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Table 5-2. Principal uses of wireline logs (modified after Rider, 1996)
Photoelectric
Temperature
Gamma Ray
Spectral GR
Image logs
Resistivity
Dipmeter
Neutron
Density
Caliper
Log
Sonic
SP
Uses
The values of the parameter measured are plotted continuously against depth
in the well. Hard copies of well logs are in standard API (American Petroleum
Institute) log format. The overall log width is 8.25 in., with three tracks of 2.5
in. wide each. A column 0.75 in. wide separates tracks 1 and 2 where the
depths are indicated. Track 1 is always linear, with ten division of 0.25 in.
while tracks 2 and 3 may have a linear scale similar to track1, a 4-cycle
logarithmic scale, or a combination of logarithmic scale in track 2 and linear
scale in track 3.
For most well logs, the common vertical scales used are l:200 and 1:500 but
for image logs (microresistivity) it is usually 1:20 and 1:40.
Pressure
Temperature
Geothermal gradient
G = 100 (Tf − Ts ) / D
Formation temperature
Tf = Ts + G(D/100)
From caliper
Gauged hole – diameter of hole is about equal to the bit size
Increased borehole diameter
Washout – general drilling wear, esp. in shaly zones and dipping beds,
both caliper larger than bit size, considerable vertical extent
Keyseat – asymmetric oval holes, formed by wear against the drill
string at points where the borehole inclination changes
(doglegs)
Breakout – similar to keyseat but not due to doglegs, small brittle
fractures (spalling) due to existing stress regime of the country
rock
Decreased borehole diameter
- generally due to formation of mud cake
Mud cake thickness = (bit size diameter – caliper diameter reading)/2
- mud cake formation indicates permeability and involves loss of mud
filtrate into a permeable formation – invasion.
Invasion Profile
1 × 1000
resistivity (ohms m2/m) = (millimhos/m)
conductivity
Induction logs are used in wells drilled with a relatively fresh-water mud (low
salinity) to obtain more accurate value of true resistivity.
Sharpness of a bed boundary depends on the shape and extent of the SPO
current patterns. When there is considerable difference between mud and
formation water resistivity, currents will spread widely and the SP will deflect
slowly: definition is poor. When the resistivities are similar, boundaries are
sharper. In general, SP should not be used to determine bed boundaries. If it
has to be used, place the bed boundary at the point of maximum curve slope.
(GR defines bed boundaries better.)
( Rmf )e
(S)SP = − K log
( Rw)e
Shale Volume
PSP
Vsh (%) = (1.0 − ) × 100
SSP
PSP (Pseudo-static SP) – the SP value in the water–bearing shaly sand zone
read from the SP log.
SSP (Static SP)– the maximum SP value in a clean sand zone.
The formula simply assumes that the SP deflection between the shale base
line (100% shale) and the static SP in a clean sand (0% shale) is proportional
to the shale volume. This is qualitatively true but quantitatively there is no
theoretical basis. Shale content from SP is subject to complications due to
SP noise, Rw/Rmf contrast, HC content, and high salinity drilling fluids.
5.3.2 Gamma Ray
GRlog − GRmin
I GR =
GRmax − GRmin
5.4 Porosity Calculations – sonic, density, and neutron logs
5.4.1 Sonic
Φ = porosity
∆t = log reading in microseconds/foot (µs/ft.)
∆tf = transit time for the liquid filling the pore (usually 189 µs/ft.)
∆tma = transit time for the rock type (matrix) comprising the formation
∆t − ∆t ma
Φ=
∆t f − ∆t ma
5.4.2 Density
ρb = Φ ρf + (1- Φ) ρma
Φ = porosity
ρ = log reading in microseconds/foot (µs/ft.)
ρ f = transit time for the liquid filling the pore (usually 189 µs/ft.)
ρ ma = transit time for the rock type (matrix) comprising the formation
ρ ma − ρ b
Φ=
ρ ma − ρ f
5.4.3 Neutron
φD + φN
Φ= if no light hydrocarbons
2
φD + φN
Φ= if light hydrocarbons as present
2
5.5 Water Saturation (Sw) Calculations
Archie’s Equation
F = Ro/Rw
a
F=
φm
Φ =porosity
a = cementation factor
m = cementation exponent
Figure 5-8. Schematic illustration of three formations with same porosity but
different values of F (formation factor).
0.62
F= best average for sands (Humble)
φ 2.15
0.81
F= simplified Humble
φ2
1
F= compacted formations
φ2
Swn = Ro/Rt
Sw = water saturation
Rt = resistivity of rock when Sw < 1
aRw Rw
Swn = =F
φ Rt
m
Rt
0.62 × Rw
Sw =
φ 2.15 × Rt
Sw Calculations
Conventional
Quick look
Rwa
“F” overlay
SP Quick Look
Clean Formation
Shaly