Nature of Psychology

Psychology
Came from the Greek words:
Psyche soul/mind
Logos study
Study of mind
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
A science because it employs scientific methodologies.
Behavior is observable. Any related action or reaction we do under specified circumstance is
called a behavior.
Mental processes are internal subjective experiences (i.e thinking, imagining, decision-making,
and other cognitive processes).

Two General Classifications of Behavior
a. Overt or Extrinsic Behavior consists of responses which are publicly/directly observable.
Examples: dancing, singing, eating, walking
b. Covert or Intrinsic Behavior refers to responses which cannot be directly observed.
Examples: glandular reaction, hate/love feelings and other internal bodily processes.

Goals of Psychology
1. Description how organisms behave in certain ways.
The whatness of the behavior.
2. Understanding explain the causes of an organisms behavior.
The whyness of the behavior.
3. Prediction how an organism will behave in the future.
4. Control altering the conditions that influence behavior in a predictable way.

Brief Historical Background
Wilhelm Wundt founder of modern psychology. He was recognized as the Father of Psychology because he
elevated the field of psychology from philosophy to science.
A German who established the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig in 1879.
Late 1880s psychology was born as the science of consciousness.


Early Perspectives of Psychology

a. Structuralism (1890-1920, Germany)
E. B. Titchener developed the school of structuralism based on the concepts of Wundt.
Structuralism limited the subject matter of psychology to the study of conscious experience. According to the
structuralists, the theme of psychology is the study of the structures/elements of the conscious experience,
namely: sensations, images and affective states.
Structuralists believed that all conscious experiences are merely intricate combinations of elemental
sensations (i.e. sensory knowledge is the building block of our intellect.)
Its method of study was introspection (method of self-analysis). In introspection people are taught, trained to
observe and report the 'content' or 'elements' of awareness in a particular situation. For example; people are
presented with stimulus such as a sentence on a card and asked to describe in their own words their own
experiences.

b. Functionalism (1875, USA )
The American psychologist William James pioneered functionalism, but was later on succeeded by John
Dewey. Functionalism was strongly influenced by biology. The work and ideas of Charles Darwin had a great
impact on the emergence of functional psychology.
It focused on what the mind does or the functions of mental activity and the role of behavior in allowing
people to adapt to their environment.
James held that the function of consciousness was to enable humans to behave in ways that would act
survival through adaptation to the environment.
Methods include objective observation

c. Behaviorism (1878-1958, USA)
John Watson revolutionized psychology by changing the subject matter of psychology from the study of
conscious experience to the study of behavior.
Watson believed that the study of psychology should be about observable behavior and its aim should be to
describe, predict, understand and control behavior.
Watsons view of learning relied to a great extent on Pavlovs account of classical conditioning. Accordingly,
it is possible to break down and analyze a certain behavior into stimulus-response units.
Other proponent was B.F Skinner, known for his operant conditioning theory.
Methods include objective methods/empirical approach (i.e. experimentation)

d. Gestalt psychology (1912, Germany)
The leading proponents of the Gestalt view were the German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Kafka and
Wolfgang Kohler.
Instead of considering separate parts that make up thinking, Gestalt psychologists concentrated on the
whole. Their slogan is the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Gestalt means shape, form or
configuration. Their belief was that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. In order to understand our
environment we have to perceive it in its totality not in its individuality.
Method of studying behavior is phenomenological approach (studying phenomena as perceived by the
subject).

e. Psychoanalysis (1920, Austria)
The Viennese neurologist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) pioneered the psychoanalytic
perspective.
Freud said that conscious experiences are only the tip of the Iceberg. Beneath the conscious experience is
Primitive biological urges that seek expression but which are in conflict with the norms and morality of the
society.
These unconscious motivations and conflicts have powerful influences on our conscious thoughts and actions.
Therefore they are responsible for much of human behavior including physiological problems. According to
Freud, all behavior whether normal or abnormal is influenced by the unconscious mind.
According to Freud the methods of studying the unconscious mind are:
Free association
In this method the psychoanalyst gives the client a word and asks to reply with the first word that comes to
mind be it nonsense or irrelevant. The psychoanalyst makes associations and meanings between ideas, words,
and thought.
It is a projective technique to explore the clients unconscious thoughts.
Dream analysis based on case studies
The contents of dreams are analyzed for underlying or hidden motivations.
Dreams are viewed as indication of what a person is truly feeling within the conscious mind. Freud said
dreams are the royal road to the understanding of the unconscious.


Current Psychological Perspectives

1. Biological Perspectives focuses on the functioning of the brain, genes, nervous system and the
endocrine system.
2. Psychodynamic Perspectives behavior is explained in terms of past experiences and motivational
forces.
Sigmund Freud
3. Behavioral Perspectives observable behavior that can be objectively recorded.
John Watson, B.F. Skinner
4. Humanistic Perspectives emphasizes an individuals phenomenal world and inherent capacity for
making rational choices and developing to maximum potential.
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
5. Cognitive Perspectives emphasize the role of mental processes perception, thinking and memory
that underlie behavior.
6. Evolutionary Perspectives roles of inherited tendencies that have proven adaptive in humans.
7. Socio-cultural Perspectives the role of social and cultural influences on behavior.


Branches of Psychology

1. Experimental and Physiological Psychology investigate basic behavioral and nervous system
processes.
a. Experimental Psychology investigates behavioral processes.
b. Physiological Psychology and neuropsychology explore connection between nervous and
endocrine systems and behavior.
c. Neuroscience investigates the way the brain works.
d. Psychopharmacology studies the relationship between drugs and behavior.
2. Developmental Psychology deals with the behavioral development over the entire life span.
a. Child Psychology - studies child from prenatal until early adolescent.
b. Adolescence Psychology studies development from puberty to later life.
c. Senescence Psychology - the study of human behavior in old age.
3. Personality Psychology studies relationship between personality and behavior especially individual
differences.
4. Social Psychology studies behavior of people in groups.
5. Educational and School Psychology investigates how people learn in educational settings.
a. Educational Psychology covers all the psychological aspects of the learning process.
b. School Psychology assesses and assists children with learning or emotional problems.
6. Industrial/Organizational Psychology studies the relationship between people and their jobs.
a. Human-factors Psychology specializes in the fitting between a machine and environment and its
probable user.
b. Personnel Psychology - screens job applicants; evaluates job performance and recommends
employees for promotion.
c. Consumer Psychology studies consumer preferences, buying habits and responses to advertising.
7. Clinical psychology develop ways of studying, diagnosing and treating abnormal behavior.


Methods Used in Psychology

1. Introspection a method of mental self-analysis wherein the researcher studies himself, records his
feelings and experiences, analyzes these and later interprets them.
2. Observation most widely used method in the study of behavior.
3. Life-History Method an extensive background study of an individual.
4. Survey method or Group Method refers to the utilization of questionnaires or interviews from a
representative sample.
5. Experimental Method a method where the study of behavior is done inside a laboratory under
controlled conditions.





























Biological Bases of Human Behavior

Neurons: Basic Unit of the Nervous System
Also known as nerve cells
A brain cell with two specialized extensions: one extension is for receiving electrical signals and the
second is for transmitting electrical signals.
Allows us to receive sensory information, control muscle movement, regulate digestion, secrete
hormones and engage in complex mental processes such as thinking, imagining and remembering.
Glial Cells keep the neurons functioning by supplying them with nutrients, clearing away their wastes, helping
to separate them from other neurons and giving them a structural and chemical foundation in which to grow and
organize themselves.

Three Types of Neurons
1. Sensory Neurons receive and transmit information about what is happening in the outside world.
2. Motor Neurons neurons which connect to the body skeletal muscles and carry signals that cause those
muscles to contract, producing movement.
3. Interneuron/s - connect one neuron to another.

Parts of a Neuron
1. Cell Body main part of the neuron. It has one axon and many dendrites.
2. Nucleus the most vulnerable part of the neuron. If it is damaged the whole cell dies and cannot be
replaced.
3. Dendrites branches that connect with the axons of other neurons and carry nerve impulses towards the
cell body.
4. Axon conveys impulses away from the cell body to another neuron or to motor-end plates.
5. Collateral Branch conducts impulses onto other nerve or effector cells such as those in muscles.
6. Myelin Sheath a fatty layer insulating the axon and accelerating the nerve impulse.
7. Node of Ranvier - interruption in the myelin sheath. Nerve impulses jump from one node to the next.
8. Motor-end Plate the termination of an axon. It passes the nerve impulse to the muscles.
9. Synapse junction across which nerve pass from an axon to another neuron or from motor-end plate to a
muscle.

Neurotransmitters chemical chemical made by neurons, or nerve cells. Neurons send out neurotransmitters as
chemical signals to activate or inhibit the function of neighboring cells.
1. Acetylcholine controls muscle contraction, prevalent in the hippocampus which is involved in the
formation of memories.
Excess muscle paralysis or convulsion, sometimes death.
Deficit memory impairment (Alzheimers disease gradual impairment of memory and cognitive
functions).
2. Dopamine primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It is involved in voluntary movements, learning
and emotional arousal.
Excess schizophrenia (hallucinations and disturbances of thought and emotion).
Deficit Impaired movement (Parkinsons disease lose control over ones muscles).
3. Norepinephrine produces largely by neurons in the brain stem. It speeds up the heartbeat and other
body processes and is involved in general arousal, learning and memory and eating.
Excess anxiety symptoms resembling schizophrenia
Deficit memory impairment
4. Serotonin involved in emotional arousal and sleep.
Deficits increased aggressive behavior, sleeplessness
5. Endorphins transmit pain message to the brain.
Excess inhibition of pain.
Deficit increased pain.
6. Neuropeptides chains of amino acids.









CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The first major system of sending signals throughout the body.
It consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

A. BRAIN master control center of all human activities.
Parts of the Brain
1. Forebrain large part of the brain, consisting of left and right hemispheres.
Left Hemisphere controls language and logical operations.
Right Hemisphere controls emotion, artistic and spatial abilities.
a. Limbic System a group of brain structures that play a role in emotion, memory and
motivation.
Thalamus the main relay station for incoming sensory signals to the cerebral
cortex and for outgoing motor signals from it.
Hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual drive
and other functions.
Amygdala involved in emotional behaviors like fear, anger and aggression.
Hippocampus involved in transforming many kinds of fleeting memories into
permanent storage.
b. Corpus Callosum large bundle of axons that connects the brains two hemispheres.
c. Cerebrum (Cerebral Cortex) the largest part of the brain. It receives information from
all the sense organs and sends motor commands to other parts of the brain and the rest of
the body.
Frontal Lobes responsible for social-emotional behaviors, awareness and
memory.
o Brocas Area located in the frontal lobe which is responsible for speech.
Parietal Lobes involved in processing body sensations.
Occipital lobes involved in vision.
Temporal Lobes critical to hearing, speaking coherently and understanding
verbal and written materials.
o Wernickes Area located in the temporal lobe which is responsible for
understanding language.
2. Midbrain smallest division of the brain which makes connection with the hindbrain and forebrain
and alerts the forebrain to incoming sensation.
a. Reticular Formation (upper portion) governs the state of alertness or arousal.
3. Hindbrain (Brainstem) involved in sleeping, waking, coordinating body movements and regulating
vital reflexes (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and breathing.
a. Reticular Formation (lower portion)
b. Cerebellum involved in coordinating movements, also maintains posture and balance.
c. Pons a bridge that connects the spinal cord with brain and parts of the brain with one
another. It is also involved in sleep.
d. Medulla/Medulla Oblongata controls vital reflexes such as respiration, heart rate and blood
pressure.

B. SPINAL CORD the brains link to the peripheral nervous system.
It receives information from the skin and muscles and transmits it to the brain.
It is a relay station.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Made up of nerves, which are located throughout the body, except in the brain and spinal cord.
Nerves carry information from the senses, skin, muscles and the bodys organs to and from the spinal
cord.
Nerves in the peripheral nervous system have the ability to re-grow, regenerate or reattach if severed or
damaged.

The Somatic System (Voluntary)
Transmits sensations from the outside world to the spinal cord or brain and relays central nervous
systems skeletal muscles (the muscles attached to bones), thus generating movements.

The Autonomic System (Involuntary)
Affects heart rate, certain glandular secretion, and the activities of smooth muscles.
Two Divisions
a. Sympathetic Nervous System works in emergencies and stressful situations, when vigorous action is
needed.
- Prepares the body to fight or to flee by increasing heart rate, blood pressure and blood sugar level
and by slowing down digestion.
b. Parasympathetic Nervous System - exerts control in relaxed situations.
- Enhances digestion and conserves energy by slowing down the heart rate and the blood flow to the
skeletal muscles.


ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Made up of numerous glands that is located throughout the body. These glands secrete various
chemicals, called hormones, which affects organs and other glands in the body.

Glands - Are organs of the body that secrete a substance to be used in, or eliminated from, the body.

a. Hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual drive.
b. Pituitary gland
- Located at the base of the brain.
- Referred as master gland, it controls the activities of the other endocrine glands and secretes a
growth hormone that has the crucial role of controlling body growth.
- Oversecretion of the hormone leads to giantism, while undersecretion causes dwarfism.
c. Thyroid gland
- Located in the tissue of the neck around the windpipe
- Thyroxin hormone produced by the thyroid gland. This hormone controls the metabolic processes
by which the energy is provided for vital functions and activities.
- Oversecretion of the hormone leads to hyperthyroidism that is characterized by increased
metabolism, resulting in rapid physiological processes that make the individual easily tired and
irritable.
- Undersecretion of the hormone leads to hypothyroidism that may arrest physical and mental
development in children.
d. Adrenal glands
- Inner layer secretes adrenalin or epinephrine, which gives extra energy very much needed during
emergencies and prolonged stress.
e. Pancreas regulates the level of sugar in the blood stream by secreting insulin.
Lack of insulin results in some form of diabetes, while too much causes hypoglycemia
(low blood sugar).
f. Sex glands/ Gonads
- are responsible for producing the sex hormones of the body. These sex hormones determine the secondary
sex characteristics of adult females and adult males.
Testes sex glands of males. It secretes testosterone for the production of male secondary sex
characteristics.
Ovaries sex glands of females. It secretes estrogen for the appearance of female secondary sex
characteristics and progesterone for the thickening of the uterine wall in preparation for pregnancy
and childbirth.





















































































































Human Growth and Behavior

Growth refers to quantitative changes, increase as to size and structure
Development refers to those changes which are qualitative in nature. It may be defined as a progressive series
of orderly, coherent changes leading toward the goal of maturity

Principles of Development


































































Development is orderly and follows a sequential pattern. The stages that we go through from birth to death
are always in the same order.
Laws of Developmental Direction
a. Cephalocaudal Law development takes place from head region first downwards.
b. Proximodistal Law development from the center axis to the extremities
1. Development is the product of the interaction of maturation and learning. Maturation is the process in
which hereditary traits unfold at an appointed time as the individual grows older. Learning on the other
hand is influenced by













































































































Sensation and Perception

Sensation an experience when our sense organs are stimulated.
- Makes things in this world a beautiful reality.
Adaptation refers to the decreasing response of sense organs, the more they are exposed to a continuous level
of stimulation.
- Example: clothes on your skin will soon no longer be felt.
Transduction refers to the process in which a sense organ changes or transforms physical energy into
electrical signals that become neural impulses, which may be sent to the brain for processing.

The stimulus excites the receptors and receptors receive that stimulation. There will be no sensation without
this process.

Stimulus
1. Internal Stimulus comes from within.
2. External Stimulus comes from the environment.

Receptors
1. Exteroceptor found in the different sense organs such as eye, ear, tongue, nose and skin.
2. Interoceptor found in the lining of the internal organs like the digestive system.
3. Proprioceptor found in the lining of muscles, tendons and joints.

The Five Major Sense Organs
1. Eye Vision
Light waves the most effective stimulus for vision.

Parts of the Eye
a. Sclera the hard outermost covering of the eye which serves as a protective layer.
b. Choroid contains the color of the eye.
c. Retina contains the true receptor cells which are extremely sensitive to light.
Cones sensitive to light of normal intensity.
Rods sensitive during twilight vision.
d. Cornea rounded, transparent, covering over the front of the eye which bends or focuses the waves
into a narrower beam.
e. Lens a transparent, oval structure attached to muscles that adjust focusing.
f. Pupil regulates the light entering the eye.
g. Iris controls the size of the pupil and contains the pigment that gives the eye it characteristic color.
h. Vitreous Humor keeps the round form of the eye ball.
i. Blind Spot the area where nerve fibers from all over the eye converge to form an optic nerve.
j. Optic Nerve carries the impulse to the brain.



Visual Defects
a. Nearsightedness (Myopia) when the eyeball is too long; distant objects appear blurry.
b. Farsightedness (Hyperopia) when the eye ball is too short, near objects is blurry.
c. Oldsightedness (Presbyopia) - condition brought on by the hardening of the lens because of age.
d. Astigmatism there is a clear vision in one eye but unfocused vision in the other eye.
-Cornea becomes irregular causing distortion on the image on the retina.
e. Diplopia (Double Vision) cause by muscular imbalance.
f. Color Blindness inability to distinguish two or more color shades in the color system.
Monochromats refers to total color blindness.
Dichromats refers to the trouble distinguishing red from green.
2. The Ear Audition
Sound Waves stimulus for audition.

Parts of the Ear
a. Outer Ear consists of three structures: the external ear, auditory canal and the tympanic membrane.
External Ear collects sound waves.
Auditory Canal where the sound waves travel to the tympanic membrane.
Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum) divides the outer ear from the middle ear.
b. Middle Ear contain three bones: the malleus, the incus and the stapes which act like levers that
greatly amplify the vibrations.
c. Inner Ear contains the cochlea and vestibular system.
Cochlea involved in hearing.
Vestibular System involved in balance.
3. Tongue Gustation
Taste Buds has four basic sensitivities: sweet, salty, sour and bitter.
Perform transduction transform chemical reactions into nerve impulses.
4. Nose Olfaction
Olfactory Cells receptors for smell.
5. Skin bodys largest organ.
- Sensitive to pressure, temperature and pain.

Perception
Process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the
world.
Illusion a mistake in the perception of a sensory experience.

Principles of Perceptual Organization
A. Gestalt Laws of Grouping
The three founders of Gestalt psychology were German researchers Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and
Wolfgang Khler. These men identified a number of principles by which people organize isolated parts
of a visual stimulus into groups or whole objects. There are five main laws of grouping: proximity,
similarity, continuity, closure, and common fate. A sixth law that of simplicity encompasses all of these
laws.
1. Law of Proximity - states that the closer objects are to one another, the more likely we are to mentally
group them together.
2. Law of Similarity - leads us to link together parts of the visual field that are similar in color, lightness,
texture, shape, or any other quality.
3. Law of Continuity - leads us to see a line as continuing in a particular direction, rather than making an
abrupt turn.
4. Law of Closure - we prefer complete forms to incomplete forms.
5. Law of Common Fate - leads us to group together objects that move in the same direction.
6. Law of Simplicity - states that people intuitively prefer the simplest, most stable of possible
organizations.
B. Figure and Ground
Not only does perception involve organization and grouping, it also involves distinguishing an object
from its surroundings. Notice that once you perceive an object, the area around that object becomes the
background.
For example, when you look at your computer monitor, the wall behind it becomes the background. The
object, or figure, is closer to you, and the background, or ground, is farther away.

Four General Extra Sensory Perceiving Abilities
1. Telepathy the ability to transfer ones thoughts to another or to read the thoughts of another.
2. Clairvoyance the ability to perceive events or objects that are out of sight.
3. Precognition the ability to perceive or accurately predict future events.
4. Psychokinesis the ability to exert influence over inanimate objects by sheer will power.
- The person can move inanimate objects without touching them.














Intelligence

Term usually referring to a general mental capability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly, learn
and understand new material, and profit from past experience.
Intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure.

Theories of Intelligence
1. Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearmen)
Intelligence has two factors: a general ability factor, which represents what different cognitive
tasks have in common and specific factors, which include specific mental abilities.
2. Multiple Intelligence Theory (Howard Gardner)
Linguistic Intelligence - involves aptitude with speech and language.
Logical-mathematical Intelligence - involves the ability to reason abstractly and solve
mathematical and logical problems.
Spatial Intelligence - used to perceive visual and spatial information and to conceptualize the
world in tasks like navigation and in art.
Musical Intelligence - the ability to perform and appreciate music.
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence - the ability to use ones body or portions of it in various
activities, such as dancing, athletics, acting, surgery, and magic.
Interpersonal Intelligence - involves understanding others and acting on that understanding.
Intrapersonal intelligence - the ability to understand ones self.
Naturalist intelligence - the ability to recognize and classify plants, animals, and minerals.
According to Gardner, each person has a unique profile of these intelligences, with strengths in
some areas and weaknesses in others.
3. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg)
Analytic Intelligence - skill in reasoning, processing information, and solving problems.
o It involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, and compare.
o Draws on basic cognitive processes or components.
Creative Intelligence - skill in using past experiences to achieve insight and deal with new
situations.
Practical Intelligence - relates to peoples ability to adapt to, select, and shape their real-world
environment.
o It involves skill in everyday living (street smarts) and in adapting to life demands, and
reflects a persons ability to succeed in real-world settings.
In Sternbergs view, successfully intelligent people are aware of their strengths and
weaknesses in the three areas of intelligence. They figure out how to capitalize on their strengths,
compensate for their weaknesses, and further develop their abilities in order to achieve success in
life.
4. Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence (Raymond Cattell and John Horn)
Fluid Intelligence -represents the biological basis of intelligence.
Crystallized Intelligence is the knowledge and skills obtained through learning and experience.
Two Major Factors that Influence Intelligence
a. Genetic Factors
b. Environmental Factors

Mental Retardation - disorder in which a persons overall intellectual functioning is well below average,
with an intelligence quotient (IQ) around 70 or less.
Down Syndrome - chromosomal disorder that results in mild to severe learning disabilities and physical
symptoms that include a small skull, extra folds of skin under the eyes, and a flattened nose bridge.
Savant Syndrome - disorder in which an individual displays exceptional mental gifts in one particular kind
of thought but is otherwise subnormal in intelligence.
Prodigies - children or youths with exceptional talents and are normal in other respects.









Learning, Thinking, Remembering

Learning a process which brings relatively permanent change in the individuals way of responding as a
result of practice and experience.
- A lifelong process and a universal experience.

Three Principal Factors Affecting the Rate of Human Learning
I. Those within the individual.
Five Categories which Influences Learning
A. Intelligence people with higher IQ, score high in intelligence tests, and learn things more rapidly.
B. Chronological Age beyond 50, there is a fairly sharp drop in the ability to learn new things.
C. Arousal and Motivation the learner must desire or intend to learn.
For learning to proceed efficiently, a subject must be wide awake and alert to the
environments stimuli.
Motivation in learning is very important in at least three ways:
1. It is a condition for eliciting behavior.
2. Motivation is necessary for reinforcement, which is an essential condition for learning.
Reinforcement a consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chances that it
will occur again.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) a kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus
acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by different stimuli.
Example: dog, meat, bell and salivation
a. Establishing Stimulus and Response.
Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response
(Food) (Salivation)
b. Establishing Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
(Ringing of a bell) Neutral Response
Unconditioned stimulus (Salivation)
(Food)
c. Testing for Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response
(Ringing of a bell) (Salivation)
3. Motivation controls the variability of behavior when learning a new habit; a motivated organism
will run into an extensive repertory of responses, one of which may be correct.
II. Methods of Learning learning process.
A. Classical Conditioning
B. Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner) also called instrumental conditioning.
- A kind of learning in which human performs some behavior and the following consequences (reward
and punishment) increase or decrease the chances that they will repeat to perform the same behavior
or response.
Operant Response a response that can be modified by its consequence and is a meaningful unit
of doing behavior that can be measured easily.
Punishment a consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chances that the
behavior will occur again.
Negative Reinforcement deprivation.
Avoidance learning a response to a cue is instrumental in avoiding a painful experience.
C. Cognitive Learning (Wolfgang Kohler) involves perception and knowledge necessary in order to learn
with understanding.
- Also known as insight learning.
Insight a mental process marked by sudden and expected solution to a problem.
o A phenomenon often called the Ah-ah experience.

Laws of Learning
E.L Thorndike learning occurs by establishment of responses (impulses) to action.
1. Law of Effect states that if the responses are rewarded and the reward is satisfying or pleasant, the
connection or behavior is strengthened.
- If the effect is unpleasant or annoying, the connection is weakened.
2. Law of Readiness stresses need motivation of learners through building up the proper background and
fostering the proper mind-set.
3. Law of Exercise states that the more connections are exercised, the stronger the connection become.
- Practice makes perfect.
- We learn by doing, we forget by not doing.

Memory ability of retaining information.
All learning implies retaining.

Three Processes of Memory
1. Encoding refers to making mental representations of information so that it can be placed in our
memory.
2. Storing the process of placing encoded information into a relatively permanent storage for later recall.
3. Retrieving process of getting or recalling information that has been placed into short-tem or long-term
storage.

Four Types of Memory
1. Sensory Memory refers to an initial process that receives and holds environmental information in its
raw form for a brief period of time, from an instant to several seconds.
2. Short-term Memory - also called working memory.
- Another process that can hold only a limited amount of information, an average of seven items for
only a short period of time.
3. Long-term Memory it refers to a process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long
periods of time.
4. Repressed Memory based on Freuds Theory of Repression.
Repression a mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening memories.

Forgetting inability to retrieve, recall or recognize information that was stored or is still stored in the long-
term memory.

Factors Affecting Forgetting
1. Poor Retrieval Cues
Retrieval Cues mental reminders that you create by forming vivid mental images of
information or associating new information that you already know.
2. Interference we forget information not because it is lost from storage but rather because related old
information or similar information gets in the way and mix up or block its retrieval.
Proactive occurs when old information (learned earlier) blocks or disrupts the remembering of
related new information (learned later).
Retroactive occurs when new information (learned later) blocks or disrupts the retrieval of
related old information (learned earlier).
3. Amnesia loss of memory that may occur after a blow or damage to the brain (temporary or permanent)
after drug use or after severe psychological stress.



























Emotional and Motivated Behavior

Motivation refers to the various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific way
at a particular time.

Three Characteristics
1. You are energized to do or engage in some activity.
2. You direct your energies toward reaching a specific goal.
3. You have differing intensities of feelings about reaching that goal.

Theories of Motivation
1. Instinct Theory motivation is the result of biological and genetic program.
William McDougall claimed that humans were motivated by a number of instincts.
Instincts innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior.
2. Drive-Reduction Theory says that a need results in a drive which is a state of tension that motivates
the organism to act to reduce the tension and return the body to homeostasis.
Need a biological state in which the organism lacks something essential for survival.
Drive a state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce the tension.
o Once the need is satisfied, the body returns to a more balanced state.
Homeostasis the tendency of the body to return to, and remain in, a more balanced state.
3. Incentive Theory explains that we are motivated by positive incentives such as praise, recognition and
rewards.
4. Cognitive Theory
Two Kinds of Motivation
a. Intrinsic Motivation involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors because engaging
in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations.
b. Extrinsic Motivation involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce
biological needs or help us obtain incentives or external rewards.

Biological and Social Needs
Biological Needs are physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-
being.
Social Needs are needs that are required through learning and experience.
a. Achievement Motive the need to excel.
b. Affiliation Motive the need for social bonds.
c. Nurturance Motive the need to nourish and protect others.
d. Autonomy Motive the need for independence.
e. Dominance Motive the need to influence or control others.
f. Order Motive the need for orderliness.
g. Play Motive the need for fun, relaxation.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
- Indicates that we satisfy our biological needs before we satisfy our social needs.
Abraham Maslow proposed that we satisfy our needs in a certain order or according to set hierarchy.
Level 1: Physiological Needs basic needs.
Level 2: Safety Needs protection from harm.
Level 3: Love and Belongingness Needs affiliation with others and acceptance by others.
Level 4: Esteem Needs achievement, competency, gaining approval and recognition.
Level 5: Self-Actualization fulfillment of ones unique potential.

Emotion can be defined in terms of four components:
1. You interpret or appraise some stimulus in terms of your well-being.
2. You have a subjective feeling such as fear or happiness.
3. You experience physiological responses.
4. You may show observable behaviors.

Functions of Emotions
1. Emotions motivate learning.
2. Emotions make life colorful.
3. Emotions give motives to our lives.
4. Emotions release tension and energy.
5. Emotions achieve signification.
6. Emotions inspire individuals to heights of glory.
7. Emotions accentuate the character traits of an individual.
8. Emotions determine the direction that the behavior will take.
9. Emotions affect many bodily processes.





















Personality

Came from the Latin term persona which means masks.
The arrangement or configuration of individual characteristics and ways of behaving that determine ones
unique adjustment to his environment.

Components of Personality
1. Habits reactions so often repeated as to become fixed characteristic or tendencies.
2. Attitudes certain ways of viewing things.
- It may be positive or negative, favorable or unfavorable, learned or acquired.
3. Physical Traits
4. Mental Traits ability to control the mind.
5. Emotional Traits give an individual the capacity to face different situations in life.
6. Social Traits the ability to get along with others.
7. Moral and Religious Traits standards for a persons actions and behavior.

Factors in Personality Development
1. Inherited Predisposition
2. Abilities
3. Family and Home Environment
4. Culture

Three Forces in the Study of Personality
1. Psychoanalysis/Psychoanalytic Approach the role of early experiences, the unconscious and emotions
in the shaping of personality.
a. Freudian Psychoanalysis
Three Structures of Personality
1. Id unconscious, governed by the pleasure principle.
2. Ego partly conscious, governed by the reality principle.
- Balances the id and superego.
3. Superego governed by the moral principle.
Defense Mechanisms conflict resolution strategies, refers to peoples unconscious ways of
dealing with conflict.
1. Repression the dismissal from consciousness of a thought or feeling which is too
painful to experience or recall.
2. Projection instead of accepting an impulse as ones own, one may attribute it to
someone else.
3. Identification an individual enhances self-esteem by behaving in fantasy or in actual
conduct as if he were another person the one with whom he identifies.
4. Reaction Formation concealing a motive by giving strong expression to the opposite.
5. Rationalization the process of justifying ones conduct by offering plausible or socially
acceptable reasons in place of real reasons.
Sour-Grapes Mechanism pretending to dislike what one really likes.
Sweet-Lemon Mechanism pretending to like what one really dislikes.
6. Denial helps a person cope with difficult circumstances such as illness in the family or
a philandering spouse.
7. Displacement used by individuals who shift unacceptable feelings from one object to
another, more acceptable object.
8. Sublimation occurs when the ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially
approved course of action.
9. Regression occurs when we revert back to the way we used to behave as younger
person.
b. Carl Jungs Depth Psychology
Collective Unconscious refers to the impersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind,
shared by all human beings because of our common ancestral past.
o Anima
o Animus
c. Alfred Adlers Individual Psychology
Adler believed in the capacity of an individual to consciously monitor and give direction to
his life.
Compensation developing of ones own abilities in order to overcome real or imagined
inferiorities.
Overcompensation
o Inferiority Complex an exaggerated feeling of weakness and inadequacy.
o Superiority Complex exaggerated self-importance, still mainly to mask very strong
feelings of inferiority.
d. Karen Horneys Socio-Cultural Modifications
The prime motivation among humans is the need for security.
Three strategies that are used by individuals in coping with lifes problems:
1. Moving towards people seeking love and support (being dependent).
2. Moving away from people (becoming more dependent).
3. Moving against people, becoming competitive and domineering (being aggressive).
2. Behaviorism/Behavioral Approach categorized as either based on associative learning or on social
learning constructs.
a. Associative Learning Approach
1. Ivan Pavlov and John Watson
Personality is the summation of behaviors learned by a person as he interacts with the
environment.
2. B.F. Skinner
Personality is a collection of observable and outward (overt) behaviors, all of which were
learned through a series of reward and punishment experiences.
b. Social Learning Theory Approach
1. John Dollard and Neal Miller
Tried to put together behaviorism and psychoanalysis in 1950.
2. Julian Rotter
Idea of Expectancy refers to the belief of a person that certain behaviors will probably
lead to the attainment of important goals.
3. George Kelly
Theory of Personal Constructs one must consider how the person views and constructs
the world as he experiences it.
4. Walter Mischel
Delay of Gratification the ability of an individual to delay immediate satisfaction for a
more desirable outcome in the near future.
5. Albert Bandura
We learn to behave in certain ways largely through imitation.
Concept of Self-Efficacy the individual believes that he can master a situation so that it
will lead to positive outcomes.
3. Phenomenological/Humanistic Approach
Phenomenology the unique view of the world held by a person, reality is what the individual
perceives.
Humanistic psychologists stress on our positive qualities, our human capacity for personal
growth and our freedom to choose our own destiny.
a. Carl Rogers
He believed strongly in the human potential to resiliently adapt, develop and become fully
functioning individual despite the constraints set by the environment.
Self-Concept refers to the individuals overall perceptions of his abilities, behavior and
personality.
Real-Self the self as a result of experiences.
The self the person would like to be.
b. Abraham Maslow
He believed that we all have needs and that they come in two forms:
1. Deficiency Needs related to individuals physiological needs and psychological needs.
2. Growth Needs/Metaneeds/Self-Actualizing Needs refers to higher needs for truth,
beauty, goodness, wholeness, vitality, uniqueness, perfection, justice, inner wealth and
playfulness.

Theories of Personality
1. Theory of Body Types (William Sheldon) relates personality with bodily constitution, health and
vigor.
a. Endomorphic Components means prominence of intestines and visceral organs and fats are in
proportion to height.
- Classified temperamentally as viscerotonic, such persons seek comfort, love to find food and eat too
much, sociable and are greatly interested in seeking affection.
b. Mesomorphic Components refer to bones and muscles.
- Classified temperamentally as somatotonic, such persons are energetic, like exercise and are direct in
manners; tend to be aggressive and self-assertive.
c. Ectomorphic Components individual tends to be long, thin and poorly developed.
- Classified temperamentally as cerebratonic, such persons are characterized by excessive restraints,
inhibition and avoidance of social contacts.
2. Theory Based on Body Built and Strength (Ernest Kretschmer)
a. Asthenic Types individuals who are thin, tall and emaciated.
b. Pyknic Type opposite of asthenic, can be called human ball.
c. Athletic Type between the asthenic and pyknic types who are extremes in body build.
- Strong and robust. ccccc
d. Dysplastic Type those persons who cant be classified among the three types above.
3. Psychological Type Theory (Carl Jung)
a. Introverted Individual tends to withdraw into himself in times of emotional stress and conflicts.
b. Extroverted Individual tends to b very sociable, well dressed and outgoing.
4. Theory Based on Body Chemistry, Endocrine Balance and Temperaments (Galen)
a. Sanguine warm-hearted and pleasant.
b. Phlegmatic listless, slow, unexcitable and calm.
c. Melancholic person who suffers from depression and sadness because of having too much black
bile.
d. Choleric person is easily angered or temperamental as influenced by his yellow bile.
5. Theory of Personality Based on Birth Order (Maxine Abraham)
- Stress that growing personality trait is attributed to family rank.
a. First Born are conscious, task-oriented and responsible, high achievers.
b. Middle Born are diplomatic and skillful in interpersonal relationships.
c. Later Born are very creative, charming and playful, very popular and often are spoiled.
d. Only Child very dependent but may enjoy a high sense of self-esteem and optimism.
6. Psychoanalytic Theory
7. Superiority and Compensation Theory
8. Trait Theory
Theory of Personal Dispositions (Gordon Allport)
a. Common Traits traits comparable among people and are appraised by comparing one with
another according to preferred values.
b. Personal Dispositions traits unique for the person.
1. Cardinal Disposition characteristics so pervasive influence all aspects of behavior.
2. Central Traits a few traits that centrally describe their personalities.
3. Secondary Traits traits expressing relatively isolated interests or modes of responding.

The Filipino Personality
1. Ningas Kugon starting something but not finishing it.
2. Maana Habit postponing for tomorrow what can be done today.
3. Bahala Na Filipino fatalism.
4. Hospitality solicitous welcome for visitors.
5. Utang Na Loob returning a favor with interest.
6. Strong Family Ties kinship relationship within a family.
7. Pakikisama giving in following lead or suggestion of another.
8. Smooth Interpesronal Relations most striking quality of pleasantness.
9. Itiya a kind of anxiety, a fear of being left, exposed, unprotected and unaccepted.