Page i of 15

BY: BY: Sabir Hussain. Sabir Hussain.

( sites.google.com/site/sabirhussainbiochemistry )
. (Human Physiology)
The cell is so small and so simple in appearance when viewed
with the ordinary microscope that is difficult to conceive that each cell
is living. Equally amazing is the fact that the physiology of our organs
and systems derive from the complex functions of the cells of which
they are composed. Complexity of function demands complexity of
structure even at sub-cellular level.
As the basic functional unit of the body each cell is a highly
organized molecular factory. Cells come in a great variety of shape and
sizes. !his great variation which is also apparent in the sub-cellular
structures within different cells reflect the variation of functions of
different cells in the body. All cells however share certain
characteristics--such as the fact that they are surrounded by a cell
membrane. !hus although no single cell can be considered "typical".
Page ii of 15
Cell Membrane : #ecause both the intracellular and
extracellular environments are aqueous a barrier must be present to
prevent the loss of cellular molecules such as enzymes nucleotides
and others that are water soluble. $ince this barrier cannot itself be
composed of water soluble molecules it ma%es sense that the cell
membrane is composed of lipids.
!here are many models that explain the structure and
function of cell membrane but the most acceptable one is &Fluid
Mosaic Model.
!he cell membrane and indeed all the membranes
surrounding organelles are primarily composed of phospholipids.
Phospholipids are polar on the end that contains the phosphate group
and non-polar 'and hydrophobic( through out the rest of molecule.
$ince there is an aqueous environment on each side of membrane the
hydrophobic parts of molecules huddle together in the centre of
membrane leaving the polar ends exposed to water on both surfaces.
!his results in formation of a double layer of phospholipids in the cell
membrane.
!he hydrophobic core of the membrane restricts the passage of water
and water-soluble molecules and ions. Certain of these polar
compounds however do pass through the membrane. !he specialized
functions and selective transport properties of the membrane are
believed to be due its protein content. Proteins are found partially
submerged on each side of the membrane completely from one side to
other. $ince the membrane is not solid-phospholipids and proteins are
free to move laterally-the protein within phospholipids sea are not
uniformly distributed but rather present in Mosaic Pattern. !his
structure is %nown as the fluid-mosaic model of membrane
structure. !he proteins found in the cell membrane serve a variety of
functions including)
1) structural support* ) transport of molecules across the membrane*
!) enzymatic control of chemical reactions at the cell surface* ")
receptors for hormones and other regulatory molecules that arrive at
the outer surface of the membrane* and 5) cellular &mar%ers+
'antigens( which identify the blood and tissue type.

,n addition to lipids and proteins the cell membrane also contains
carbohydrates which are primarily attached to the outer surface of
membrane as gl#coproteins and gl#colipids$ !hese surface
carbohydrates have many negative charges and as a result affect the
interaction of regulatory molecules with the membrane. !he negative
Page iii of 15
charges at the surface also affect the interaction between cells- they
help %eep red blood cells apart for example. $tripping the
carbohydrates from the outer red blood cell surface results in their
more rapid destruction by the liver spleen and bone marrow.

Page i% of 15
C#tos&eleton: !he -elly li%e matrix within a cell
'exclusive of that within the nucleus( is %nown as c#toplasm$ .hen
viewed in a microscope without special techniques the cytoplasm
appears to uniform and unstructured. According to recent evidence
however the cytoplasm is not a homogenous solution.* it is a rather a
highly organized structure in which protein fibers-in the form of
microtubules and microfilamentsare arranged in a complex latticewor%.
!hese can be seen by fluorescence microscopy with the aid of anti-
bodies against the proteins that compose these structures. !he
interconnected microfilaments and microtubules are believed to
provide structural organization for cytoplasmic enzymes and support
for various organelles. !he latticewor% of microfilaments and
microtubules is thus said to function as a c#tos&eleton$
!he structure of this &s%eleton+ is not rigid* it has been shown to be
capable of quite rapid reorganization. Contractile proteins/including
actin and m#osin which are responsible for muscle contraction/may
be able to shorten the length of some microfilaments. !he cytos%eleton
may thus represent the cellular &musculature+. 0icrotubules for
example form the spindle apparatus that pulls chromosomes away
from each other in cell division* they also form the central parts of cilia
and flagella.
Page % of 15
Page %i of 15
Page %ii of 15
Cellular Mo%ements: $ome body cells/including
certain white blood cells and macrophages in connective tissues and
microglial cells in the brain/are able to move li%e an amoeba'a single
celled animal(. !his &amoeboid+ movement is performed by the
extension of parts of the cytoplasm to form pseudopods which attach
to the substrate and pull the cell along. !hese cells/as well as liver
cells which are not capable of amoeboid movement/use pseudopods
to surround and engulf particles of organic matter 'such as bacteria(.
!his process is a type of cellular eating called phagocytosis.
Phagocytic cell surround their victim with pseudopods which -oin
together and fuse. After the inner membrane of the pseudopods forms
a continuous membrane barrier around the ingested particle it pinches
off from the cell membrane so that the ingested particle is contained
in a food vacuole within the cell. !he ingested particle will
subsequently be digested by enzymes contained in different organelle
'the l#sosome)$
Pinoc#tosis is a related process performed by many cells.
,nstead of forming pseudopods the cell membrane invaginates to
produce a deep narrow furrow. !he membrane near the surface of
furrow then fuses and a small vacuole containing extracellular fluid is
pinched off and enters the cells.
'ndoc#tosis and '(oc#tosis: !he processes by which part of
extracellular environment are brought into a cell by invagination of cell
membrane are called 'ndoc#tosis$ !here are three types of
Endocytosis) i) Phagoc#tosis ii) Pinoc#tosis ( #oth are previously
described ) iii) )eceptor-mediated 'ndoc#tosis$ ,n the third type
the interaction of very specific molecules in the extracellular fluid with
specific membrane receptor protein causes the membrane to
invaginate fuse and pinch off to form a vesicle/a small vacuole.
1esicles formed in this way contained extra cellular fluid and molecules
that could not have passed by other means into the cell.
Proteins and other molecules produced within the cell that are
destined for export are pac%aged inside of the cell within vesicles by an
organelle %nown as *olgi apparatus$
,n the process of '(oc#tosis+ these secretory vesicles fuse
with the cell membrane and release their contents into the
extracellular environment. !his process adds new membrane material
which replaces that which was lost from tha cell membrane during
Endocytosis.
&'ndoc#tosis and '(oc#tosis account for t,o-,a# traffic bet,een the
intracellular and e(tracellular compartments$ Most of this traffic is due to
membrane transport processes+ the mo%ement of molecules and ions
through the cell membrane22..
Page %iii of 15
Cilia and Flagella:
Cilia are tiny hair li%e structures that produce from the cell and li%e
the coordinated action of oarsmen in a boat stro%e in unison. Cilia in
human body are found on apical surface 'the surface facing the
lumen or cavity( of epithelial cells in the respiratory and female
genital tracts. ,n the respiratory system the cilia transport strands of
mucus which are then conveyed by ciliary action to a region 'the
pharynx( where mucus can either be swallowed or expectorated. ,n the
female genital tract ciliary movements in the epithelial lining are
believed to draw the egg into the uterine tube and move it toward the
uterus.
Flagella are possessed only by sperms in the human body. !he
flagellum is a single whipli%e structure that propels the sperms
through its environment. #oth cilia and flagella are composed of
microtubules arranged in a characteristic way. 3ine pairs of
microtubules in the periphery of cilium or a flagellum surround a single
pair of microtubules in the center.
-#sosomes: After a Phagocytic cell has engulfed the
proteins polysaccharides and lipids present in a particle of
&food+'such as bacteria( these molecules are still %ept isolated from
Page i( of 15
the cytoplasm by the membranes surrounding the food vacuole. !he
large molecules of protein polysaccharides and lipids must first be
digested into their smaller subunits'amino acids monosaccharides
and so on( before they can cross the vacuole membrane and enter the
cytoplasm.
!he digestive enzymes of a cell are isolated from the cytoplasm and
concentrated within membrane-bonded organelles called l#sosomes$
A primary lysosome is one which contains only digestive enzymes
'about forty different species( within an environment that is considered
more acidic than the surrounding cytoplasm. A primary lysosome may
fuse with the food vacuole'or with an other food cellular organelle( to
form a secondary lysosome in which worn-out organelles and the
products of phagocytosis can be digested. !hus a secondary lysosome
contains partially digested remnants of other organelles and ingested
organic material. A lysosome that contains undigested wastes is called
a residual body. 4esidual bodies may eliminate their wastes by
Exocytosis or the wastes may accumulate within the cell as the cell
ages.
Partly digested membranes of various organelles and other cellular
debris are often observed within secondary lysosomes . !his is a result
of autophag#+ a process that destroys worn-out organelles so that
they can continuously replaced. 5ysosomes are thus aptly referred to
as the &digestive system+ of the cell.
5ysosomes have also been called &suicide bags+ because a brea% in
their membranes would release their digestive enzymes and thus
destroys the cell. !his normally happens as part of programmed cell
death in which destruction of tissues is part of embryological
development. ,t also occurs in white blood cells during an inflammation
reaction.
Page ( of 15
Mitochondria: All cells in human body with the
exception of red blood cells contain hundreds to a few thousands
organelles called Mitochondria$ !hey serve as the site for the
production of most of the cellular energy for this they are also called
as po,er houses of the cell.
0itochondria vary in size and shape but all have same basic structure
and function. Each is surrounded by an outer membrane that is
separated by a narrow space from the inner membrane. !he inner
membrane has many folds called cristae, which extend into central
area'matrix( of the mitochondrion. !he matrix and cristae provide
Page (i of 15
different compartments in the mitochondrion and have different roles
in the generation of cellular energy.
0itochondria are able to migrate through the cytoplasm of a cell and
also they are able to reproduce themselves. ,ndeed mitochondrion
contains its own 63A7 !his a more primitive form of 63A than that
found within the cell nucleus. 8or these and some other reasons many
scientists believe that mitochondria evolved from separate organisms
related to bacteria which entered animal cells and remained in state of
symbiosis.
0itochondria also contain some F1 particles+ which play a very vital
role in the A!P synthesis.

'ndoplasmic )eticulum: 0ost cells a system
of membranes %nown as the endoplasmic reticulum, of which there are
two types) i) Rough or Granular Endoplasmic reticulum and ii)
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum.
A rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes on its surface and
a smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains no ribosomes. !he smooth
endoplasmic reticulum is used for a variety of purposes in cell* it
serves as a site for enzyme reactions in steroid hormone production
and in activation for example and as a site for the storage of Ca
99
in
striated muscle cells it also plays a role in detoxification. !he rough
endoplasmic reticulum is found in cells such as those of exocrine and
Page (ii of 15
endocrine glands that are active secretors of proteins. Proteins that
are to be used within the cell are produced in polyribosomes that are
free in the cytoplasm. ,f that protein is a secretory product of the cell
however it is made by m43A-ribosome complexes located in the
rough endoplasmic reticulum. !he membranes of this system enclose
fluid filled spaces 'cisternae( which the newly formed proteins may
enter.
.hen proteins that are destined for secretion are produced the first
thirty or so amino acids are primarily hydrophobic. !he leader
sequence is attracted to the lipid component of the membranes of E4.
As the polypeptide chain elongates it is &in-ected+ into cisternae within
the E4. !he leader sequence is in a sense an &address+ that directs
secretory proteins into E4. :nce the proteins are in cisternae the
leader sequence is removed so the protein cannot reenter the
cytoplasm.
*olgi .pparatus:
Page (iii of 15
*olgi .pparatus
A ma-or organelle in most eu%aryotic cells is the structure of
membrane-bound sacs called the ;olgi apparatus 'or ;olgi body ;olgi
complex dictyosome(. ,t acts to process and pac%age the
macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the
cell. ,t has been li%ened to the cell<s post office. A ma-or function is the
modifying sorting and pac%aging of proteins for secretion. ,t is also
involved in the transport of lipids around the cell and the creation
of lysosomes.
!he sacs or folds of the ;olgi apparatus are called cisternae. !ypically
there are five to eight cisternae but as many as sixty have been
observed. !he cisternae stac% has five functional regions) the cis-;olgi
networ% cis-;olgi medial-;olgi trans-;olgi and trans-;olgi networ%.
1esicles from the endoplasmic reticulumfuse with the cis-;olgi networ%
and subsequently progress through the stac% to the trans-;olgi
networ% where they are pac%aged and sent to the required
destination. Each region contains different enzymes which selectively
modify the contents depending on where they are destined to reside.
!he main function of ;olgi apparatus is to carry out the processing of
proteins generated in endoplasmic reticulum. ,t also helps in the
transportation of lipids around cells and in the creation of the
lysosomes
Page (i% of 15
A5$: $EE !=,$)
'#> $A#,4 =?$$A,3 8:40A3,!E(
Page (% of 15