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Mathematics IV: Advanced Algebra



Chapter 1: Inequalities
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
determine the domain of the variable of an inequality;
verify if a real number is a solution of an inequality;
solve a polynomial or a rational inequality; and
solve an equation or an inequality involving the absolute value.

Lesson 1.1: Introduction
The set of real number is a field. This means that we can perform two operations
(addition and multiplication) on the elements of this set, and these operations satisfy certain
properties (closure property, commutativity, associativity, distributive property, existence of
identity elements, and existence of inverses) called the field axioms. In this chapter, we study
the set of real numbers as an ordered field.

To the field axioms of the set of real numbers, we add an axiom defining the positive
real numbers. It is called the order axiom because it allows us to order the set of real numbers;
by telling us when one real number is greater than or less than another real number.

AXIOM 1.1.1 ORDER AXIOM
In the set of real numbers, there exists a subset called the set of positive numbers such
that (i) if is a real number, exactly one of the following three statements holds:

(ii) the sum of two positive numbers is positive.
(iii) the product of two positive numbers is positive.

Because of the Order Axiom, we say that the set of real numbers is an ordered field.
The additive inverses of the elements of the set of positive numbers are the negative numbers.

DEFINITION 1.1.2
The real number is negative if and only if is positive.

Using Definition 1.1.2, we may re state stamen (i) of the Order Axiom (Axiom 1.1.1) as
follows: if is a real number, exactly one of the following three statements holds:


The ordering on the set of real numbers is done by defining the relations denoted by
the symbols (read as is less than) and (read as is greater than).

DEFINITION 1.1.3
Let and be real numbers. Then we say
(i) if and only if
(ii) if and only if
2

In terms of negative numbers, we may say that if is negative. We remark
that notation is equivalent to . Observe that if is positive, then because
is positive; if is negative, then because is negative. In line with
this argument, we may further re state stamen (i) of the Order Axiom (Axiom 1.1.1) as
follows: if is a real number, exactly one of the following three statements holds:
.

Using this statement and using Definition 1.1.3, we state a fundamental property of the
set of real numbers.

THEOREM 1.1.4 LAW OF TRICHOTOMY
For any real numbers and , exactly one of the following is true:


Proof. By Axiom 1.1.1, exactly one of the following is true about :


If , then by the definition of equality of two numbers. If , then
by Definition 1.1.3. If , then is negative so that by statement after
Definition 1.1.3. The theorem follows.

The following theorems are important and will be used extensively in the next section.

THEOREM 1.1.5
Let and be real numbers such that .
(i) If is any real number, then .
(ii) If is a positive number, then . If is a negative number, then

Proof. Since , we have by Definition 1.1.3; that is is positive.
(i) We note first that ( ) ( ).
Since , we also have ( ) ( ) , which gives by
Definition 1.1.3(i).
(ii) Suppose is positive. Since is positive, ( ) is also positive by
Axiom 1.1.1(iii). That is, we have ( )

( )

The last inequality implies by Definition 1.1.3(i).
On the other hand, suppose is negative. Then is positive by Definition 1.1.2. By
Axiom 1.1.1(iii), we have ( )() is positive, so that

( )()

The last inequality implies that by Definition 1.1.3(i)
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THEOREM 1.1.6 TRANSITIVE PROPERTY
Let be real numbers such that and , then

Proof. Since and , Definition 1.1.3(i) implies and , respectively.
By Axiom 1.1.1(iii), we have ( ) ( ) , which can be simplified to
. Applying again Definition 1.1.3(iii) yields the desired conclusion.

The inequality in theorem 1.1.5 and 1.1.6 can be replaced by , and similar result may be
obtained.

We apply the axioms, definitions, and the theorems discussed above to the following examples.

EXAMPLE 1.1.7 Let be real numbers such that
Prove that .

EXAMPLE 1.1.8 Let and be real numbers with . Prove that ( )

.

EXAMPLE 1.1.9 Let and be real numbers such that . Prove that

.

EXAMPLE 1.1.10 Let and be positive numbers. Prove that if and only if



If , then clearly

. If , then

by Axiom 1.1.1(iii). If , then by


Definition 1.1.2, so that ()()

by Axiom 1.1.1(iii). We have just proven the


following important theorem.

THEOREM 1.1.11
If is any real number, then

.

EXAMPLE 1.1.12 Prove that there is no real number which satisfies



EXAMPLE 1.1.13 ARITHMETIC MEAN GEOMETRIC MEAN (AM GM) INEQUALITY
Let and be non negative real numbers. Prove that

.

EXAMPLE 1.1.14 Prove that the sum of a positive number and its reciprocal is always at least 2.

EXAMPLE 1.1.15 Let be positive real numbers such that . Prove
that






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EXERCISES 1.1
Prove the given statements. Assume that all variables take on real values.
1. If , then

.
2. If , then

.
3. If , then

.
4. If , then

.
5. If , then

.
6. If , then

.
7. Let and . If and , then


8. Let and If and , then

.
9. If , then


10. If , then .
11. If , then

( ) .
12. For any real numbers and ,


13. For any real numbers ( )

)(

).
14. If , then ( )

.
15. For , let be defined by

/ Then
16. If

and

then .


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Lesson 1.2: Polynomial and Rational Inequalities

An equation states that two algebraic expressions are equal; while an inequality states
that two algebraic expressions are not equal in a particular way. This inequality can be
expressed in terms of the symbols . In particular, we solve in this section
inequalities like

()

()

)()


The domain of a variable is an inequality is the set of real numbers for which both sides
of the inequality are defined. For example, the following inequalities have the set of real
numbers as domains:


However, the inequality

has domain 2

3 (that is, the set of


real numbers except the number

) because the left hand side is not defined when


and the right hand side is not defined when

, while the inequality

)()

has domain *+ because the left hand side


is not defined when .

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Clearly, some members in the domain of a variable in an inequality may not yield a true
inequality when substituted to the variable. This is because the domain is only concerned with
the expressions being defined and not the truth of the inequality. Any member in the domain of
a variable for which the inequality is true after substitution into the variable is a solution of the
inequality, and the set of all solutions is called the solution set of the inequality. When we say
solve the inequality, we mean to find the solution set of the inequality
If the solution set of the inequality is exactly the same as the domain of the variable,
then we say the inequality is absolute. The following are absolute inequalities:


A conditional inequality is one for which there is at least one member in the domain of
the variable that is not in the solution set of the inequality. Although we will sometimes
encounter absolute inequalities, the main goal of this section is to solve conditional
inequalities.

The procedure for solving conditional inequalities is similar to solving equations; that is,
we find simpler equivalent inequalities. In solving inequalities, we use theorem 1.1.5

EXAMPLE 1.2.1 Solve the inequality: .

Before we proceed with solving other conditional inequalities, we introduce a notation
for writing the solution set of inequality. This is the interval notation.
Set Interval Notation Type Graph
* + ( ) Open


* + ( ) Open


* + , )
Half Open or
Half Closed


* + ( -
Half Open or
Half Closed

Real Numbers ( ) Open


The above table shows the interval notation for unbounded intervals. We use a
parenthesis when an endpoint of an interval is not included in the solution set and a (square)
bracket when an endpoint is included. A bracket is never used next to or because
infinity is not a number.




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EXAMPLE 1.2.2 Solve the following inequality and write the answer in interval notation:



A compound inequality is a sentence containing two simple inequalities connected with
and or or. The solution to a compound inequality can be an interval of real numbers that
does not involve infinity, a bounded interval of real numbers.

EXAMPLE 1.2.3 Solve the following compound inequality:



We now introduce the interval notation for bounded intervals. Similar to the interval
notation introduced earlier, we use parenthesis if the endpoint is not included, and we use
(square) bracket if the endpoint is included.

Set Interval Notation Type Graph
* + ( ) Open


* + , - Closed


* + , )
Half Open or
Half Closed


* + ( -
Half Open or
Half Closed


The notation is used only when is between and (exclusive), and is less
than . We do not write and as , nor do we write for
and

EXAMPLE 1.2.4 Solve the inequality:



Solution: We rewrite the given inequality in to the following equivalent inequality:
( )( )
We then solve the equation ( )( ) , which gives or . (These number
are called critical numbers.) These numbers give rise to three (open) intervals:
( ) () ( ). We set up a table of signs such as the table below:

( ) () ( )


( )( )









8

To determine the sign of on each interval, we pick a test number

on each interval and


compute

. The resulting sign of

is the sign of on this interval. For instance, if


we choose

(), then

(positive). Thus, is positive on


(). We do this procedure to the other intervals and to . The sign of ( )( )
on an interval is the product of the signs of and on that interval. Since we want
( )( ) to be negative, the solution set is * + ().

Based on the solution of the inequality given in the last example, the inequality
( )( ) has solution set * +. On the number line, these are values
of going in opposite directions. In interval notation, this solution set an be written as
( - , ).

EXAMPLE 1.2.5 Solve the inequality:



EXAMPLE 1.2.6 Solve the inequality:

.

Solution: This compound inequality is equivalent to
and

.
We solve these inequalities one at a time, and take the intersection of their solution sets.

The inequality is equivalent to . Its solution set, in interval
notation is ( -.

The inequality

is equivalent to ( )( ) .
The critical numbers of this inequality are

. We set up the table of


signs:

( ) () (

) (

)



( )( )

The second inequality has solution set () .

/.

The (final) solution set of the desired inequality is solved by taking the intersection of
the two (partial) solution sets, which is ( - 2() .

/3, or simply
() (

-.

Inequalities involving rational expressions are solved similarly.
9

EXAMPLE 1.2.7 Solve the following inequality:

( )

( )




Solution: The given inequality is equivalent to (in factored form)

( )

( )

( )( )


This inequality has domain *+. The critical numbers are


1. Among these critical numbers, only

are solutions. Note that

( )

( )

for all . We then set up table of signs:


() () () (

) (

)
( )


( )


( )

( )

( )

( )( )



In determining the solution set, we take the intervals with signs in the last row, and we also
take into consideration the domain of the inequality and the equality to zero. The solution set is

( - ,- ,) ( ) 2

3,

or simply ( ) ( ) 2

3.

EXAMPLE 1.2.8 Solve the following inequality:

)( )

( )( )


EXAMPLE 1.2.9 Solve the following inequality:



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EXERCCISES 1.2
Find the solution set of the given inequalities, and write the final answer in interval notation.
1.
2.
3.


4.


5.


6.


7.


8.


9.


10. ( )
11.

()


12.


13.
14.
15.
16. ( )
17.


18.


19.


20.


21.


22.


23.


24.


25.


26.


27.


28.


29.


30.


31.


32. ( )( )( )
33. ( )( )( )
34.

( ) ( )( )
35.

( ) ( )( )
36.


37.


38.


11

39.


40.


41.


42.


43.


44.


45.


46.
()

()

()


47.
()

()

()


48.


49.










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Lesson 1.3: Equations and Inequalities Involving the Absolute Value

The absolute value of a real number is defined as the distance between and the
number on the real line. For instance, || because is units away from .
If , then we denote its absolute value by ||.

We remark that | | can also be interpreted as the distance between the
numbers and . Using this interpretation, the numbers that satisfy the equation
| | are precisely those numbers units away from , which are .

If , then clearly || . If , then the distance of from on the real line
is also , so that || . If , then its distance from on the real line is . In symbols, we
have the following theorems.

THEOREM 1.3.1
Let , then || {




Some textbooks use Theorem 1.3.1 as the definition of the absolute value of a real
number, while other textbooks use the following theorem as the definition.

THEOREM 1.3.2
Let , then

||.

Proof: We consider three cases: We use Theorem 1.3.1
CASE 1: If , then clearly

.
CASE 2: If , then

||
CASE 3: If , then

()

||

The following theorem is also important in dealing with absolute values.

THEOREM 1.3.3
Let , then (i) || ||||, and
(ii) |

|
||
||


Proof: We prove (i). Using Theorem 1.3.2, we have
|| ()

||||.

Similarly, one can prove (ii).

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Note that, given a real number, there are at most two real numbers whose absolute
values are equal to the given number. For instance, there are two real numbers such that
||

, and these are

and

However, there is only one real number such that || ,


and that is . Furthermore, there are no real numbers such that || .

EXAMPLE 1.3.4 Find the solution set of | | .

EXAMPLE 1.3.5 Find the solution set of || | |

EXAMPLE 1.3.6 Solve the equation: | | || | |

Solution: From Theorem 1.3.1, we have

| | {




|| {




| | {




To solve the given equation, we need to split up the problem into cases.
Using as critical numbers, the real number line is divided
into four (disjoint) intervals: ( ) , ) , ) , ) These will
serve as assumptions for our cases.

CASE 1: Suppose ( ). Then | |
|| | | Substituting these simpler expressions into the given
equation, we get
( ) ()

Since ( ) there is no solution in this case.

CASE 2: Suppose ,). Then | | ||
| | . The given equation becomes
( ) ()

Since , ), this case gives no solution.


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CASE 3: Suppose ,). Then | | ||
| | . The given equation becomes
( )

Since , ) the solution for this case is .

CASE 4: Suppose , ). Then | | ||
| | The given equation becomes
( )

Since , ), this case gives as a solution.

Combining the above four cases, there are two solutions for the given equation, and
these are .

Solving inequalities involving absolute values is almost similar to solving equations
involving absolute values. Let us start with a theorem that can help us solve these inequalities.

THEOREM 1.3.7
Let , then (i) || if and only if ,
(ii) || if and only if ,
(iii) || if and only if ,
(iv) || if and only if .

Proof: The four statements we want to prove have similar proof. We only prove (iv).
We consider two cases.
CASE 1: Suppose , then || . This implies that || if and only if
CASE 2: Suppose , then || . This implies that || if and only if
(which is equivalent to .
Thus, || if and only if .

In Theorem 1.3.7, note that it was assumed that . The case when can be
considered trivial. For instance, there are no real numbers such that || . On the other
hand, all real numbers satisfy the inequality || .




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EXAMPLE 1.3.8 Solve the inequality: | | .

Solution: This compound inequality is equivalent to
| | and | | .
We solve these inequalities one at a time, and take the intersection of their respective solution
sets.
Using Theorem 1.3.7(iv), the inequality | | is satisfied if and only if either
or .
Solving these inequalities gives .

1 0

/ as the solution set of | | .



Using Theorem 1.3.7(i), the inequality | | is satisfied if and only if .
Solving this last compound inequality gives the interval () as the solution set of
| | .

Taking the intersection of the two (partial) solution sets, we get
{(

] [

)} () (

] [

)

EXAMPLE 1.3.9 Find the solution set of | | | |.

EXAMPLE 1.3.10 Solve the inequality: |

| | |.

EXAMPLE 1.3.11 Solve for : || .

The following lemma will be used to prove a very important inequality involving absolute
values.

LEMMA 1.3.12
For any , the following inequality is true: || ||

Proof: We use Theorem 1.3.1 if , then || ||
If , then || ||.
Combining the above two inequalities, we have the desired inequality.








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THEOREM 1.3.13 TRIANGLE INEQUALITY
If and are real number, then
| | || ||.

Proof: By Lemma 1.3.12, we have
|| || and || ||.
Adding the above two compound inequalities, we have
(|| ||) || ||
By Theorem 1.3.7(iii), we finally have | | || ||.

EXAMPLE 1.3.14 Let and be real numbers such that | |

| |

.
Prove that | |

.

The knowledge on inequalities can be used in determining the domains of some
functions. It will also be used in calculus courses.


























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EXERCISES 1.3
In exercises 1 to 65, find the solution set. For inequalities (or for equations whenever
applicable), write your answers in interval notation.
1. ||
2. ||


3. ||
4. ||


5. | |
6. | |
7. | |
8. | |
9. | |
10. | |
11. | |
12. | | | |
13. | | | |
14. | | | |
15. | | | |
16. | | | |
17. | | | |
18. |

|
19. |

|
20. | | ||
21. || | |
22. || ||
23. || ||
24. | |
25. | |
26. | | ||
27. | | ||
28. | | | |
29. | | | |
30. | | | | | |
31. | | | | | |
32. ||
33. ||
34. ||
35. ||
36. ||
37. ||
38. | |
39. | |
40. | |
41. | |
18

42. |


43. |


44. |

|
45. |

|
46. | |
47. | |
48. | |
49. | |
50. | |
51. || | |
52. | | ||
53. | | | |
54. || | |
55. | |
56. | |
57. | |
58. | |
59. | |
60. | | | |
61. | | | |
62. || | | | |
63. | | | |
| |
64.
||()

)()


65.
||()

()

()



66. Suppose that and are real numbers such that | | and | | . Show that
| | .
67. Suppose that and are real numbers such that | | and | | . Show that
| |
68. If | | and | | , prove that | |
69. Suppose that | | and || . Find at least value of such that | | .

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