cycling contributed to the observed
hypercapnia remains undetermined. These unan-
swered questions emphasize the need for further in-
vestigation of NIV application in cats.
This study had several limitations. First, the sedation
protocol selected reected an attempt to allow rapid,
titratable changes in sedation level to meet the objec-
tives of the study. The agents chosen, however, are not
ideal agents for use in a clinical setting and interfere
with some aspects of ventilation assessment. To eval-
uate sedation requirements, the cats were maintained
on the lowest possible rate of propofol that allowed
tolerance of the interface. Propofol boluses were ad-
ministered if the level of sedation became excessively
light. Because of the consequent intermittent periods of
apnea, these boluses generated an inconsistent breath-
ing pattern. Thus, the respiratory rates recorded may be
more reective of the sedation status of the animal than
the mode of ventilation. Of interest, however, was that
NIV was used successfully to ventilate cats throughout
prolonged episodes of apnea.
Secondly, butorphanol was selected as an adjuctive
sedative because of its analgesic effects and its minimal
impact on blood pressure and ventilatory drive. In ap-
plication of NIV in humans, the antitussive effects of
butorphanol would be contraindicated due to the as-
sociated impairment of airway clearance. Theoretically,
these guidelines would also apply to veterinary pa-
tients, making butorphanol an inappropriate agent to
use with NIVin a clinical setting. However, because the
cats in our study required levels of sedation that pre-
vented coughing regardless of the drugs used, the an-
titussive effects of butorphanol may prove to be a moot
point in the veterinary context. Further investigations
of sedation protocols for NIV are needed to clarify this
issue.
A third limitation of the study involved the hetero-
geneity of arterial catheter sites. When dorsopedal or
coccygeal arterial catheterization was not possible, a
femoral arterial catheter was placed using a surgical
cut-down approach. Thus, catheter location was in-
cluded as a covariable in the statistical analysis of the
data. Catheter location had a statistically signicant
& Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2009, doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2009.00458.x 423
Noninvasive Ventilation in Cats
impact on temperature, respiratory frequency, peak in-
spiratory pressures, and lactate. Femoral arterial cath-
eters were associated with body temperatures below
reference intervals because placement required pro-
longed periods of isourane anesthesia. However, the
other values remained within reference intervals, and
the statistically signicant changes in these values were
not considered to be clinically important.
This investigation is, to the authors knowledge, the
rst randomized, controlled study to assess the thera-
peutic value of NIV in cats. NIV was administered to
8 cats for 6 consecutive hours during which time blood
gases and cardiovascular parameters were maintained
within a target physiologic range. Sedation levels
and drug requirements were similar to those of inva-
sively ventilated animals. No serious complications
were encountered. As a pilot endeavor, this study illu-
minates numerous avenues in need of further investi-
gation. These include the optimization of ventilator
settings and sedation protocols for cats receiving me-
chanical ventilation, and the development of NIV in-
terfaces that are tolerated by the patient and require
minimal sedation. NIV has contributed to a dramatic
reduction in morbidity and mortality in humans and it
is important and worthwhile to explore extending its
benets to the veterinary patient population as well.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge Amanda Hathway
and James Imada for their assistance during this study.
Footnotes
a
Torbugesic butorphanol tartrate, Wyeth Animal Health, Guelph, ON,
Canada.
b
Glycopyrrolate, Sandoz, Boucherville, QC, Canada.
c
Insyte-W, Becton Dickenson Infusion Therapy Systems Inc, Sandy, UT.
d
Propofol, Novopharm, Toronto, ON, Canada.
e
Lidodan, Odan Laboratories, Montreal, PQ.
f
Aerrane, Baxter Corporation, Mississauga, ON, Canada.
g
Plasmalyte A, Baxter Corporation.
h
Arrow Radial Arterial Catherization Set, Arrow International, Reading,
PA.
i
BabyFlow Nasal CPAP Accessory, Drager Medical, Telfor, PA.
j
Evita 4, Drager, Lubeck, Germany.
k
Respiratory humidier, Fischer and Paykel Healthcare Systems,
Auckland, New Zealand.
l
TCM3, Radiometer, Copenhagen, Denmark.
m
ABL 700 Series Blood Gas Analyzer, Radiometer.
n
SAS OnlineDOC (R) 9.1.3., SAS Institue Inc, 2004, Cary, NC.
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