Lecture delivered by Dr.

Naseem Irfan
(i) of xiii
PAKISTAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCES
RADIATION PROTECTION

RADIOACTIVITY CONCEPT AND QUANTITIES USED IN RADIATION PROTECTION


An understanding of the underlying principles involved in the radioactive decay process is essential for the safe
working and handling of radioactive materials. This lecture introduces the basic physics involved. In order to
understand the phenomenon of radioactivity or radiation emission from the atomic nucleus it is rather better to first
look into the basic structure of an atom:


Figure 2.1: Structure of a Typical Atom

All matter is composed of atoms; the structure of a typical atom is shown in figure 2.1. Atoms are made up of three
fundamental particles, which we call protons, neutrons and electrons. Table 2.1 gives some of the characteristics of
each particle. The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and consists of approximately equal numbers of protons and
neutrons and almost the entire mass of the atom. The diameter of the atom is of the order 10
-10
m whereas the nucleus
10
-14
m. Electrons exist outside of the nucleus in discrete orbits, sometimes called shells.


Particle

Charge

Mass

Applicable Forces

Position in Atom
proton +1 1 amu * Coulombic, strong & weak nuclear

nucleus
neutron

0 1 amu strong & weak nuclear nucleus
electron -1 0.00055
amu
Coulombic orbital shell

Table 2.1: some characteristics of the fundamental particles
* amu = atomic mass unit, 1 amu ~ 1.7x10
-27
kg

From Table 2.1 we see that protons and electrons are (oppositely) charged particles, each carrying an electrical
charge of 1 (by convention protons are positively charged and electrons negatively charged). Inside the nucleus, the
electrostatic repulsion between neighbouring protons is balanced by the strong attractive nuclear force which exists
between all nucleons (nucleon is the term used to describe protons and neutrons).
Atoms are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of increasing numbers of protons and are characterized by the
symbol X
A
Z
. In the symbol X
A
Z
, A (atomic mass) is number of protons plus number of neutrons, Z (atomic
number) is number of protons and X is the chemical symbol of the element. For an electrically neutral atom number
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(ii) of xiii
of protons is always equal to number of electrons. Atoms that share the same physical and chemical characteristics
are called elements eg, all atoms of the element Oxygen are characterized by the symbol O
16
8
. It is possible for
atoms of the same element to have a different number of neutrons and we call these atoms isotopes of the element.
Isotopes can be stable or unstable eg, O
18
8
is a stable isotope of Oxygen but P
32
15
is an unstable isotope of the
element Phosphorous P
31
15
. For light elements, this balance or stability is achieved when the number of protons is
approximately the same as the number of neutrons (n:p ~ 1:1) but as we proceed through the periodic table to
heavier elements, we find that a higher ratio of neutrons is required for stability (n:p ~ 1.6:1). It may also be the case
that atomic stability is reached with differing numbers of neutrons for the same element and these are called stable
isotopes of the element. Atoms that do not satisfy the criteria for nuclear stability are said to be unstable. Stability,
the lowest energy state, can be achieved by one or more of the radioactive decay processes such as | minus decay, |
plus decay, electron capture, gamma emission, Alpha (o) decay etc.

| MINUS DECAY



Fig 2.2: An example of |
-
decay


The atom phosphorous 32 ( P
32
15
) is an unstable isotope of phosphorous 31 ( P
31
15
). Its nucleus contains 15 protons
and 17 neutrons ie, it has excess neutrons. It regains stability (fig. 2.2) by transforming the excess neutron into a
proton to form the stable isotope sulphur 32 ( S
32
16
). During this process, two fundamental laws of physics have to be
satisfied: Conservation of Energy and Conservation of Charge. These are satisfied by the emission from the parent
nucleus of a negatively charged electron and a chargeless, virtually massless particle called an antineutrino.
Symbolically:

u + +

+
e Y X
A
Z
A
Z 1

The ejected electron is historically called a beta (minus) particle and in reaching stability there is a surplus of energy
that is shared in varying amounts between the beta particle and the antineutrino. This means that the beta particle is
ejected from the parent nucleus with a range of energies from zero to a well-defined maximum.
| PLUS DECAY

Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(iii) of xiii
In the above example the P
32
15
atom has an excess neutron, but what happens when an atom has an excess of
protons? Figure 2.3 shows the atom Ne
19
10
which has 10 protons and 9 neutrons. Stability is reached through a
process similar to that of beta minus decay. The excess proton is transformed into a neutron with the emission, from
the nucleus, of a positively charged electron, called a positron, and a neutrino. The positron is the anti-particle of the
electron. As with beta minus decay, surplus energy is shared between the positron and the neutrino with the positron
exhibiting a range of energies up to a well-defined maximum.

A consequence of the matter-antimatter relationship between the positron and the electron is that the emitted positron
will soon encounter a normal electron. When this happens, both particles will annihilate each other with a release
of 0.511 MeV of energy for each particle. This annihilation radiation always accompanies beta plus decay.


Fig 2.3: Example of beta plus decay, maximum |
+
energy = 2.22MeV
Annihilation energy is 2(m
e
c
2
) = 1.022 MeV

Symbolically:
radiation on annihilati Y X
A
Z
A
Z
+ + +
+

u |
0
0 1


ELECTRON CAPTURE

Atoms with excess protons can achieve stability through an alternative process to that of |
+
decay. This occurs when
an orbital electron is pulled into the nucleus and combines with a proton to form a neutron - we say that the electron
has been captured. Electrons orbit around the nucleus in discrete orbits called shells. Historically these shells were
called K, L, M etc. References can be seen in books to k-capture which means that an electron from the K-shell
(innermost) has been captured by the nucleus. During this phenomenon, the only particle emitted by the nucleus in
this case is a neutrino. Typically, the nucleus is left with an excess of energy i.e., it is said to be in an excited state
and it releases this energy by emitting gamma radiation. Nucleons in the nucleus are said to be quantised in a manner
analogous to electrons. This means that the nucleus has discrete energy levels. After radioactive decay, a nucleon
may be raised to a higher energy level. After a short period of time (typically 10
-14
s) the nucleon will release this
excess energy as a photon and return to the ground state. The released energy is characteristic of the energy levels
involved and can be used to identify the emitting element. As the energy is emitted from the nucleus it is given the
special name of gamma radiation.


A consequence of the capture process is that an inner orbital electron has been removed from the atom leaving a
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(iv) of xiii
vacancy. This vacancy is quickly filled by a higher orbital electron dropping down and is accompanied by the
emission, from the atom, of electromagnetic radiation (typically X-rays) which is characteristic of the two orbitals
involved
5
. Symbolically:

( ) ( ) possibly rays X Y e X
A
1 Z
A
Z
v u + + + +



An example of a radioisotope commonly used in the laboratory is I
125
53
.

( ) ( ) rays MeV rays X MeV Te I + + 035 . 0 027 . 0
125
52
125
53


GAMMA EMISSION

Following radioactive decay, it is common for the daughter nucleus to be left in an excited state with excess energy.
This energy is rapidly (~ 10
-14
s) released as electromagnetic radiation, because the radiation originates from the
nucleus it is given the name gamma () radiation.

Figure 2.4 shows an example of a radioactive decay process involving the emission of gamma radiation. A point to
note is that there are no pure gamma emitters: gamma radiation only occurs if the daughter nucleus is left in an
excited state following some other form of decay process.

Accompanying the decay of Co
60
27
(figure 4) to Ni
60
28
is the emission of two gamma-ray photons of characteristic
energy 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. This is a consequence of the nucleons in the nucleus occupying quantized energy
levels.
Symbolically
j i
E E h = u ; where E
i
is the energy of the i
th
level




Fig 2.4: An example of radioactive decay involving the emission of gamma radiation. A consequence of the
quantization of the nucleus is that the emitted gamma-ray photons from a particular nucleus have a unique
gamma-ray spectrum










ALPHA DECAY

Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(v) of xiii
Alpha (o) decay is the emission from the nucleus of a tightly bound arrangement of two protons and two neutrons
( He
4
2
- a helium nucleus) and is the result of spontaneous fission of an unstable heavy nucleus (Z > 82). Figure 2.5
shows an example of o-decay.
Symbolically: o +

Y X
A
Z
A
Z
4
2


The alpha particles emitted are monoenergetic and generally have an energy of ~ 5 MeV.


Fig 2.5: Spontaneous fission of U
235
92
, with the emission of an o - particle.


THE RADIOACTIVE DECAY EQUATION

The laws of probability govern the decay of radioactive nuclei and we cannot say with any certainty when a
particular nucleus will disintegrate. What we can say is, for any particular radioisotope, the rate of disintegration is
proportional to the number of original atoms present. Symbolically:
N
dt
dN
= (1)

Where:
dN/dt is the rate of change of quantity N with respect to time.
is called the decay constant, defined as the instantaneous fraction of atoms decaying per unit time and is unique for
each radionuclide. The minus sign indicates that the quantity is decreasing. Now solving the equation we get:










In the solution to this last equation:
t
0 t
0
t
t
0
N
N
e N N
t
N
N
ln
dt
N
dN
dt
N
dN
N
dt
dN
t
0

=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
=
} }

Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(vi) of xiii

t
t
e N N

=
0
(2)
Where:
N
t
is the number of nuclides remaining at time t.
N
0
is the original number of nuclides.
The form of equation (2) indicates that the number of nuclei present at time t decreases exponentially with time and
this introduces the concept of half-life as shown in figure 2.6.


Fig 2.6: Time required for amount of radioactive material to decrease by one-half is called the half-life

The half-life of a radioisotope is given the symbol t
.
Re-arranging equation (2) gives the following useful formula
for the half-life:

t
693 . 0
2
1
= (3)

Figure 2.6 shows the principle in action. If we start with 1000 nuclei, then after one half-life there will be 500 nuclei
left, after two half-lives there will be 250, after three half-lives there will be 125 left and so on. The half-life
principle applies to all radioisotopes and a conversion table is printed at the end of this Note.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW
The decay of a radionuclide is isotropic. This means there is no preferred direction in which the radiation will be
emitted. The consequence of this behaviour is that the decay of radioisotope material follows the inverse-square law.
In words, the inverse-square law says the flux of radiation is inversely proportional to the distance squared.
Symbolically:
2
4 d
N
F
t
= (4)
Where:
F is the number of particles or photons crossing unit area.
N is the total number of particles or photons emitted.
d is the distance from the source.


The important point from equation 4 is that doubling the distance from a small source will reduce the dose received
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(vii) of xiii
by a factor of four. Emissions from an isotropic emitter will cover the surface of an expanding sphere of radius r as
shown in the figure 2.7. The surface area of a sphere is given by 4tr
2
. If the source emits N particles/photons then
for any unit area on the surface of the sphere the number of particles or photons crossing the area is N/4tr
2
.










Fig 2.7 The demonstration of inverse square law


UNITS OF RADIO-ACTIVITY

The rate of disintegration of a source is called the activity of the source. The SI unit of activity is the becquerel and
is named after the discoverer of radioactivity Antoine Henri Becquerel (18521908).
1 becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegration per second.
The becquerel is a small unit and activities are more often quoted in terms of kilobecquerels (kBq), megabecquerels
(MBq) and so on, Where:
1 kBq = 10
3
Bq
1 MBq = 10
6
Bq
1 GBq = 10
9
Bq

The previous unit of activity is the curie (Ci), with the conversion
1 Ci = 3.7 x 10
10
Bq = 37 GBq
1 mCi = 37 MBq
1 Ci = 37 kBq
Another useful conversion is 1 MBq ~ 27 Ci
The SI unit of energy is the Joule (J). In terms of the energy released as part of the decay process then the Joule is a
very large unit and we normally use the unit electron volt
8
(eV) where:

1 eV = 1.602 x 10
-19
J

Nuclear decay energies are most often of the order 10
3
and 10
6
eV, i.e. keV and MeV. The electron volt is defined as
the amount of energy required to move one electronic charge (e = 1.602 x 10
-19
Coulomb) through a potential
difference of one volt. Table 2.7 gives some useful properties of common radionuclides also important in Nuclear
Medicine.



Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(viii) of xiii
Radioisotope Half-life Decay Mode Radiation
(MeV)
Hazard
Tritium -
3
H 12.3 y |
-
0.018 Inhalation;
Tritiated water
Carbon 14
14
C 5760 y |
-
0.159 Inhalation;
Radioactive CO
2

Sulphur 35
35
S 87 d |
-
0.167 eyes/skin
Phosphorous 32
-
32
P
14.3 d |
-
1.709 eyes/skin
Phosphorous 33
-
33
P
25.4 d |
-
0.249 eyes/skin
Chromium 51
-
51
Cr
27.8 d EC 0.323
0.005 X
Irradiation
Iodine 125
125
I 60 d EC 0.035
0.027 X
Inhalation
Irradiation
Iodine 131
131
I 8 d |
-
0.25 |
0.33 |
0.61 |
0.28
0.36
0.64
Inhalation
Irradiation
Technetium
99m
99m
Tc
6 h IT 0.002
0.141
Irradiation
EC = Electron Capture
IT = Isomeric Transition, transition involving a metastable nuclear state.

Table 2.2 Some Properties of Radioisotopes In Common Use

EXPOSURE:
Any X- or - ray beam passing through air produces excitation and ionisation of the air molecule. The electron ejected
in the first (or Primary ) interaction ( e.g. by photoelectric absorption) produces other electrons by ionization - the
delta rays. Such delta rays are responsible for the great majority of ionizations, which are called secondary
ionisation. The exposure concerns the measure of the total electric charge formed by ionisation, when considering a
unit mass of air. Thus exposure at a particular point may be defined as
The total ionisation caused in air by X- or -rays expressed in terms of ratio Q/m, where Q is the
total electrical charge (of one sign) liberated by X- or -ray photons in a volume of air of mass m
when all electrons are completely stopped in air. (Wilks
3
, p478)
The meaning of electrical charge of one sign is that there are equal number positive and negative charges produced in
the ionisation processes as each electron ejected from one atom leaves that atom with a net positive charge. Only the
total charge of one sign is considered (e.g. electrons) according to this definition, e.g. the average energy required to
produce an ionisation in air is about 34 eV , so that an X ray photon of 34 KeV which is fully absorbed in air produces
about 1000 ionization ( a total charge of about 1.6 x 10
-16
coulomb).
The exposure may be normalised to a unit mass, and has units of coulomb per kilogram (C/Kg). Exposure only applies
to air, and no other medium (Wilks
3
, p478). The earlier and widely used unit of exposure was roentgen (abbreviated to
R) and is used with gamma or X - radiation only.
To have a clear concept of one roentgen, imagine a cubic centimeter of air at a pressure of one atmosphere and
temperature of zero degree centigrade. At this standard temperature and pressure conditions this cubic centimeter of air
would have a mass of 0.001293 grams. Now if it is exposed to X- or - radiation and after exposure it is found that the
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(ix) of xiii
ions produced in this volume of air have a total charge of 3.33x 10
-10
C (one esu) then the exposure received by this
volume of air would be one roentgen as demonstrated in the figure 2.8.
1 cm ONE ROENTGEN
1 cm
1 cm

Initially Exposed to X- or - radiation Finally
Volume = 1 cm
3
Volume = 1 cm
3

Mass=0.001293g IONIZATION OF AIR Mass=0.001293g
Conditions = S. T. P. DUE TO RADIATIONS. Conditions =S.T.P
Charge = Nil Charge = 3.33x10
-10
C= (1 esu)
Ions = Nil Ions ~ 2.079x10
9

Fig 2.8 Demonstration of the concept of a Roentgen
It is important to emphasize that the roentgen is operationally defined. Ionization of air is convenient measure of a
radiation exposure because of the relative ease with which radiation induced electrical charge can be measured.
However, the operational definition of the roentgen may easily converted into the more fundamental units of energy
absorbed per unit mass of air by applying the fact that the charge on a single ion is 1.6 x 10
-19
C and that the average
energy dissipated in the production of a single ion pair in air is 34 eV. As the roentgen correspond to the production of
ions (of one sign) carrying a charge of 2.58x10
-4
coulombs per kilogram (i.e. 3.33x10
-10
C / 0.000001293 Kg) of air
1R=2.58 x 10
-4
C/kg of air
Now an ion of one sign carries a charge of 1.602 x 10
-19
C.
1 R produces =2.58 x 10
-4
/1.602 x 10
-19
= 1.61 x 10
15
ion pairs.
Average energy required per ion pair is 34 eV i.e. 34x(1.602x10
-19
) J or 5.4x10
-18
J. So the energy absorption in air
corresponding to an exposure of 1R is
(1.61x10
-15
) x 5.4x10
-18
=0.00869 J/kg of air.
Usually human tissue is the medium of interest and the energy deposition is often higher in tissue than in air. In case of
gamma radiation, over the commonly encountered range of photon energy, the energy deposition in a soft tissue for an
exposure of 1 R is about 0.0096 J/kg (Martin
2
, p28) can be considered roughly same as that of air.
DOSE:
As roentgen unit applies only to X- and - radiation in air at a point outside a body, these term should not be used in
technical sense to describe neutrons or charged particles or interactions taking place within a body (Lamarsh
5
, p370).
Thus concept of radiation absorbed dose (rad) was introduced to consider any medium and any type of ionizing
radiation and hence
The absorbed dose in a medium is the ratio of E/m, where E is the energy absorbed by the
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(x) of xiii
medium due to a beam of ionizing radiation in a small mass m. (Wilks
3
, p479)
The biological effect of radiation is a function of how much energy is deposited in a body. The energy mentioned in the
above stated definition is the imparted energy which is the quantity of energy which is available for producing biological
effects. The imparted energy does not include that part of total absorbed energy that is consumed in changing the rest
masses of the nuclei of the medium as a result of nuclear reactions as that part of energy is not available to produce
biological effects (Lamarsh
5
, p371).
The original unit of absorbed dose was the rad and was defined as an energy deposition of 0.01 J/kg. The SI unit of
absorbed dose is the gray (Gy) = 1 J/kg. i.e.100 rad. Simply we can say that 'rad' is one 'centigray'. We may find a
conversion factor of roentgen and rad by considering the energy deposition due to 1R as mentioned above. i.e.
for air : 1 R = 0.00869 J/kg = 0.00869 Gy = 0.869 rad
the energy deposition in a soft tissue for an exposure of one roentgen
0.96 J/kg = 0.0096 Gy = 0.96 rad ~ 1 rad. 1 R ~ 1 rad. ~ 1 centigray
EXPOSURE RATE AND DOSE RATE:
The exposure rate is defined as the rate at which the charge is liberated as the result of interactions in the mass under
consideration and has a units of roentgen per unit time e.g. R/sec, mR/hr. Similarly the rate at which the absorbed dose
is received is expressed as absorbed dose rate and is measured in rad/sec, mrad/hr etc.
EQUIVALENT DOSE (FORMER DOSE EQUIVALENT) :
Biological effects depends not only on the total energy deposited per gram or per cubic centimeter of the medium but
also on the way in which this energy is distributed along the path of the radiation which is different for different type of
radiation. e.g. o - particles have a greater biological effect than X-rays when both deliver same absorbed dose to a
sample, and the effect of any ionising radiation is greater if the same absorbed dose occurs over a shorter time. This
difference is due to the differing density of ionisation (ionizations per unit length of track) which the ionising radiation
produce. Electrons do not produce as many ion-pairs so close together as are caused by the more massive protons and
o - particles of the same energy. Thus o - particles and protons are brought to rest within the medium quickly by losing
their kinetic energy in the production of many ions over a short distance - their biological effect is therefore greater
because the disruption of chemical bonds so close together reduces the chances of complete repair. Neutrons also
produce dense ionisation caused by the ejection of protons from nuclei and by nuclear recoils. The absorbed dose in
rad or gray is thus not an accurate measure of the biological effects of all these different types of ionising radiation
owing to very different pattern of ionisation produced. This difference in the radiobiological effectiveness must be
taken into account if one wishes to add doses of different radiations to obtain the total biologically effective dose. To do
this absorbed dose of each type of radiation must be multiplied by a radiation weighting factor (w
R
) which reflect the
ability of the particular type of radiation to cause damage. The quantity obtained when the absorbed dose in rads is
multiplied by a quality factor (Q) is known as the dose equivalent. The original unit of equivalent dose was rem which
was the acronym for roentgen equivalent man (although this identification is not encouraged, since the roentgen is a unit
of exposure)
dose equivalent (rem) = absorbed dose (rad) x Q
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(xi) of xiii
The rad is based on only physical factors, while the rem considers both physical and biological factors. The radiation
weighting factor is a unit less term depends upon density of ionization caused by the radiation and is unity for X- or -
radiation. Therefore absorbed dose of 1 rad of this radiation gives a dose equivalent of 1 rem. In SI system of units the
term used is equivalent dose while the unit of equivalent dose is the Seivert, abbreviated to Sv. Instead of quality factor ,
the absorbed dose in gray is multiplied by radiation weighting factor (w
R
) which is related to the gray as follows:
equivalent dose (Sv) = absorbed dose (Gy) x w
R

Radiation Type and Energy W
R

Photons, all energies 1
Electrons, (beta particles), muons, all energies 1
Neutrons < 10 keV 5
10 keV 100 keV 10
> 100 keV 2 MeV 20
> 2 MeV 20 MeV 10
> 20 MeV 5
Alpha particles, fission fragments 20
Table 2.3 Radiation Weighting Factors, W
R


For finding a dose equivalent for an exposure of 1 R, as required in the ISL experiment, X- or - radiation w
R
=1,
1 Sv=1 Gy= 100 rad
As mentioned before, for soft tissues 1 R ~ 1 rad, therefore 1 Sv = 100 R,
multiplying both sides by 10
-6
1 Sv = 100 x 10
-6
x R
1 Sv = 10
-4
R 1 Sv = 0.1

mR or 1

mR = 10 Sv
EFFECTIVE DOSE:
Different organs and tissues have differing sensitivities to radiation and to deal with the very common situation in which
the body is not uniformly exposed the concept of effective dose (E) is used. This is obtained by summing the equivalent
doses to all tissues and organs of the body , multiplied by a weighting factor for each tissue or organ. This is written as

where H
T
is the equivalent dose in tissue T. Since w
T
is again a unit less number therefore the unit of effective dose is
same as equivalent dose.

Tissue or Organ W
T

Gonads 0.20
Bone Marrow 0.12
Colon 0.12
Lung 0.12
Stomach 0.12
T
T
T
w H E

=

Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(xii) of xiii
Bladder 0.05
Breast 0.05
Liver 0.05
Oesophagus 0.05
Thyroid 0.05
Skin 0.01
Bone surface 0.01
Remainder 0.05

Table 2.4 Tissue Weighting Factors, W
R









Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
(13) of xiii
Summary : Quantities and Units used in Radiation Protection Calculations
S.No. RADIOACTIVITY FLUX EXPOSURE DOSE EQUIVALENT DOSE EFFECTIVE DOSE
1.
Def: Emission of radiation by
radioactive nuclei undergoing
transformation.
Acitivity : dN / dt = - N
dN / N = - dt => ln (N) = -t + ln(C)
for t = 0, N = No => ln (No) = -(0) + ln(C)
ln (N) = -t + ln (No) =>
ln (N) - ln (No)= -t
ln (N / No)= -t => (N / No)=exp(-t)
N = Noexp(-t)
N = Noexp(-t) => A = Ao exp(-t)
Def: Number of
radiation passing
through a unit
area in one second
such that the
plane of the area
is placed
perpendicular to
the direction of
propagation of the
radiation
Def: Total ionization in
air due to x-or -rays
expressed as ratio Q/m.
where Q is the total
charge of one sign and
m is mass of the
volume of air in which
charge is produced.
Mathematically
X = Q/m
Def: Total energy
absorbed in a medium
due to any radiation
expressed as ratio E/m.
where E is the total
energy imparted and
m is small mass of
the medium in which
energy is imparted.
Mathematically
Dose (D) = E/m
Def: The quantity of radiation
that is obtained by including
the biological effectiveness of
a particular radiation
incorporated by multiplying
the dose by quality factor or
radiation weighting factor WR
is termed as dose equivalent or
equivalent dose (H).
Mathematically
Dose Eq. (H)= Dose (D) x Q
Eq. Dose (H)= Dose (D) x WR
Def: The quantity of radiation that is
obtained by including the non-
uniform irradiation aspect and radio-
sensitivity of different organs of the
body by multiplying the dose
equivalent by tissue weighting factor
(WT) is termed as Effective dose
(E). Mathematically this obtained by
sum
Effective Dose (E)
=
T
{Dose Eq. (HT) x WT}
2.
Historical units : Curie
Exactly 3.7 x 10
10
dps i.e. the best available
estimate activity of 1g pure
226
Ra
Units:
# rad./ (cm
2
.sec)
Units: Roentgen (R)
Radiation Exposure that
produces 3.3x10
-10
C
(1esu) charge in 1 cc
(0.001293 g) of air.
Units: rad (radiation
absorbed dose) If
radiation imparts 0.01J
in a specimen of 1 kg
then it is said that 1
rad dose is given.
Units: rem (Roentgen
Equivalent Man)
H (rems) = Dose (rad) x Q
Where Q is quality factor
Conv. Units:rem same as dose
S.I. units: Sieverts same as dose.
3.
S.I units : Bacquerel
1 Bq is equal to 1 dps
Relation between
Flux & Dose rate
Dose Rate () is
equal to the
product of
Flux()
Mass Absorption
Coefficient (ua/)
and the
Energy of the
radiation (E)
i.e.
= .E. (ua/)
Units: MeV/(g.sec)
S.I. units:
X-units or C/kg
S.I. units:
J/kg or Gray (Gy)
S.I. units: Sieverts (Sv)
H (Sv) = Dose (Gy) x WR
Go Bomcolust, Brostbladlirem, Boski
0.2, 0.12 , 0.05 , 0.01
Gonads (0.2),
Bone Marrow (0.12), Colon (0.12),
Lung (0.12), Stomach(0.12)
Breast (0.05), Oesophagus(0.05),
Thyroid(0.05), Bladder(0.05),
Liver(0.05), Remainder(0.05)
Bone surface(0.01), Skin(0.01)
4.
Not equal to the emission rate of radiation
emitted per transformation or dps for which
decay scheme is required [Knoll p2]
LIMITATIONS:
1) Only for X or - rays
2) Only in air
3) Outside the body
LIMITATIONS:
Not only for x or - ray
No medium constraint
Inside/outside the
body
Biological damage depends not
only on total energy absorbed
but also upon the manner in
which energy is absorbed
5.
Sp. Activity = Activity (- N )/ mass (m)
Conv: RC/kg
R=Q/m=3.3x10
-10
/1.293x10
-6

1R = 2.58x10
-4
C/kg
Conv:
radJ/kgGy
1 R= 1 rad = 0.01 J/kg = 1cGy
It is observed that o-rays cause more
damage than -rays for same amount of
energy deposited (i.e. dose) per unit mass.
6.
No atoms weigh = M grams
N atoms weigh = M.N/ No grams
thus mass (m) of N atoms will be = M.N/ No
Specific Activity = No /M
Ion pairs produced:
Q/e=2.58x10
-4
/1.6x10
-19

=1.6 x 10
15
ions / kg of air
Conv:
Gy J/kg rad
1 Gy =1 J/kg= 100 rad = 100R
It is due to more mass and charge on os
which stops themquickly disseminating
more charge and producing more ions per
unit track length i.e. 10
6
/mmas compared
to 10
4
/mmin case of -rays.
The total effective dose equivalents to a radiation
worker in an year when he is exposed to non-
uniformirradiation involving the 10mGy whole
body -irradiation, 10mGy thermal neutrons
irradiation to lungs, and 4 mGy o-irradiation to the
thyroid may be given as follows:
Dose Equivalents:
H=D x WR=10x10
-3
x 1 = 0.01 Sv to whole body
Htn=Dtn x WR=10x10
-3
x 5 = 0.05 Sv to lungs
Ho=Do x WR=4x10
-3
x 20 = 0.08 Sv to Thyroid

Effective Dose Equivalents:
Dose (E) =
T
{Dose Eq. (HT) x WT}
=HWB.WWB + Hlungs.Wlungs+ Hthy.WThy
=(0.01)(1)+(0.05)(0.12)+(0.08)(0.05)=2x10
-2
Sv
=20 mSv
7.
1 Ci = 3.7 x 10
10
Bq = 3.7 x 10
4
MBq
1 mCi = 3.7 x 10
7
Bq = 37 MBq
1 Ci = 3.7 x 10
4
Bq = 37 KBq
Energy involved in 1 R
34 eV energy produces
one ion pair in air
hence in Kg energy
absorbed will be
1.6x10
15
ion x 34 eV / ion
1.6x10
15
x 34 x 1.6x10
-19
J
= 0.00869 J/kg of air
= 0.0096 J/kg of soft tissue
Imparted energy (E)
is the energy available
to produce the
biological effects.
For greater ion density (ions/track length)
the ions produced are very close together
may be many in a single cell making it
difficult for body to repair the damage as
compared to the condition in which the
ions are far apart ( such as in case of
gamma, beta or x-rays for which WR = 1)
for o-rays, Fission fragments WR = 20,
for protons WR = 5, for neutrons based on
energy(KeV) 0-10-100-2x10
6
-2x10
7
- >
WR = 5,10,20,10,5 respectively.