1

COURSE STRUCTURE

FOR MEDIA ETHICS

EDUCATION

WITH REFERENCE TO GHANA

By
Bernice Agyekwena
 2

INTRODUCTION

An article in the ‘West Africa’ magazine once said the role of journalists in most African

countries has been reduced to that of praise singers.1 Frankly, this confusion between the

role of journalists and the praise singers of African traditional authorities is not far

fetched. In the past, the village crier who used to carry news from the chief to his subjects

by the use of the ‘tom-tom’ drum was also a praise singer at the chief’s palace. The writer

of the article was criticizing the tendency for journalists in some African countries, which

were then under military rule, to tune their articles in favor of the military junta. This was

done for several reasons, ranging from fear as a result of intimidation to downright

‘licking of the boots of the masters’ in return for certain favors. Amongst African

journalists, this tendency is often justified by the saying, ‘he who pays the piper calls the

tune’. According to this way of thinking, journalists are to be at the ‘beck and call’ of the

powers that be, swaying their articles to accommodate whatever tune they are called to

play.

At the other end of the spectrum are the journalists who would castigate any one who is

not in their good books, whether the facts of the story in question are accurate or not.

Most often, these journalists are too overjoyed to hear negative news about their enemies

and go straight to print the news without crosschecking. Personal biases and unexamined

prejudice thus takes precedence over objectivity.

Besides these two factors, there is still a third factor in African journalism or rather

Ghanaian journalism that readers find wanting. A reader of the Daily Graphic, the largest

circulating daily newspaper in Ghana, once wrote a letter to the editor in which he

criticized Ghanaian journalists, saying, ‘the Ghanaian journalist conception of news is

1
West Africa Magazine, November 1992, 7
 3

always what somebody has said’2. Obviously, this reader was fed up with the politician-

centered type of journalism that dominates Ghanaian media with the reporters reporting

on almost anything that the president and his ministers say. The commissioning of a

clinic at a village by the Minister of Health becomes a ‘write up’ of the ministers speech

with no background story on the state of health of the villagers before the clinic was built,

whether the clinic has been well equipped with medical facilities or not and whether there

are enough medical staff to man it. This reader wanted something different, perhaps an

analysis of the news event rather than what was said by the politician at the event.

In fact, the sentiments expressed by this reader were also pin- pointed out by James

Carey, a Communication expert, who said, the heavy use of officials and experts as

sources and attributions in journalism as is being practiced today results in stories that

describe events with little analysis and which rely upon polls and statistics to show social

trends without providing any historical context. Thus it provides no vehicle for

expression for ordinary people at the grass roots level.3’

Whilst the village criers of the past can be said to be the first generation of journalists in

Africa in terms of spreading the news, modern journalists, unlike the traditional village

criers are not praise singers. In addition, journalism is too noble a profession to be turned

into a vendetta for settling personal scores. Neither is it the mere parroting of what

politicians say.

So what needs to be done to separate the role of the modern journalists from that of the

praise singers of the past, to rescue it from sinking into a ‘mafia like vendetta machinery’

and the mere repetition of the views of politicians?

2
Daily Graphic, February 2, 1995, page 5
3
Hermant, Shah, 2000, page 2
 4

It is here that media ethics come into play. They serve as a ‘lamp unto the feet of

journalists and a light unto their path’.

MEDIA ETHICS, POLITICS AND JOURNALISTS

Media ethics is especially crucial in what seems to be a growing partnership between

politicians and some media practitioners. In an article entitled ‘Journalism and Politics do

not mix’ in the Ghana Catholic Standard, the writer of the article decried how media

practitioners leave their practice to take up political appointments and then back to media

practice4. According to this writer, this back and forth movement between politics and

journalism by some media practitioners is detrimental to journalism. In Ghana, following

the election of Dr John Agyekwum Kuffour into office in the 2001 presidential elections,

two prominent journalists, Mr. kabral Blay Amihere and Elisabeth Ohene, a former

correspondent of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) were given political

appointments.

One female journalist stood as a member of parliament and won in the same elections

whilst two other reporters were promptly drafted into the press office of the new vice-

president, Mr. Aliu Mahama after the 2001 elections. The ethical question here is did

these journalists use their office to enhance the image of the elected president in return

for political favors? Were their criticisms of former President, Jerry John Rawlings,

carried out in the interest of the common good or it was to promote the image of their

political allies?

But this situation is not peculiar to Ghana. Bill Hill, editorial page editor of the ‘Morning

Tribune’ in the United States returned to his post after 16 months as Press Secretary for

Idaho Senator, Frank Church. James E. Shelly, Executive Editor of the same paper was
4
Catholic Standard, February 2002, page 7
 5

campaigning coordinator for a Democratic senate candidate in 19725. These situations

raise ethical questions because the performance of certain public roles is contradictory to

the practice of journalism. The good to be achieved as a journalist is the publication of

news as free from bias as possible. Good citizenry on the other hand is the social service

that comes from responsible citizenship. The question then is whether journalist should

sacrifice their role as contributing citizens in order to be journalists, or whether the

conflicts in this case are more apparent than real’

A more serious case of the growing partnership between journalists and politicians are

the allegations being leveled at some media houses such as the Cable News Network

(CNN) in the aftermath of the Iraq war where it is alleged that the American press and the

army fought the war. These allegations stem from what the press might have reported or

not reported before, during, and after the war6.

Whilst taking up certain social roles may lead to conflicts with journalistic practice,

absolute withdrawal from all social roles may create social isolation for media

practitioners, the loss of leads to important news items and also frustrate the desire of

journalists for self-fulfillment outside journalistic cycles.

This calls for the implementation of a code of ethics that neither denies the journalist‘s

pursuit of an active social life nor allows their social commitments to influence their

stories.

Furthermore, in an Internet article entitled ‘Journalism in an Age of Mass Media

Globalization’, the author, Hermant Shah, said because commercialized mass media

needs large audiences to survive financially, news, deemed potentially displeasing to

5
Christians, Clifford G. (1995), 42
6
ibid
 6

certain segments of the audience are eliminated7. Information that questions the status

quo, and offers alternative views and oppositional voices are not heard thus reducing the

potential for journalism to nurture society.

Commenting on the same issue, James Carey, a communication expert, said, the kind of

journalism being practiced today is ‘ precisely the type of journalism that serves the

interest of the owners of the global mass media firms because it avoids asking deeper

questions about the exercise of power, the dispensation of social justice, and the

prospects for cultural survival’8.

This situation brought about by the globalization of the mass media also raises ethical

questions.

WHAT IS MEDIA ETHICS

Media Ethics are guidelines that provide the framework under which the news gathering,

news presentation, entertainment and advertising activities of journalists are dispensed

with a sense of social responsibility. The emphasis is on truth, liberty, public service, the

promotion of cultural dialogue and the promotion of democracy. They stem from the

belief that the press should serve the public good, should tell the truth at all times, should

promote development and should be socially responsible to its readers and to the

community in which it operates. Media ethics provide a framework for thinking and

reacting ethically to everyday issues that warrant being reported. This is because the

desire to report issues as soon as they occur forces journalists to make ethical decisions

by reflex rather than by reflection. It is therefore necessary to have a code of ethics in

7
Hemant, Shah, 2000, page 4
8
ibid
 7

order to enhance the decision making capacity of journalists on stories that pose ethical

questions9. Media ethics touch on the three pillars of all media functions; to report, to

advertise, and to entertain. In all these areas, deception, economic temptation and

sensationalism make an ethical guide indispensable.

MEDIA ETHICS EDUCATION

Media ethics education is an attempt to inculcate journalists with the values enshrined in

media ethics in a bid to equip them to carry out their news gathering and presentation

activities with an element of social responsibility. In this regard, any media ethics

educational programme should incorporate principles governing news gathering as to

how to make the distinction between the public right to know and the privacy of those

affected. Journalists should know at what point it is in the interest of the public good to

publish stories that may be distressing to some individuals.

Should the kind of news published be based on the power of the readership or audience

to attract advertisements thus marginalizing certain groups of people because they are not

the targets of advertisements? Or should they be based on the need to inform and educate

ignorant and financially deprived groups of people? How does the media house try to

balance the need to survive by attracting advertisements with the need to inform and

educate? Which news sources should be taken seriously and when is it right to disclose

the source of a story? When should a media house take the extreme decision of planting

a disguised journalist in an institution in order to get information? Should media houses

accept free trips? If accepted how should such stories be written to reflect objectivity?

9
Christians, Clifford G, (1995) 43
 8

How should issues such as violence be portrayed in the media? How far should semi-

nude and nude pictures be used? What should be done to avoid stories that stereotype

women, minority groups, etc, without losing a story’s objectivity? Which kind of

advertisement s and entertainment are acceptable?

Since the media is all-pervasive and brings every aspect of life under scrutiny, this

presents a big challenge.

PROBLEM DEFINITION - JOURNALISM AND MEDIA ETHICS IN GHANA

Ethical problems in relation to journalism in Ghana range from issues as simple as what

is the definition of news and how it should be covered to the current romance between

some journalists and politicians.

Most often, journalists find it difficult to distinguish between what is news and what is

sales promotion or the promotion of the image of institutions and organizations.

Journalists find themselves playing the role of public relations officers by covering events

whose sole aim is to promote the image of some organizations.

Linked to this phenomenon is the issue of ‘soli’ (solidarity), the acceptance of monies

supposed to cater for the transport of journalists after covering assignments. Most

journalists will argue that to give money or gifts to a journalist after he has covered an

assignment is not unethical since it is normal in Ghanaian culture to give ‘cola’ to visitors

and gifts to express appreciation. The issue is when does a gift become a bribe and do

these gifts influence the story of the journalists?

Another serious problem is the way some journalists allow their political affiliations to

influence how they deal with stories on politics and politicians. Rallies and other political
 9

events organized by political parties which the journalist does not sympathize with may

receive less space and air time whilst those of political parties he is loyal to may receive

more than the necessary amount of air time and space.

In the areas of advertising and entertainment, self-censorship of the media has ensured

that excesses in these areas are at a minimum but not completely eliminated.

THE COURSE STRUCTURE

The envisaged media ethics course covers seven lessons designed for media practitioners

over a two -week period. Each lesson would be followed by a practical application of the

media problem being examined and participants are expected to go out into the field and

gather stories and other issues using ethics as a governing principle. This is to enable

students to grasp the theoretical aspect of media ethics as well its application to the

practice of journalism.

LESSON I MEDIA ETHICS AND NEWS.

On news coverage, journalists should first seek to clarify the following within a

framework of acceptable ethics10.

1. Journalists should first address the definition of what is news.

2. They should choose which values are most crucial and relevant to the news.

3. They should choose the principles which govern these values.

4. They should be able to decide the loyalties being served by the principles they

have chosen.

10
Bertrand, Jean Claude,(2000) 16
 10

1. Journalists definition of what is news

The choice of what is news should be based on the traditional properties of news.

News is current information which is out of the ordinary and which is of interest to

the general public. News is relative. What is news at the community level may not be

news at the national level. News is also influenced by culture and societal values. For

instance in Ghana nobody lifts an eyebrow when rumors go round that the president is

having an affair because polygamy is accepted and society does not sanction men

who have affairs outside their marital homes. But President Bill Clinton’s alleged

affair with Monika Lewinsky was considered a serious issue by Americans meriting

an investigation. In Ghana, such an issue does not merit coverage by the respectable

media though it may appear in what is called the ‘Gutter press’. Thus, to shelf a piece

of information that the President of Ghana is having an affair is no crime whereas in

America to shelve such information is unethical. Hence what is news as well as what

is unethical is dependent on the cultural framework and societal values. For many

cultures, shooting a monkey that invades one’s kitchen and eats all the available food

for the kids in the family is not news. But for the people of Effia Nkwanta in Ghana

where it is a taboo to kill a monkey because they are considered to be sacred, it is big

news.

2. Choosing values that are most crucial and relevant to the news.

With the above example, what value would govern the report that a sacred monkey

has been killed? Since killing of monkeys is a taboo, the values that will govern this

story are the fact that a cultural and traditional norm has been broken through an act
 11

of disobedience. The killing of the monkey is of interest to the people of Effia

Nkwanta.

3. Choosing the principles that govern the value.

The principles that govern the value is that it is a crime to kill a sacred monkey in

Effia Nkwanta.

4. Choosing loyalties

In choosing to report that a farmer has shot a monkey, the reporter is being loyal to

the community, the culture and traditions of Effia Nkwanta. On the other hand, the

reporter can choose to sympathize with the farmer and shelve the story.

This simple example illustrates how media ethics comes into play. However, it is

peculiar to only a small community in Ghana and is not governed by universal ethics.

But supposing the farmer did not shoot a monkey but a child and pleads with the

reporter not to report it.

Will the reporter do the following?

1. Accept to keep quite for the sake of friendship.

2. Take money and refuse to write the story

3. Shelve the story because he is hoping for some future gain from the farmer.

4. Go ahead and write the story even though it will sever his relationship with the

farmer and bring him displeasure from the farmer’s family.

Here, in order to arrive at an ethical solution to the problem, it is best to choose which

option reflects the journalist’s social responsibility to society.

 12

LESSON II - THEORIES OF THE PRESS IN RELATION TO SOCIAL

ETHICS

1. The Authoritarian theory

2. The Libertarian theory

3. The Soviet theory

4. Social Responsibility theory.

It is evident that each of the press theories approaches the issues of social ethics from

a different perspective.

Whereas the Authoritarian theory will rely solely on the paternalistic censorship of

the media to reduce excesses and implement what is considered ethical and beneficial

for the common good, the Libertarian theory beliefs in providing the public with a

wide range of information with the view that they possess the ability to discern and

accept what is good for them.

For the Soviet theory, what is ethical is what benefits the working class and falls in

line with the teachings of Marxist Leninist communism which helps in building a

classless society. What should be borne in mind and one distinguishing characteristic

of what is considered ethical in the Soviet press is the fact that the good of the state is

always held over and above the good of the individual. The individual virtually has

no personal rights.

This is not the case with the Social Responsibility Theory, which makes the journalist

accountable to his audience. The individual has rights, which should be respected, but

these rights should not override the public good. Neither should the personal rights of

individuals allow them to trample over others for as the old saying goes ‘your
 13

freedom ends where your neighbor’s nose begins”. Hence, it is from the point of

view of the social responsibility of the media in maintaining and respecting the rights

of individuals as well as uplifting the public good that this course on media ethics is

being implemented.

LESSON III ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

Apart from a sound grounding and practice of the Social Responsibility Theory, there

is the need for the reporter to grasp certain ethical principles that can be applied to

news gathering and coverage. These principles when borne in mind help the journalist

to arrive at an ethical position on news items that may be controversial.

Aristotle’s Golden Mean11

This states that ‘moral theory is an appropriate location between two extremes.’ By

his principle of the mean, Aristotle meant that moral virtues are a mean between two

extremes, the one involving excess and the other deficiency.

In relation to journalism, the two extremes are keeping silent over an issue or writing

everything about it. Under this principle, both extremes are considered vices. In

journalism, keeping silent and shelving a potential news event is almost always

unethical except in a few cases when for instance the security of the state might be

compromised by the news item. On the other hand, not everything about a news event

is necessary for public consumption but only the salient points.

Kant’s Categorical Imperative.

This states that one should ‘Act on that maxim which you will to become a universal

law’. According to this theory, right is right and must be done even under the most
11
Christinas, Clifford, (1995) 9
 14

extreme conditions. In this vein, some actions such as cheating, coveting and

dishonesty are universally accepted to be wrong. On the other hand virtues such as

honesty, truth, charity, generosity are universally accepted values and are always

right. Since both negative and positive things make news, issues in which the vanity

or dark side of humanity is expressed such as murder is always news just as issues

which highlight the positive side of man such as rescuing a child from a fire at one’s

own risk is also news. In the same vein, the journalist is expected to avoid dishonesty

ether by addition or subtraction of facts.

Mills Principle of Utility.

This ethical Law states that one should ‘seek the greatest happiness for the greatest

number’. The reasoning behind this ethical law is that right and wrong should be

weighed by the number of people who will benefit best from an issue. Hence, the

morally right alternative produces the greatest number of good over evil. When

applied to journalism, news must be published if it promotes the interest of the

public at the displeasure of a few individuals.

Raul’s veil of ignorance.

This ethical principle states that ‘Justice emerges when negotiating without social

differentiation.’ Applied to journalism, it simply means that the journalist should put

himself in the role of the public, the audience, those affected by the news item or

simply all players concerned on a particular news item in order to come to a

conclusion as to whether he will consider himself as treated justly or unjustly by the

publication of a particular news item if he were in the shoes of any particular player.
 15

This ethical principle seems to fall in line with the adage “do to others only what you

yourself would want others to do unto you’

Judeo-Christian Persons as Ends.

Moral norms have always been enshrined in religion. The popular Judeo-Christian

teaching that ‘Love your neighbour as yourself’ is normative in the sense that its

practical application entails a responsibility towards ourselves, others and society. It

teaches the placing of the interest of others over and above our own interest. When

applied to journalism, it means will the media consider how much money it is

making, as criteria for its activities or it will put the interest of the public before its

interest. For instance, will a media house continue to carry advertisements on

cigarettes because of the money it makes or will it stop carrying such advertisements

because it is concerned about the number of people who are dying from lung cancer.

LESSON IV JOURNALISM AND MORAL DUTIES

Journalists sometimes find themselves in situations where upholding the rights of one

individual, organisation or social group or even the media house may trample on the

rights of others. What should be borne in mind to enable the journalist to arrive at an

ethical decision in the face of conflicting loyalties and values.

The Journalist Duty to himself.

Within each individual lies a conscience and insight that can sometimes serve as a

beam when one is confronted with a confusing situation. Within a journalist who has
 16

allowed his conscience to grow, it may serve as the best guide in the midst of

confusion.12

Duty to clients, subscribers and supporters.

It may be necessary for media houses to consider the interest and good of their

readership or viewers when carrying out their activities in view of the symbiotic

relationship that exists between the two groups. Media houses need audiences as

much as the audiences need them. If there were no people to read newspapers or

watch television there will be no point for the media to exist. Hence, to continue to

publish items that render a disservice to the audience is more or less like ‘biting off

the hand that feeds you’

Duty to employers

In so far as being loyal to ones organisation does not compromise the public good, it

is better for the journalists to make decision in their favour, even if such decisions

involve the dismissal of some individuals or the protection of sources.

Duty to professional colleagues.

Whilst competition and rivalry is characteristic of the journalistic profession because

media houses try to outdo each other in news gathering and presentation, the survival

instinct intricate to all humans also breeds unity and loyalty amongst journalists. This

is to be expected because in view of the many enemies that journalist make in the

course of their profession, they normally have no one but fellow colleagues to fall on

in times of trouble. Loyalty to other colleagues is thus a cherished rule of the game of

journalism for ‘united we stand, divided we fall’.

12
Fink, Conrad C. (1988) 48
 17

Duty to Society.

Since journalist pride themselves as being the ‘watchdogs of society’, it is important

that they live up to their duty to society. Thus, the interest of the public should

override all other interests. But who ‘watches over the watchdog’ to ensure that it

lives up to its responsibility? Applied social ethics under the umbrella of social

responsibility ensures that this is done.13

LESSON V HOW TO SOURCE AND HANDLE NEWS SOURCES

When discussing the issue of sourcing and handling news sources, the story of the

late David Kelly, British government scientist and Iraq weapons expert comes into

mind. Was the BBC story on Britain’s involvement in the recent war in Iraq phrased

or interpreted the same way as the Late David Kelly said it?

Was part of the information off record but later used in the story? Did the source

know that he was going to be quoted? All these pose ethical questions since journalist

are obliged to let their sources know when they want to use information gained from

them as news.

Journalist are obliged to honour information given ‘off record’ by leaving them out of

the main story. In addition stories of a highly controversial nature such as the one

used by the BBC are better left unwritten than written without a source.

LESSON VI - ADVERTISING AND MEDIA ETHICS

13
Fink, Conrad.(1988) 49
 18

Advertising by its nature is bias information and aims on playing on the good

qualities of a product whilst playing down its potential negative effects in a bid to

attract consumers. Advertising therefore is normally beset with exaggerated

differences in order to promote the sales of certain brands among a wide range of

goods. Sins of omission, where the negative sides of goods are eliminated from an

advertisement, are unfair to the public.14.

Carrying out advertisements with a sense of social responsibility results in a lot of

conflicts between the wishes of the advertiser and the public since the advertisers aim

is to persuade whilst social responsibility aims at dialogue in order to arrive at a

mutual understanding. However, the following points will help ensure that advertising

is carried out with a sense of prudence.

1. Is the product being advertised beneficial to the general public? If not, it may be

wise not to carry the advertisements, as is the case with the banning of cigarette

advertisement on Ghana television. On the other hand, the advertisements may be

carried with the inclusion of a health warning pointing out the adverse effects as

is the case with advertisements on tobacco in magazines.

2. As far as possible, the beneficial claims of products should be as near to the truth

as possible.

3. Advertisements should be devoid of all forms of stereotypes.

4. Advertisements should not promote values and concepts that are contrary to

national values and norms. For instance an advertisement by the Ghana National

Lotteries, which depicted one of Ghana’s beauty queens skimpily dressed and

14
Frost, Chris. (2000) 35
 19

dancing, was held to be in poor taste by most Ghanaians because they considered

such acts contrary to the role of a national role model.

5. Advertisements should avoid all forms of ridicule of certain social, religious or

ethnic groups and should not have tribal undertones.

6. Advertisements should avoid linking certain qualities such as intelligence to

certain products. For instance, in Ghana, an advertisement on Blue band

magerine, which was being promoted by Lever Brothers LTD, was banned

because it said children who consume blue band magerine become more

intelligent. There was a public outcry because teachers and parents did not want

school children to think they will not be intelligent because they do not consume

blue band margerine. An editorial in the ‘Daily Graphic’ on the advertisement

said it would have a detrimental psychological effect on the high percentage of

Ghanaian children living in the villages who do not consume blue band magerine.

It was promptly taken off the screens. This demonstrates the social responsibility

of the media to the public.

LESSON VII - ENTERTAINMENT AND MEDIA ETHICS

Since programmes meant to entertain the public also perform the duel role of informing

and educating, much attention should be paid to the contents of entertainment

programmes. Programmes meant to entertain may take the form of drama, music, dance,

and acrobatic performances. Generally, good entertainment programmes should contain

elements that educate and encourage the public to choose virtue over vices by portraying
 20

the negative consequences associated with vices. Good should triumph over evil, truth

over falsehood, and hard work over laziness.

Unfortunately, most popular films include a good amount of sexual promiscuity, extra

marital sex and violence, which seem to tell the youth that such practices are all right.

The lyrics of most popular music tend to emphasize so much on sex, equating it with

love, which is misleading since sex and love are not the same.

In Ghana, much has been done to ‘clean up the screens’ through censorship of films

which have been rated according to the level of explicit sexual material and violence that

it portrays. Generally, locally produced films rarely contain explicit sexual material. The

same however cannot be said about local music. Most Ghanaian musicians sing about

love and sex. However, not only do songs on sex dominate the airwaves but the words are

so explicit that there is virtually no difference between listening to the lyrics of some of

these songs and watching a pornographic film. Yet they continue to be sung on the

airwaves with impunity. Worse of all, most of these ‘sex laden music’ consist of very

simple tunes that are easily memorised by even children and sung everywhere.

Considering the fact that not only what we see or read about but the words we sing and

hear also shapes our mentality, efforts should be made to screen the type of music that are

sung on Radio and television stations.

The following rules should help the media in Ghana to take a giant step towards

providing entertainment that is wholesome for all Ghanaians.

1. Films that are X-rated and contain explicit sexual material and violence should be

screened at only late hours for adults.

 21

2. Films meant for the youth and children should depict other youth and children

undertaking constructive steps to resolve their personal problems.

3. Music containing lurid description of sex should not be used on radio and

television stations during the day but restricted to only late hours for adults.

4. Entertainment programmes, whether music, film or otherwise, which ridicule

some ethnic groups or religions should not be aired on national airwaves.

LESSON VIII - TOWARDS A NEW APPROACH TO RESPONSIBLE

JOURNALISM

In view of the globalisation of the Mass Media, some schools of thought have

recommended principles for an alternative journalism in response to this trend. Such

an approach requires specific reporting strategies that move away from the

shortsighted myopic definitions of news and how to cover it. This school of thought

sees objectivity as enshrined in the current coverage of news as a myth, which should

be replaced by a new view, which sees the reporter as an integral part of, and

involved in the community on which he reports.

This new strategy is as follows:15

Prevailing Model Emancipatory Model

Focus of story Events Process

Primary sources Officials Ordinary people

Writing style Factual Interpretative

Legitimacy Science Grounded Knowledge

15
Hermant, Shah, (2000) page 7
 22

The emancipatory model of journalism appears to carry the social responsibility of

the press further by urging journalist to interpret and analyse events rather than the

mere presentation of facts. This model is of the view that the ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’

‘whom’ and ‘where’ accounts of news have been over emphasized to the detriment of

the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of news stories.

As a result, the news consumer is confronted with a numbing array of stories about

political scandals, celebrity divorces, natural disasters, and official pronouncements.

According to Shah Hermant, one of the propounders of the emancipatory model of

journalism, the present model of journalism produces news stories that do not provide

society with the relevant information for decision making. Neither do they establish

the relationship between current news items and deliberations on public affairs.

Further more, this kind of news presentation does not offer consumers recognition of

shared values upon which to base their decisions on issues related to the civic life of

their community.

Hence, it does little to facilitate deliberations and discussions of pressing social

concerns of the day amongst news consumers.

The emancipatory model of Journalism enhances the social responsibility of the

media through the following ways,16

1. With the emancipatory model, journalist rely not only on experts and officials but

on ordinary local people with a grounded knowledge of the issues they are

covering therefore broadening the base of news gathering and making it more

democratic.

16
Herman, Shah, (2000) page 9
 23

2. It encourages reform by keeping problems related to development on the agendas

of policy makers so that they can take action leading to social change.

3. It encourages action by providing information that makes people aware of social

services, opportunities and problems that need attention.

4. Readers can act immediately and personally on information relevant to their

needs.

5. Emancipatory journalism makes explicit efforts to promote reform and encourage

social action by interpreting the meaning and significance of the ‘facts of the

case’ rather than letting the facts speak for themselves.

Since the emancipatory approach to journalism is holistic and people oriented, it

follows that it will operate within higher social ethics than is presently done and

replace the dry and mechanical recitation of facts with evaluation and interpretation.

CONCLUSION.

In conclusion, social ethics are not static but are continually being evolved and

purified in the light of new revelation on human nature and scientific discoveries,

which in turn determine the values of society. Hence, social ethics have varied from

generation to generation.

During the era of the slave trade, it was considered normal to buy and sell human

beings who were consequently reduced to the status of ‘a beast of burden’. However,

in the light of the universal human rights put forward by the United Nations, not only
 24

is slavery criminal but the maltreatment of any human being is an infringement on

human values.

And since when did children have rights in America and Europe, where parents can

be tried for abusing their children? This is also a recent phenomenon. In the past,

children did not have universal rights but their parents more or less considered them

their own property and treated them the way they wanted without interference from

government. Parents, not government determined the rights of their children. The old

saying that, “Children are seen and not heard” bears witness to this fact.

Another example is the issue of female genital mutilation (FGM) that has moved

from a highly priced social practice to the category of abuse and discrimination

against women. In the past, women in societies that practiced female genital

mutilation considered it a pride and were honoured by their families for going

through this painful process.

But today, as a result of education and the empowerment of women and scientific

evidence that the practise is detrimental to the health of women, they have kicked

against the practice, which is now considered an evil to humanity.

The above examples all point to the fact that social ethics are in a continuous process

of evolution and what is deemed ethical today may not be deemed ethical tomorrow.

This calls for a thorough re-examination of our so-called ethical values from time to

time to ensure that they really meet the needs of society and reflect the dignity of the

human being.
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BIBLIOGHRAPHY

Bertrand, Jean Claude. (2000): Media Ethics and Accountability Systems. New

Brunswick: Transaction Publishers

Christians, Clifford G. (1995): Media Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning. White

Plains: Longman.

Fink, Conrad C. (1988): Media Ethics in the Newsroom and Beyond. New York:

McGraw-Hill

Friedrick S. Siebert, Theodore Perterson, Wilbur Schramn . (2005) Four Theories of

the Press: The Authoritarian, Libertarian, Social Responsibility and Soviet Comunist

Concepts. University of Ilinois Press

Frost, Chris. (2000): Media Ethics and Self Regulation. Harlow: Longman

Hermant, Shah, (2000) Journalism in an Age of Mass Media Globalization. Internet

People’s Daily Grapic, Grahic Coperation, Ghana.

Ghana Television News, August 2000.