IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 21, NO.

3, MAY 2006

693

Active Attenuation of Electromagnetic Noise in an

Inverter-Fed Automotive Electric Drive System
Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski, Fellow, IEEE

AbstractElectromagnetic noise, typical for systems with

switching power converters, is especially troublesome in automotive electric drive systems because of the multitude of sensitive
electronic equipment onboard of modern cars. To satisfy the
relevant engineering norms, passive radio-frequency (RF) filters
must be installed in the power electronic part of a drive. The RF
filters add to the cost and size of the drive, which car designers
strive to minimize to increase the passenger space. In this paper,
active attenuation of the electromagnetic noise by means of the
so-called random-delay pulse width modulation is described in
application to an inverter-fed automotive ac drive. Based on
computer simulations and experimental investigation, this simple
and inexpensive method is shown to be highly effective.
Index TermsAutomotive drives, electromagnetic noise, filters,
pulse width modulation (PWM).

I. INTRODUCTION

LECTROMAGNETIC noise is generated in electric drive

systems as a result of switching operation of the power
electronic converter feeding the motor. Considering the level of
saturation of modern cars with various control and communication devices, the noise poses a serious threat to undisturbed
operation of the car. In an electric or hybrid automobile, the current noise in cables connecting the battery and the converter is
especially troublesome, because the cables act as antennas and
radiate the resultant electromagnetic noise throughout the small
and enclosed space of the vehicle. Relevant engineering standards limit the allowable maximum levels of the conducted and
radiated noise within specified frequency ranges. A given standard also specifies the type of the noise considered, that is, depending on the type of a detector employed, the average, peak,
or quasipeak values of the noise are subjected to the limitations.
Radio-frequency (RF) filters are most commonly used for reduction of the electromagnetic interference (EMI). The filters,
which are simple inductive-capacitive networks, constitute passive means of noise attenuation. In the context of continuous efforts to cut down the volume and cost of automotive drives, elimination or size reduction of the filters is a worthy engineering
objective.
In this paper, an active approach to electromagnetic noise mitigation is described. It is based on the addition of a random
factor to the switching pattern of the power electronic converter.
In this way, most of the harmonic power in the frequency spectra
Manuscript received February 21, 2005; revised October 26, 2005. Recommended by Associate Editor J. Shen.
The author is with the Electrical Engineering Department, University of
Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0153 USA (e-mail: chin@engr.unr.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2006.872368

of voltage and current is transferred to the continuous power

density. As a result, the spectra are flattened, significantly reducing the required degree of attenuation of the noise by the RF
filters, which can thus be greatly reduced too. Computer simulations and the results of an experimental investigation illustrate
advantages of the proposed method.
II. BACKGROUND
There exist many national and international engineering
standards on electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, most of
which became European Norms (EN), are the most influential.
U.S. organizations involved in EMC product standards include
the Federal Communication Commission (FCC), The IEEE,
Inc., and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
[1]. EMC testing of novel electric and electronic products is
required in order to ensure the immunity of individual devices,
as well as the safety of other equipment within the reach of
electromagnetic effects of the tested product. Electromagnetic
disturbances causing the EMI can be classified as noise, impulses, and transients. They travel mostly by conduction on
wiring and by radiation in space, and can get into closely spaced
circuits via inductive and capacitive coupling. In the frequency
range of 0.15 to 30 MHz it is the conducted EMI that is of
main concern and, in that range, most EMC standards address
conducted disturbances only [2].
Noise components in the range of 0.15 to 30 MHz, and
eventually down to 10 kHz, are measured by EMI receivers.
The peak, average, effective (rms), or quasipeak measurements
of the electromagnetic noise are taken and compared with
relevant standards [3]. The quasipeak detection developed by
CISPR (IECs International Committee for Radio Interference)
is most common in practice, yielding the best correlation between the EMI receiver readings and the broadcast disturbances
heard by human ear [2]. Still, many engineering norms, among
them those of automobile manufacturers, define limits on the
maximum peak and average values of the noise. For example,
in the GM Worldwide Engineering Standard GMW3097, the
limits for the radiated EMI for artificial networks (AN) within
the 0.531.71 MHz frequency range are 42 dB V, peak, for
nonspark noise sources (and 50 dB V, quasipeak, for spark
sources) [4].
In the same standard, the automobile equipment tested for
immunity to the radiated and conducted emissions is classified
into the following categories:
A
components/modules containing active electronic
devices, such as op-amp circuits, switching power
supplies, microprocessors, and displays;

0885-8993/$20.00 2006 IEEE

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Fig. 2. Simple low-pass LC filter.

Fig. 1. EMI filter for an automotive ac drive.

AS

AM
AX
BM
EM

electronic components/modules operated from a

regulated power source in another module, typically
sensors;
electronic components/modules containing magnetically
sensitive elements;
electronic modules containing inductive devices, e.g.,
motors and solenoids;
brush-commutated electric motors;
electronically controlled or commutated electric motors.

Categories A, AS, and AM must meet the nonspark limits,

Categories AX and EM must meet both the nonspark and
spark limits, and Category BM must meet the spark limits
[4].
So far, RF filters are the only means employed for EMI mitigation in automobile electric drives. An example filter arrangement, which screens the supply cables from noise to prevent
them from radiating the EMI throughout the vehicle, is shown in
Fig. 1. The filter contributes to the cost and bulk of the drive. It is
worth mentioning that active EMI filters for inverter-fed industrial ac drives have recently gained attention of researchers [5].
Their application in automobile drives remains yet to be considered.
The magnitude of peaks in frequency spectra of the electromagnetic noise is the major factor affecting the size of RF filters.
filter shown in
As an example, consider a simple low-pass
Fig. 2. In the attenuation frequency range (well above the reso, is given, with
nance frequency), its voltage attenuation,
good approximation, by

(1)
where and denote filters inductance and capacitance, respectively, and is the frequency. Thus, the bigger the magnitude of the spectral peaks, the larger inductor and capacitor
are required. Consequently, if the peaks were reduced, the filter
components could be reduced too, both parametrically (lower
inductance and capacitance) and physically (lower volume and
weight).
The dependence of voltage attenuation on the square of frequency implies that the high-frequency electromagnetic noise,
resulting mostly from the high
rates accompanying state

transitions of inverter switches, can be mitigated with relatively

low inductances and capacitances of the filters. However, the
current ripple associated with the low-frequency train of voltage
pulses of the inverter causes EMI that is more difficult to fight.
In the frequency spectrum, the current ripple appears in the form
of harmonic clusters centered about multiples of the switching
frequency.
Flattening a frequency spectrum, without reducing its total
power content, is tantamount to transferring the discrete harmonic power (watts) to the continuous power spectral density
(watts/hertz). This can be accomplished by random pulse width
modulation (RPWM) of gate pulses of the inverter switches [6].
Many RPWM methods have proposed in the literature, e.g.,
[7][10]. Those with a randomized switching frequency or,
more precisely, with a randomized length of switching periods,
turned out to be most effective [11].
Almost all the existing RPWM techniques with randomized
switching periods are characterized by a random sampling rate
of the digital modulator, because individual sampling periods
are synchronized with corresponding switching periods. This,
in most practical cases, is highly inconvenient. In a complex
digital system, the sampling frequency should be a constant,
representing the best tradeoff between various bandwidth requirements of multiple tasks of the system. The modulation is
only one of those tasks. The sampling and switching frequencies
can be made constant by employing a random sequence of inverter states [12]. However, this approach detrimentally affects
the quality of both the switching patterns and frequency spectra
[13]. As a result, RPWM, despite its undeniable advantages, still
has not gained much popularity in practice. The novel random
modulation method described in the subsequent sections of this
paper combines the features of spectral continuity and of quality
of a space-vector PWM. In addition, the method, further called
a random-delay PWM (RDPWM) technique, is characterized
by exceptional algorithmic simplicity and minimum computational overhead.
It is worth mentioning that a similar approach to EMI reduction has been proposed with respect to high-speed digital systems, such as computers. A randomly varied clock rate has been
shown to be an effective means of mitigation of EMI [14][16].
III. RANDOM-DELAY PWM TECHNIQUE
Although the classic space-vector PWM method is very well
known, its basics are invoked here because of certain twists in
realization of that method, described in this paper. The spacevector technique with a fixed switching frequency is illustrated
in Figs. 3 and 4. As shown in Fig. 3, the reference space vector,
, of output voltage of the inverter is synthesized

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695

Fig. 3. Illustration of the space-vector PWM method.

Fig. 5. Sampling and switching cycles: (a) DPWM, (b) RPWM, and (c)
VDPWM.

Fig. 4. Single switching cycle in the space-vector PWM method.

TABLE I
INVERTER STATES AND THEIR FRACTIONAL TIMES

by time averaging of stationary space vectors

,
, and
of the inverter. Non-zero vectors
and
, framing the reference vector , are generated when the inverter is in State
and State , respectively. A state is defined here as
, where
, , and are switching variables associated with phases A,
B, and C of the inverter. The active states and , resulting in
nonzero voltages of the inverter, are 1, 2, , 6. The zero vector,
, can be produced by either State 0 or State 7.

Fig. 6. Frequency spectra of the input current noise at the low-speed, hightorque operating point and frequency range of 0.0130 MHz: (a) DPWM, (b)
RPWM, and (c) RDPWM.

Fig. 4 illustrates division of a switching cycle into five time

intervals, whose lengths are
2,
2, ,
2, and
2.

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Fig. 7. Frequency spectra of the input current noise at the low-speed, hightorque operating point and frequency range of 10150 kHz: (a) DPWM, (b)
RPWM, and (c) RDPWM.

Fig. 8. Frequency spectra of the input current noise at the medium-speed,

medium-torque operating point and frequency range of 0.0130 MHz: (a)
DPWM, (b) RPWM, and (c) RDPWM.

This is the so-called minimum-loss switching strategy, which

switching cycles produce as few as
3 1 pulses
within
of each switching variable [17]. Times and
are expressed
by simple formulas involving cosine functions of the angular
with respect to vector
position, , of the reference vector
. Specifically

A fully arithmetic approach to the space-vector PWM, employed in simulations and experiments described in this paper,
lowers the computational overhead. It is assumed that the reference voltage vector is expressed in the per-unit format using
the maximum available vector as the base. In the first step, three
auxiliary variables, , , and , are calculated as

(2)
(3)

(5)

where denotes the modulation index, defined here as the ratio

of magnitude of the reference vector to the highest available
value of that magnitude. Time is given by

(7)

(4)
Thus, subdivision of a switching cycle involves the following
computations: (a) determination of the sextant of the vector
plane in which the reference voltage vector is located, (b)
calculation of angle based on the known
components of
using
vector , and (c) calculation of times , , and
trigonometric equations (2) and (3) and an arithmetic equation
(4).

(6)

Next, based on the signs of , , and , Table I is used for determination of times , , and .
It can be seen that simple arithmetic formulas are employed
only. The table-driven algorithm lends itself to simple implementation in a digital modulator. For minimization of switching
activity, only State 7 is used as the zero state.
As already mentioned, for active attenuation of the electro, must be randomly
magnetic noise, the switching period,
varied from one switching cycle to another. That can be accom,
plished, while maintaining a constant sampling period,
by random variation of the delay, , between the beginning of
a sampling cycle and that of the corresponding switching cycle.

TRZYNADLOWSKI: ACTIVE ATTENUATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC NOISE

Fig. 9. Frequency spectra of the input current noise at the medium-speed,

medium-torque operating point and frequency range of 10150 kHz: (a)
DPWM, (b) RPWM, and (c) RDPWM.

This is illustrated in Fig. 5, which, for comparison, also shows

the relation between sampling and switching cycles for the deterministic PWM (DPWM) and the classic RPWM with simultaneous variations of the sampling and switching periods.
In the classic RPWM method, consecutive switching (and
sampling) periods are randomly drawn from a uniform-probato
, where
bility pool of values ranging from
denotes the desired average switching period and the coefficient determines the shortest period as a fraction of the
average period. In the novel RD-PWM technique, the random
, where is a random number
delay is calculated as
from the 0 to 1 range. When in two consecutive switching cyand
,
is close to 1 and
is close
cles, the
, switching cycle may be too short,
to 0, the second,
, may be lower than the minimum althat is, its length,
. Therefore, in case of such occurrence,
lowable length,
, is set to
or another value of is drawn. As a
to
.
result, lengths of switching cycles vary from
,
Comparing RPWM with RD-PWM by assuming
it can be seen that the difference beand
tween the longest switching period and the shortest one equals
for the RPWM method and
for the
RD-PWM technique. Thus, RD-PWM offers a larger variety of
switching periods than does RPWM.

697

Fig. 10. Frequency spectra of the input current noise at the maximum-speed,
maximum-power operating point and frequency range of 0.0130 MHz: (a)
DPWM, (b) RPWM, and (c) RD-PWM.

IV. COMPUTER SIMULATIONS

Computer simulations of an electric ac drive for an electric
car developed by a major automobile manufacturer were performed using the SABER software package. Comparative evaluation of the impact of PWM technique employed in control of
the drives inverter on various characteristics of the drive was the
object of the simulations. The characteristics in question were:
a) frequency spectra of the current noise in supply cables, b) efficiency of the drive, c) torque ripple, and d) controllability of
the drive, in particular, response to torque and flux commands.
Example frequency spectra of the input current noise in the
ranges of 10 kHz to 30 MHz and 10 kHz to 150 kHz are shown
in Figs. 611, each figure showing the spectra when the DPWM,
RPWM, and RD-PWM are used. The 10150 kHz spectra were
computed with the same number of samples as the 10 kHz to
30 MHz spectra, thus the former spectra can be considered more
accurate. Three operating points of the drive are represented: (a)
low speed and high torque (Figs. 6 and 7), (b) medium speed
and medium torque (Figs. 8 and 9), and (c) maximum speed
and maximum power (Figs. 10 and 11). The average switching
, equal to the sampling period,
, was 83.3 s,
period,
which represents the sampling frequency of 12 kHz. The minwas set to 40 s (a reciprocal
imum switching period,
of 25 kHz), so that the switching periods varied from 40 s to

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Fig. 12. Rapid changes of the reference torque-producing current: DPWM.

Fig. 11. Frequency spectra of the input current noise at the maximum-speed,
maximum-power operating point and frequency range of 10150 kHz: (a)
DPWM, (b) RPWM, and (c) RDPWM.

166.6 s, that is, with an approximately one to four shortest-tolongest ratio.

A significant difference of 1020 dB V between the spectra
with deterministic and random PWM techniques can be observed for all spectra. As seen in Figs. 6, 8, and 10, the choice
of modulation strategy ceases to affect the frequency spectra
above some 3 MHz. However, as indicated by (1), it is the
low-frequency region in which the current harmonics are most
difficult to attenuate. Also, in the 0.531.71-MHz frequency
range specified in the GMW3097 standard (see Section II), the
random modulation yields distinctly flatter spectra than does
the DPWM.
Additional simulations, although of limited scope due to excessive computation times, have been performed using a highfrequency model of the motor described in [18]. The model introduces distributed stray capacitances. Apart from minor amplitude differences in the high frequency range, the obtained frequency spectra were very similar to those for the low-frequency
model of the motor.
Efficiency of the drive is unaffected by the type of modulation, while the torque ripple increases by an order of 30% when
DPWM is replaced with RPWM or RD-PWM. However, the

fundamental frequency of the ripple, which well exceeds the average switching frequency, is so high that its effects on speed of
the car would be imperceptible.
When the average or fixed sampling frequency is sufficiently
high to provide the required control bandwidth, there is no
significant impact of the modulation strategy on the quality of
torque and flux control. This is illustrated in Figs. 1214, which
compare the reference and actual waveforms of the torque-producing current,
and , and those of the flux-producing
and , following an up-and-down step comcurrent,
mand signal,
, while
remains unchanged. Although
and
with RPWM (see Fig. 13) and
the waveforms of
RD-PWM (see Fig. 14) are less regular than those with DPWM
(see Fig. 12), both the overshoot and settling time are similar for
all the three modulation methods. However, it must be pointed
out that when the average switching frequency decreases, the
quality of current control deteriorates faster when random
modulation, instead of DPWM, is employed. That is mostly the
result of nonuniform current sampling, as opposed to the at
peak or at valley patterns typical for DPWM. In effect, the
measurement errors of the locally-averaged current are more
pronounced.
V. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
For confirmation of theoretical expectations and simulation
results, a 40-hp laboratory drive system with an induction

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699

Fig. 14. Rapid changes of the reference torque-producing current: RDPWM.

Fig. 13. Rapid changes of the reference torque-producing current: RPWM.

motor driving a loaded dc generator was set up and investigated. The motor was fed from a commercial inverter from
Danfoss, with the original control system replaced with a
digital modulator based on the TMS320F243 DSP controller
from Texas Instruments. The modulator generated switching
signals in accordance with the DPWM, RPWM, and RDPWM
algorithms. The drive was operated in the constant volts/hertz
mode, with the average (for RPWM and RD-PWM) or fixed (for
DPWM) switching period of 0.5 ms, representing a switching
frequency of 2 kHz. In the steady state, the drive run with
the fundamental frequency of 9 Hz (the value of fundamental
frequency does not affect the electromagnetic noise). The goal
of the investigation was to assess qualitative features of the
PWM techniques compared, rather than to perform precise
measurements of the noise. Therefore, the noise was sensed
directly in the wires connecting the inverter to the power line,
without a line impedance stabilization network (LISN).
Frequency spectra of the input current noise with the drive operating on full load are shown in Figs. 1517. Due to equipment
limitations on the number of collected samples, the frequency
range is narrower than that in computer simulations, specifically, 0 to 20 kHz. Also, in contrast to the simulated system,
the dc supply voltage in the experimental setup was obtained
not from a battery but from a diode rectifier, which contributed
current harmonics at the lower end of frequency range. Still,

Fig. 15. Experimental frequency spectrum of the input current noise: DPWM.

the mitigating effect of random PWM techniques on the electromagnetic noise in the low end of the spectrum, which is most
difficult for filtration, is clearly observable.
VI. CONCLUSION
Electromagnetic noise, a highly undesirable side effect of
switching operation of power electronic converters in adjustable

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Fig. 16. Experimental frequency spectrum of the input current noise: RPWM.

Fig. 17. Experimental frequency spectrum of the input current noise:

RDPWM.

speed ac drives, especially those used in automobiles, can be attenuated by random PWM employed in the power inverter. Flattering the frequency spectrum of noise allows for size reduction
of EMI filters, contributing to compactness and cost reduction of
the drive. Conveniently, the novel random-delay PWM method
is characterized by a constant sampling frequency of the digital modulator. Implementation of the RDPWM technique is
a simple software fix, requiring no modifications of the drive
system.
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Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski (M83SM86F99)
received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering,
the M.S. degree in electronics, and the Ph.D. degree
in electrical engineering from the Technical University of Wroclaw (TUW), Wroclaw, Poland, in 1964,
1969, and 1974, respectively.
From 1966 to 1979, he was a faculty member
with TUW. Later, he worked at the University of
Salahuddin, Iraq, the University of Texas, Arlington,
and the University of Wyoming, Laramie. Since
1987, he has been with the University of Nevada,
Reno, where he is a Professor of electrical engineering. In 1997, he spent seven
months at Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark, as the Danfoss Visiting
Professor. In 1998, he was a Summer Faculty Research Fellow at the Naval
Surface Warfare Center, Annapolis, MD. He has authored or co-authored over
150 publications on power electronics and electric drive systems and holds
12 patents. He is the author of The Field Orientation Principle in Control
of Induction Motors (Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 1994), Introduction to Modern
Power Electronics (New York: Wiley, 1998), and Control of Induction Motors
(New York: Academic, 2001). He wrote chapters for Modern Electrical Drives
(Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2000) and Control in Power Electronics (New York:
Academic, 2002).
Dr. Trzynadlowski received the 1992 IAS Myron Zucker Grant and has
been listed in Whos Who in the World, Whos Who in America, and Whos
Who in Science and Engineering. He is an Associate Editor of the IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, and a member of the Industrial Drives and Industrial
Power Converters Committees, IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS).