Fluid Mechanics

CHE211

Fall 2014

Grading Based on
Homework: 10% (5-6)
Quiz :10 % (3-4)
Mid-Term: 30% (TBA)
Final: 50%

Lectures: Monday, 10:30am-12:20 pm
Wednesday , 10:30-11:20 am
Tutorials : Wednesday, 11:30 am-12:20 pm.

Text books and Materials
Desire to learn
1. De Nevers N, Grahn R. Fluid mechanics for chemical engineers:
McGraw-Hill; 2004.


2. Wilkes JO. Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers with
Microfluidics and CFD: Pearson Education; 2006.
3. Fox RW, McDonald AT, Pritchard PJ. Introduction to fluid
mechanics. Vol 5: John Wiley & Sons New York; 1998.
Outline
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
What is a fluid?; Shear force and Shear stress; Shear strain and Rate of shear; Examples of fluids.
Fluid Mechanics - Statics and Dynamics; Why study fluid mechanics (practical significance)?
Continuum hypothesis; flow field; flow field variables (velocity, pressure, density, velocity gradient, shear-
stress, etc.); steady and unsteady flows; compressible and incompressible flows;
.
2. FLUID STATICS
Principle of hydrostatic equilibrium; Pressure variation throughout a static fluid; Applications of fluid
statics - Barometric equation; manometers; Hydrostatic equilibrium in a centrifugal field;
3. INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW (Basic Concepts)
Influence of solid boundaries on fluid flow; No-slip boundary condition; Boundary layer; Boundary layer
in flow over a thin plate; Boundary layer in pipe flow.
Definition of viscosity (Newton's law of viscosity); Dependence of viscosity on temperature and
pressure; Kinematic viscosity; Ideal fluid and potential flow; Introduction to non-Newtonian fluids.
Laminar and turbulent flows (Reynolds experiment); Reynolds number; Generalized Reynolds number;
Turbulence in boundary layers.
4. BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID FLOW
Microscopic versus Macroscopic balances
Macroscopic Mass Balance; average velocity.
Macroscopic Momentum Balance; Momentum correction factor.
Macroscopic Mechanical Energy Balance for ideal frictionless fluids (Bernoulli equation); Bernoulli
equation for viscous fluids; Kinetic energy correction factor; Pump work in Bernoulli equation.
5. FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS IN CLOSED CHANNELS
Shear-stress distribution in a cylindrical tube; Friction factor.
Laminar flow in pipes; velocity distribution for Newtonian fluids; Maximum velocity; Average velocity; Hagen-
Poiseuille Law; Reynolds number-friction factor law; Velocity distribution for non-Newtonian fluids.
Turbulent flow in pipes; Velocity distribution for Newtonian fluids; Reynolds number-friction factor law for
smooth tubes; Friction factors for rough pipes; Colebrook's equation; Reynolds number-friction factor law for
non-Newtonian fluids (Dodge-Metzner equation).
Flow in non-circular pipes; Concept of hydraulic diameter; Friction factor relations.
Friction loss in sudden expansion and sudden contraction of cross section; Effect of fittings and valves on friction
loss.
6. FLOW PAST IMMERSED BODIES
Flow past single objects; Skin (wall) drag and Form drag; Definition of Drag coefficient; Variation of Drag
coefficient with Reynolds number; Stokes' regime (Stokes' law), Intermediate regime and Newton's regime.
Free settling of particles through fluids; Terminal velocity; criteria for settling regimes (Stokes, intermediate or
Newton's regimes).
Flow through bed of solids; Hydraulic diameter; Ergun equation; Blake-Kozeny equation (Darcy's Law); Burke-
Plummer equation; Filtration.
Fluidization; conditions for fluidization; Minimum fluidization velocity; Types of fluidization (particulate fluidization
versus bubbling fluidization); Expansion of fluidized beds - particulate fluidization and bubbling fluidization;
Applications of fluidization.
7. METERING OF FLUIDS
Flow rate measurement; Venturi-meter - application of Bernoulli equation, Venturi-coefficient, Pressure recovery;
Orifice-meter - application of Bernoulli equation, Orifice coefficient, Pressure recovery; Pitot tube.
Course Focus
6
Fundamental Concepts

Fluid Statics

Conservation of Mass, Momentum and Energy

Incompressible Fluids In Closed Channels

Flow Past Immersed Bodies

Dimensional Analysis

Metering of Fluids
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

What is a fluid?
Shear force and Shear stress; Rate of shear; Examples of fluids.
Fluid Mechanics
Statics and Dynamics; Why study fluid mechanics (practical
significance)?
Dimensions and Units
Flow field variables (velocity, pressure, density, velocity gradient, shear-stress,
etc.);
Continuum hypothesis
Principles involved
conservation of mass
conservation of momentum (Newton's second law of motion),
conservation of energy.

Comparison of tensile, compressive
and shear stresses
Tensile, Shear and Compressive forces
and stresses
T=

Tensile stress
=

shear stress
P =

Compressive stress
(Pressure)
Fluid Definition
Solids can permanently resist very large shear forces
(steel)

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when
undergoes a shear stress of any magnitude Fluids do
not sustain shearing or tensile stresses like solids they
can only hold compression stresses from all sides
(water)

Materials between solids and fluids can resist small
amount of shear permanently but not the large amount
(peanut butter)
Fluid Definition Cont
Fluids are either liquids or gases
Liquid: A state of matter in which the molecules
are relatively free to change their positions with
respect to each other but restricted by
cohesive forces so as to maintain a relatively
fixed volume
Gas: a state of matter in which the molecules
are practically unrestricted by cohesive forces. A
gas has neither definite shape nor volume.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

What is a fluid?
Shear force and Shear stress; Shear strain and Rate of shear;
Examples of fluids.
Fluid Mechanics
Definition, Statics and Dynamics; Why study fluid mechanics
(practical significance)?
Dimensions and Units
Flow field variables (velocity, pressure, density, velocity gradient, shear-stress,
etc.);
Continuum hypothesis
Principles involved
- conservation of mass
conservation of momentum (Newton's second law of motion),
conservation of energy.


Fluid Mechanics

Mechanics: the branch of applied
mathematics that deals with the motion and
equilibrium of bodies and the action of forces,
and includes kinematics, dynamics, and statics.

Fluid mechanics: Its a branch of mechanics
that only deals with fluids.


In Fluid Mechanics we can consider three
branches:
Fluid Statics: mechanics of fluids at rest
Kinematics: deals with velocities and
streamlines considering forces or energy
Fluid Dynamics: deals with the relations
between velocities and accelerations and
forces exerted by or upon fluids in
motion

Application
Fluid Mechanics is applied in:
Mechanical Engineering
Aerodynamics
Chemical Engineering
Combustion
Energy generation
Separation
Flow in pipes
Civil Engineering
Hydraulics
Hydrology
Bioengineering
Hydrodynamics
Geology
Meteorology
Dimensions and Units
Two primary sets of units are used:
SI (System International) units
English units
Dimensions and Units
Primary
Dimension
SI Unit
British
Gravitational
(BG) Unit
English
Engineering
(EE) Unit
Mass [M] Kilogram (kg) Slug
Pound-mass
(lb
m
)
Length [L] Meter (m) Foot (ft) Foot (ft)
Time [T] Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)
Temperature [O] Kelvin (K) Rankine (R) Rankine (R)
Force [F]
Newton
(1N=1 kg
.
m/s
2
)
Pound (lb) Pound-force (lb
f
)
Conversion factors are available in the textbook inside of front cover.
More on Dimensions
To remember units of a slug :
F=ma => m = F / a
[m] = [F] / [a] = lb / (ft / sec
2
) = lb*sec
2
/ ft

1 lb is the force of gravity acting on (or
weight of ) a platinum standard whose
mass is 0.453592 kg

Dimensions and Units cont
1 Newton Force required to accelerate a 1
kg of mass to 1 m/s
2

1 slug is the mass that accelerates at 1 ft/s
2

when acted upon by a force of 1 lb

To remember units of a Newton use F=ma
(Newtons 2nd Law)
[F] = [m][a]= kg*m/s
2
= N
Weight
Weight (W) of object mass m is defined as

W = mg ; g is gravitational acceleration

g = 9.81 m/s
2
in SI units
g = 32.2 ft/sec
2
in English units
To convert units we can always consider:
1= lbf/lbf = =32.2 (ft.lbm/lbf.s
2
)

See back of front cover of textbook for conversion tables
between SI and English units



Flow field variables and Some
physical properties of fluids
Velocity





velocity gradient:
du/dy

22
( , , )
( , , )
( , , )
x y z x y z
x y z
i j k
v v v v v i v j v k = = + +
Density, specific gravity and specific weight
Density (mass per unit volume): =
m
V
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
( ) = =
m
V
kg
m
in SI units
3
Units of density:
For liquids, weak function of temperature and pressure
For gases: strong function of T and P
from ideal gas law: = P M/R T
where R = universal gas constant
Quetion: Prove the above relation for an ideal gas.
water
liquid
water
liquid
water
liquid
g
g
S

= = =
Specific weight (weight per unit volume): = g
Units of specific weight:
[ ] [ ][ ] ( ) = = = g
kg
m
m
s
N
m
in SI units
3 2 3

Specific Gravity (independent of system of units)
C O H
SG

=
4 @
2

Specific weight is the amount of weight per unit volume of a substance:
Specific Gravity in Degrees Baume or
Degree API
For liquids heavier than water,




For liquids lighter than water,

Baume deg 145
145
sg

=
sg
145
145 Baume deg =
Baume deg 130
140
sg
+
=
130
sg
140
Baume deg =
Specific Gravity in Degrees Baume or Degree
API
The API has developed a scale that is slightly different from
the Baum scale for liquids lighter than water.
The formulas are
API deg 5 . 131
5 . 141
sg
+
=
5 . 131
sg
5 . 141
API deg =
Pressure
Forces applied by static fluids always
perpendicular to the objects surface area)
Pressure
Pressure is a scalar, not a vector and is defined as
the force applied over the surface area

(

= =
2
m
N
Pa
A
F
P
Other Pressure units:
Psi = lbf/in
2

Bar=100000 pa
atm=101325 pa
Absolute and Gage Pressure
When making calculations involving pressure in a fluid, you
must make the measurements relative to some reference
pressure.
Normally the reference pressure is that of the atmosphere,
and the resulting measured pressure is called gage pressure.
Pressure measured relative to a perfect vacuum is called
absolute pressure.




Absolute and Gage Pressure
A simple equation relates the two pressure-measuring
systems:

P
abs
=P
gage
+ P
atm
where
p
abs
= Absolute pressure
p
gage
= Gage pressure
p
atm
= Atmospheric pressure
The comparison between absolute and gage pressures.

Example
Express a pressure of 225 kPa(abs) as a gage pressure.
The local atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa(abs).


Solving algebraically for p
gage
gives:




P
abs
=P
gage
+ P
atm

P
gage
= P
abs
- P
atm

P
gage
=225 Kpa(abs)- 101 Kpa (abs)= 124 Kpa (gage)
Example
Express a pressure of 75.2 kPa as a gage pressure. The local
atmospheric pressure is 103.4 kPa.





Notice that the result is negative. This can also be read 28.2
kPa below atmospheric pressure or 28.2 kPa vacuum.

P
gage
= P
abs
- P
atm

P
gage
=75.2Kpa 103.4 Kpa = -28.2 Kpa
Compressibility
All fluids compress if pressure increases resulting in an
increase in density
Compressibility is the change in volume due to a
change in pressure
A good measure of compressibility is the bulk modulus
(It is inversely proportional to compressibility)
E
dp
d
u
u
u
=
u

=
1
( ) specific volume
p is pressure
Compressibility
From previous expression we may write
For water at 15 psia and 68 degrees Farenheit,
From above expression, increasing pressure by 1000 psi will compress
the water by only 1/320 (0.3%) of its original volume
( ) ( ) u u
u
u
final initial
initial
final initial
p p
E

~

E psi
u
= 320 000 ,
This result shows that water is incompressible .
In reality, no fluid is incompressible, but this is a good approximation for
certain fluids
Viscosity ( )
Viscosity can be thought as the resistance against flow
Representative of internal friction in fluids
Internal friction forces in flowing fluids result from
cohesion and momentum interchange between
molecules.
Viscosity is important,
in determining amount of fluids that can be
transported in a pipeline during a specific period of
time
determining energy losses associated with transport
of fluids in ducts, channels and pipes

Moving plate
Fixed plate
Y
x
y
Force F
Velocity V(y=0)=0
Velocity V(y=Y)=U

Two plates with a small gap Y and large width
Fluid
Conditions:
No-slip conditions :Because of viscosity, at boundaries (walls) particles
of fluid adhere to the walls, and so the fluid velocity is zero relative to
the wall
The velocity profile can be drawn as follows:
y
u y ( )
Y
U
u y
U
Y
y ( ) =
|
\

|
.
|
Experimentally has been approved that for most of the fluids , The velocity profile
is linear and can be expressed linearly as follows:
du
dy
U
Y
=
u y velocity profile ( ) ( )
And empirically,
F
AU
Y

More specifically, F
AU
Y
= ; is coefficient of vis ity cos
Shear stress induced by is
F
t = =
F
A
U
Y
Thus, shear stress is
t =
du
dy
In general we may use previous expression to find shear stress at a point
inside a moving fluid. dy/dy is called strain rate or shear rate.
Note that if fluid is at rest shear stress is zero because
du
dy
= 0
Newtons equation of viscosity

- viscosity (coeff. of viscosity) Pa.s

v

=
Kinematic viscosity
Units of Kinematic viscosity: m
2
/s, Stoke

***** See Conversion factor table
Newtons Law of Viscosity can be used to evaluate the shear stress
exerted by a moving fluid onto the fluids boundaries.
t at boundary
du
dy
at boundary
=
|
\

|
.
|
Note is direction normal to the boundary
y
Viscosity of a fluid depends on temperature:
In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature (i.e.
cohesion decreases with increasing temperature)
In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temperature (i.e.
molecular interchange between layers increases with temperature
setting up strong internal shear)
Viscosity behavior of fluids

Newtonian.
Shear thickening.
Shear thinning.
Thixotropic.
Bingham plastic
Magnetorheological fluid
Newtonian Fluids
These are fluids which obey Newtons law
viscosity which says the shear stress is linearly
related to the velocity gradient. Most
common fluids such as water, gasoline, fall into
this category.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
These are fluids which do not obey Newtons
law of viscosity. Polymer solution and
emulsions
(ii) Pseudoplastic
The dynamic viscosity, of the fluid decreases as the rate of shear increases
(e.g. milk, clay, colloidal solutions, sewage, sludge, cement). If n <1in
Eq.(1.1), it is called pseudoplastic.

(iii) Dilatant Substances
The dynamic viscosity, increases as the rate of shear increases e.g.
quicksand. If n >1in Eq.(1.1), it is called dilatant.

(iv) Thioxotropic Substances
The dynamic viscosity decreases with the time for which shearing forces are
applied e.g. thioxotropic jelly paints.

(v) Rheopectic Materials
The dynamic viscosity of these materials increases with the time for which
shearing forces are applied.

(vi) Viscoelastic Materials
These behave in manner similar to Newtonian fluids under time-invariant
conditions but if shear stress changes suddenly behave as plastic.
Problem 1. 11 (streeter)
A 3.0-in.diameter shaft slides at 0.4 ft/sec through a
6-in.-long sleeve with radial clearance of 0.01 in.
when a 10.0-lb force is applied. Determine the
viscosity of fluid between shaft and sleeve.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

What is a fluid?
Shear force and Shear stress; Shear strain and Rate of shear;
Examples of fluids.
Fluid Mechanics
Definition, Statics and Dynamics; Why study fluid mechanics
(practical significance)?
Dimensions and Units
Flow field variables (velocity, pressure, density, velocity gradient, shear-stress,
etc.);
Continuum hypothesis
Principles involved
- conservation of mass
conservation of momentum (Newton's second law of motion),
conservation of energy.

Continuum Assumption
A fluid particle is a volume large enough to contain a sufficient
number of molecules of the fluid to give an average value for
any property that is continuous in space, independent of the
number of molecules.

A good way to determine if the continuum model is acceptable
is to compare a characteristic length L of the flow region with
the mean free path of molecules,


Mean free path ( ) Average distance a molecule travels
before it collides with another molecule.

Knudsen number: Kn = / L

- mean free path
L - characteristic length

Continuum Assumption
For continuum assumption: Kn << 1

Kn < 0.001 - Non-slip fluid flow
- B.C.s: no velocity slip
- No temp. jump
- Classical fluid mechanics

0.001< Kn < 0.1 - Slip fluid flow
- Continuum with slip B.C.s

0.1< Kn< 10 - Transition flow
- No continuum, kinetic gas

10<Kn - Free molecular flow
- Molecular dynamics
48
For air duct:
49
Characteristic scales for standard air:
-> mean free path, (sea level) ~ 10
-7
m

Characteristic length (L):
-> Diameter of the duct (D) = 1 inch (25.4mm)
Kn = 10
-7
/(0.0254) = 3.937x10
-6
< 0.001
(Continuum and non-slip fluid flow)
For micro-channel:
50
Characteristic scales for standard air:
-> mean free path, (sea level) ~ 10
-7
m

Characteristic length (L):
-> Width of the micro-channel = 1m = 10
-6
m
Kn = 10
-7
/(10
-6
) = 0.1
L
Microscopic:
Study the behavior of molecules

Macroscopic:
Continuum assumption
Navier-Stokes Equation

51
Engineering approach: Characterization of the behavior by
considering the average, or macroscopic, value of the
quantity of interest, where the average is evaluated over a
small volume containing a large number of molecules
Treat the fluid as a CONTINUUM: Assume that all the
fluid characteristics vary continuously throughout the
fluid
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

What is a fluid?
Shear force and Shear stress; Shear strain and Rate of shear;
Examples of fluids.
Fluid Mechanics
Definition, Statics and Dynamics; Why study fluid mechanics
(practical significance)?
Dimensions and Units
Flow field variables (velocity, pressure, density, velocity gradient, shear-stress,
etc.);
Continuum hypothesis
Principles involved
Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum (Newton's second law of motion),
Conservation of energy.

Principles involved
Conservation of mass
dm/dt=0
Conservation of momentum (Newton's
second law of motion)
F=ma
Conservation of energy
Energy is not produced or destroyed and only
is changed from one to another form