Universital Autdnoma de Barcelona

Servei de Biblioteques
I ||il ilil lllil llil lllil llll llll lllil llil lllil llil lll
1 501 01 281 I
SSAUd IJISUITAINN
EC(tn{flrNYC
LrEBrqrrjN
Jo
]\trsrr,uu.l
SOJVH3IH IENVT
WOqDNIY
E'IqqIW EHI
CO SEdVDSCINV-I
AIVNIUOW
IdADE
HI\tEq
q
INEIDNV NI
NV AIEIDOS
InS
Ric.
Mic
den
'.t.
clas
the
thal
and
Ricl
mid
Kin
Con
ancl
and
vari,
ho$
abor
prac
reve
PLiBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE O}' THE LI\I\ ERi
The Pitt Building, Tiumpington Street, Carrbriclge, LJnirc.i K:::::
CAMBRIDCE LJNIVERSITY PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 llest 20th Strcet, Neu' York, NY 1001 1-421 1, USA
477
\X/illiamstou'n
Road, Port Melbournc, VIC 3207. Ausrr.r:.:
Ruiz de Alarccin 13, 28014 Madncl, Spain
Dock House, The \Vatcrfront, Cape Torvn 8001, South Afrrc.r
http://wr.w.cambridge.org
O
Janet
Richards 2005
fhir I'ook i- irr eo riuhr. \rrl.tr. r Lo \r.lrurorv ( \\cpliun
and to the provisiorrs of relevant collectir.e licensing agrccmenrs,
no reproductiol of an,v part may take place without
the written permission of Cembridgc LJnilcrsity Prcss.
First published 2005
Printed in tire United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambriclge
T,t,peface Sabon MT 10/14..5 pt. S1s/ern
QuarkXP..rrr\r1.1 lTBl
A catalog record
for
this book is du,tiLdble
from
the British Librart,.
Library of Congres-. Cataloging in PubLictirn Ddtd
Richards,
Janct
E.
Society and death in alcient Egypt: lnortuary landscapcs of thc N,iiclclle rnji:,:
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical refcrcnces and index.
ISBN 0-.521 -84033-3
1. Tombs Egvpt.2. Funclai rites and ceremonies-Eg,vpt.3. Egvpt Social con.iirii,::
4. Egypt Civilization-To 332 B.C. I. Title.
t)T62.T6R53 2005
306'.0932-dc22
ISBN 0 -521 8403.1 3 hardback
WZ
LZT
I8I
LI
9Tl
88
)L
6V
LV
T
6l
I
IT
I
IIlX
xr aSod
,rtr:::;:
slqLtnq LuoPButN applw :gg6L palo.t(
..ra1awa3 qt.to sopl.qy
.xtpuaQiy
: ru op'u r e
rpp rw
:rlr ur ro
11
e r,,ff:'"Trt
ff:t'.TJ,.Hl'#
sop.{qy :lerrur.ro.rd
pue
,tuaso;d ,tsed
sauatoua3
L
ebbt prie r8e;e1 :rotuer erlt te
irrng
g
erte.d pLrE
JarJeg
:ruop8ur
elpplry aqt ur sadecspuel fren1ro1,l
S
rdfSE ur
,,urogo.rd
qurol,, eL[] pue
,qteep ,alc1oa
V
JACA NI HVSC ONV AJAI]OS
'OIA,I
JUVI
lorler{ag e^rto^ pue
,tuarualnas ,flartog
A
a8urur pue rxer q8norql flenos uertdf8E
Z
sse[J
Jo
uor]ou Oqt puE rrortErtlrrrelJrp
]Erlos t
SWEISAS TVI]OS TNEISNV CO ACNJ-S AHI
'ANO
IUVd
uorllnPoJtul
sruau8palmou4ty
salqpi pup satnSl
Jo
ttlj
SINEINOD
LOI
/0r
_(-0I
I0i
00i
66
86
s6
,6
I6
68
_qB
tB-28
I_9
vv
vv
t,
IF
W
0,
0,
6t
st
,z
LZ
_c
t
aSpd
sadfl rnuea
rlsou8erp
EI
frseufe
.Lz
sadfl rlruea
rlsou8erp
ZI
flseufe
;;
LL-
y .,{ratarue3
ebbr
;o
ue
.SZ
bbIU
lE f.lalaruar
rrlseul
'-
"-'-;.;#"J#j:ffi;
,;
g f;alaua3
e8e;e11
Jo
uEId
.TT
tvTL r^e,rlffl]:,;":rJ];:ffij',:f.
;,
l7l)^etD
Jo
uorlf,as
PuE
uEid
.6I
ebbr
pue t'e,e'
,.
,oll"_:o,,r,^";:;H;:il,#
l:
j:#
2: sa'r'r'r8
wopSur)r
eipprru
Lrr srtrErrrE
10
,rrroi"r",
,or"1
.gr
ruop8ur
ripplr{
,.1r .,,
",rnqlrio.ruou
Jo
sapo1,.{
.SI
*rop8ur
plO or
txau sadeqr
JJeurs
ot .r\er^ :srolsrru"
..r,,Jr::i::;
ntts
red
JauJ Jo IrEq
pue ruo-ry f
re1aq
ntrts ul EII
PUe Jelul JO
ollll?ls Jle
ru op'u r a
r
pp
rr{
r rrr rp r.{r rar aruar
*Ijt;*
jll:
L ;j
jJ,j:[
Jo
u o r E r o
l
B u r.tro u s r r.ll: * r
r
r,
r rt#"rTor#
r.j:"jil
J
rlT*
fJrue.
sg pue
JrruJ
yo
".r,
..uoTerlso,, *JI
,TI
.EI
,77
'0I
'6
.TI
rorrn'srrorrr
lEUorsue.,,rp_ro^lr puE oLroz r^ro^ ..or.i#l:T'"il .g
.,Po5 ]EJJS eqt
Jo
eJEJ.IaJ,,
srJt
le JUoz e^rto'\
ruoz e^rro^
J"
":1"_r"r
Eur.,noils
soprqy,J:ilffi:'j .t
u^\ot unqE.J-JE
:rtnlrn]ls
JErJos Jo lapou
olrJo uv
.s
dloqntuow
Jo
eJels lre-raun
,q ,,r"..,
rpcru_Jl3s
V
.,
lJnlls
JlJos Jo
suollEluasardar
Jeuotrr
t
sars f>f qrru rdf8E
o
de1,g
T
rdf8E tuanrry
1o
f8oouo;ri3
;
SEUNCIC
SE]g\/I
ONV
SEUnglil
ilO
ISI-I
In Socir
Richar
Middlt
uLvdr L
clas s
"
the en
than o
and pc
Richar
middir
Kingd
Comb
ancien
and st
variety
how -N
about
practi(
reveal
LIST OF FIGURES
AND TABLES
28. $/ealthl and
r/eaith2
indices
29. Haraga Cemete r:y A: Grave sizes
30. Haraga Cemetcry A: Sizes of most securely. clated Tr,velfth
Dynastv graves
3i. Haraga Cemetery A:
plot
of grave sizes
32. Percenrages
of graves containing
selectecl materials in cemeteries
and B at Har:rga
33. Haraga Cemetery A: \Vealthl index
34' Har:rga Cemetery A: \ilealthr incrices of most securely clatecl Ti'elfh
D,ynastt graves
35. Haraga Cemerery A:
\Wealth2
Inclex
36. Haraga Cemerery A:
plot
of graves by Vealthl index
37. Haraga Ccmererv A: Diversity index
38. Haraga: Effort expenditure
by \ferlth1
39. Haraga: Effort expencliture
b1, Dir.ersitv
10. Haraga Cemetery B: Grave sizes
41. Haraga Cemerery B: Sizes of most securely dated T\r,elfrl.r
Dynastl, graves
12. Haraga Cemererv B:
plot
of graves by size
43. Haraga Cenerery B: \Vealthl
jndex
14. Haraga Cemetery B: \ilealth1 inclices of mosr securely clated Twelftn
Dynasty graves
45. Haraga Cemeterl. B: Wealth2 index
16. Haraga Cemetery B:
plot
of graves b,v size
47. Haraga Cemetery B: Diversity index
4x. Riqqa. r ieu of bunrl ehemher of grere 306
49. Riqqa Cernetery A: Grar.e sizes
50. Riqqa Cemeter,v A:
plot
of graves by size
51. Riqqa Cemeteries A and B:
percentages
of materials
52. Riqqa Cen'retery A:
r/ealthl
index
-53. Riqqa Cemetery.A:
plot
of graves by \ealthl index
54. Riqqa Cemetery B: Grave sizes
55. Riqqa Cemcterl' B: \fealthl index
-56. Earlv rnap of Abydos from the Description
de l.Egypte
57. O'.erall map of Abydos showing areas of Middle Kingdom a*i\.irv
58. Magnerometric
map of rhe exrensive Old Kingclom
"i.l
Firr,
Ilrtemediate pei
od cemeterv
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
(]+.
65.
Vierv across the Nortl'r Cemetery
with the Early Dynastic funerary
enclosure of Khasekhemwy
visible in the background
Peet's sketc}r map of Abydos
Conrposite map of Abydos Northern
Cemeterv
lu{ace Cernetery D
Garstang Cemetev L.
Famil,v graves in the Abvdos cemereries: Section of Currelly grave
M50 and plan of lou,est north and south chambers
Peet's rnl of Lcmcrcrv S
7IZ
0rz
602
807
907
v0z
707.
107.
66r
86r
96r
s6I
t6I
6r
76r
I6I
061
68r
L8L
98I
t8I
z8r
ILI
OLI
89r
L9I
L9I
991
991
S9I
v9L
t9I
Z9I
I9I
091
6Si
LSI
E-CI
7,SI
ISr
0sI
LVI
0I lEung 08/ N/0t8 a
-L}r
6 Ierrng 0g/ N/O'B E
.90I
S lErrng 08/ N/0t8 E
.s0t
/ lErrng 08/ N/0t8 E
.t0I
g
lErrng 0g/ N/Otg E
.E0l
t lErrng 08/ N/0t8 1
.70r
I lEr.lng 08/ N/0t8 a
.I0I
0Bl. N/0r8 E Jo
UPI
.00I
rrqruuqf,
I UELIS 06l N/Og
;r
Jo
rrEld
.66
06l N/098 E Jo
LrEld
.86
slralqo
6 lEllng
.L6
I lEr-rng 081, N/0r8 E
.96
08/ N/Ofg a Jo
uEId
._q6
t lErrng 099 N/0t8 a
.v6
z lErrng 099 N/088 A
.6
I IEIrlrg 099 N/0t8 1
.7.6
earE
099 N/0t8 E Jo
rn3ld
.16
IEr-rnq
g lJErls :E3.rE
SSg N/0g1, E
.06
lElrnq z
lJEr.[s :Er.]p
ssg N/ogl E
.6g
6-l
suErls :E3.rE
,qsg N/0g1. E Jo
rrEI
.gg
0t6 NlsTL E Jo
uEld
.18
069_088 N/02l E Jo
LrEId
,98
soPfqv quoN
]E LI.{\O]
POIJAd
J]EIPOUJJJ]LII
]SJIC JTl] TIJ :SIT]EJUI
JO
SIEIJNq JqI
.SB
drrtarutr llt uI :uerplrqr
Jo
slerrnq eqI
.rg
s8ut-re;o
;o
rlqel E r.roJg poleas rau.\\o a,le"r8 aql Bur,noqs nprq
Jo
Eirts otll
.fg
requrELIl
JErrnq
s.nPeC olur f.rlua peqleerq rr-[] ol tJeqs prtnroxa flaug u.op.,nar
.Zg
sa.,r,r: r3 ,,e
ss ,JTl;;::Hj:.::]:fr'l,l:]:l:
;
sl;Er,[s o.{\] qrr.tr
ledeqc
Egetsru
1]r-rqpnry
.6L
r.rarrod q,r^\ urrrorr
:J,,il,Jiffi:l1r,T';,.;)H,ilil*
ii
eJeJJnS UO
..SEqElsEur
rurul,, JJJrll
Jo
.{\ou
,gL
srd.{l trruErr uropBUr elpplW porrtlrnotruJ puanba,r
rsotrl
.S
L
uoseas gg6[ Sur.rnp pale,le]xe scrlV
.lL
]SA]J]UI
JO
SE3JE
PArJI]LI3PI
A^I{ 'L
sllLrn patJrllol-af,EJ.rns Sur.troqs f;laue3 qr:o
;o
de1,1
.7L
J_rnttJtrLIJJP JtrPJJns
PSPJOJJJ
8ur.,noqs f.rerarua3 Lrrrr,l]roN sopfgy yo deur rrqde;8o<Jor g961
.IL
ne-Iaqaurs daroq>1aqo5
Jo
rlots f,rlErrrll
1o
Bur.,ne,rp eurl
.0L
sJnsoltue
rofq agt ul sEJJE pele^Etrxe
;o
deur s.Julsd
.69
aJnsollrJ.rafq eqr rrr sretE
PJIE^EJXJ ;o
deur s(Jrrtad
.g9
tt S
r^Er) uor snatqg
.L9
_qz s
a^E.rc
Jo
uoDf,rs
.gg
sl-rtvl oNV sdn9tl co Ist-l
In Sor
Rich
Midd
depar
cias s'
the er
than
and

Rich
midd
King,
Com
ancie
and s
variel
how
abou
pract
revea
214
217
217
2t8
219
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
108. E 840/N 780 Burial 11
109. E 8,+0/N 780 Burial12
110. Burial 12 objects
111. Plan of F,860/N 600 area
112. E 860/N 600 Burial 4
TABLES
1. Peet Cemetery S Recorded Graves
2. Sex/Age Distribution by Grave Type
115-9
169
Sur.rds oqr rrr Bunoi 1r::rBc.rr u,\\r passrd oq,\\ '!LIElluw-lr
ulrurs']cI
PLTaI"IJ
lErP.\tr\'stlorl
-JrlP tLrJje]lrp
ucru Lrr peprrJtxJ sc,lrt srtl ].todclns JSoq,['ssu.uEH El]IJg'lC
PLIJIJJ,\rLI
ol
1n;atu?
LuE
I.ltols
i-r:a'-. prre.?.roc13Lrr.rd5 clog'uolstS
rt14'srreg
lrrqou s-Iolfarlcl o-Lr')
IuEqt
oslu
1:ttr:d
LIJ>FI esr,\\Jrrlto a^Erl tolr plllol qtrg,n's]:rafo.rd p1a11 ur -to1 slLt:tttrBtttrrlr
fJL'rl
pLrE slrorssrru.acl .rnrs or
IIEr
erlr puoiacl
PLrE
eloqr auoS st,nt a,rtq rdi8l LII -lJlur')
rlrrrrsru LrEJrrrrrV eqr
Jo JJErs
rqt
PLIE
cltrlluq) ErfruY'orllrJ ul'(]rrford
JI,NY
f,rll
J{)
rr|'
-ra^
z00z
aqr) eqst>1g
Itrv IePqv Jt-ILlsv
pur'(l:tolo-rd
fI,\v
rrlr
Jo
LIosErs
t00z
rqr)
PIZr^ i
nqv ily pluruELIol,{'(rratord
.ralaura3 rlPPIIN sop,(qy rLIl
JO
suor^urs
666I Purr'9661
'-c661
aqr) .raa7 ti.ra>1utrr
lepy'(rrosuas
3361
:t1l)
PIquC PrLLrtlv
uTPLIS)rH s'tolclsrtr
YfS
rlrL't"
Ir()\\
ot .irrrrr.l;o.lJo rqr:tt'Lr:.rJ.lu id:r otr'l
t00Z
ul rtrt'i1ng-:
Jo
rolr)J\ul
J)lql'/r/\
Iapqv
pLururrloJ
i
ot pue ieur1rg-a;o:olradsul
JslLIf
e{1 sl\\ srPrri uutu roJ orl^\'cllllEtl)
-[r prurlv ot
j.4t'7
L]rpclV rIrrZ rollarlQ
IErrurD
lue-rrur ol puu IrqS-l IlsIl\-la rrLIrr.\
'-rCI
-rotlJrrCI
IUlturrJ
lJLuloJ ol
lnlarcrB
i,r rut
I
eltJotlJs,to' 3eqo5 ul'(LrorlIPd\l
\.ly Jurl
Jo.rlnluiLrl
rn.r'rLrr.r.isulrf,d Jtl I illr.\\ tlolturf,Joor ut
l)l.lllfLlo)
LLcirq.'t
Jo
trsrr^rull aqt
1o
rreto.r i,ralauraS rlPPlJ,N sopiqy erll'1rford u,tro
'itu Jo
'Iolla-IIP
aqt su tuasalcl eqt Lil
I.ro,\\
tno -il-Lr'
ol uorssrr-tt-lcI JIqt loJ
\,'JS
JLII
Jo
slllruLuo) luJLltlLu'rJd
tlrrrrllr rLIl plrt sse^\uH
lqt,z'tQ
ol oslr
PrlclrPur
1daep rut
1
'1n1alr:3 -i-ra'r ruu
I
tlrt{rt ro}
'ld,t8g'1y3t
selllnblluv
Jo IIrunoJ
aua-rcln5 rrll
Jo
rrlltruruo] llrruErulJd
Jqr
Puu:qrllutlf
)
f1y qr1rc1u.)'rC pLItr'urq-a lt"ION'-rC'1,\\uS-lA
Ptut{V'rC IErJual
sf,rrPle-lroS relrlro,l
:r.rprf paurqy
.JC
Jlrl rql
Jo
Ltolssru-lad snorr:3 Jql lnoLIlI.\\ alqrssocl LIesq J,\utl lotl
PItlo.\\
Iro,\\ 836I
aq'sopiqy ol uottrpadrg er1-urur:,rlistrua (uegl) LIl
Jo
sr()l-lrrlPo-r'uostlrurs
i11a urcr1r pLrE roLtuoJ(O
PI^E(f JO
lroddns JLII ol slutrll i:el;lura3 r1]ror sopitly:ql rtt
illrrrrur suoDu\JxD tf,JJrp ot Jlc'lu sE.\\
1
'rpntrre:8
JO
slqep lsJJaruls erll J^\o
I
ruoq,\\ ol sLIoil
-ntnsur prrr suos.rati
1o
tsr ?uo1 e dn rlrnq e,tr:q
1'poulcl
LuoPBuI)l p1 Eurpara;cl rLIl ur
ro'\\
-f
lJU
.luJ-r).t Jtutu .(ru \.rltlodlo.ruL {)\ll: lrrql u()r.lIll\\lf irtt ut
r'rz
ilt'uu
t:t:rlt'Lu
rtropl-trr
rtppltr.\ JL[]
Jo
LIOISI^aJ f,,\Isllrlxe
PUE
LIollElIsl.\Jl r '1o()rl stql Sullt:'lr
Jo
JSlnoJ JLll Lll
'JlrrS lJJ
ro,n
ti1.tr1ogls fut
1o
snJoJ
IElluJl
lu pJLrrELusJ seq sadr:tspucl i;rnl.ro[r slr pLrE lcii8l
1o
i8ooaurr-rc arl ol 11u.rcua3 a:oru puu
sopqy
Jo
etrs aqt or 1crr1r:rads prur,roJ
I
rtrlt ruLuLIrElt rrlt',(qcltriSrda ro] re^eosltrl^\ lultl
ou prrl
J
tulll
6srrlu
',t1:rrnb
,(;a.r pa;a,rolstp
1q?noqrly'rrorlrp:rdx1
e1c-ttuu't'1-istruJd
rrll
'roJ
Lros
-uas rrgcfuJSrclJ s.urrllJJ,\lrs pr]\E(f
Jo
laqruJlu tuJPnls alunpe:8 e sc'ldi31 urftllllos ul \oP'(!l\
lc adcrsprrrl i.rlaruar tJJSJp,\\ol Jrll ot trsl,\ ts.rr; iru aurs s:tei lu,rtl;(1;cau uaacl
^\ou
slrLI ll
SINE l^lgcS1^ ONvDV
In Sc
F.ich
I',:.
.lr.l-
.-.-,.s
:lta i
:ilAr
ard
n;^L
\1L I
mid
Kini
Con
anci
and
vari
hou
abo
pra(
rev
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of 200'1. r'vas a precious touchstone for mc on all of nrv tril-rs to Egvpt, and her generous ancl
kincl spirit r'vill be sorel.- missed bv me ancl evervone r.vho knelv her.
Thc 1988 Abyclos field crerv norkecl tirelcssh., rnd rnv gratitude to ancl rdrniration for them
hirs ouh'ir-rtcnsificd in the vers surcc we communally sulvir-ed "the hottest
1.ear
in ten in the
N4ecliterranean": Brcndr Baker,
Jacqui
Cron'le1., Elizabeth Hamilton, Steve Han.c]., and Lisa
l(calhofer, in cooperation rvith the li,rte Rcis N,ioharlrmcd Ali, his son (and norv Reis) lbrahim
Mohammed Ali, specialsrs fom thc villagc of
Qift,
and a large crer,r' of local peoplc u<rrkirrg
fctr the proiect. The ouse sttrff at Abvdos, Musrafa Hanafi, Abclu Alfur r\'fol.rarnmecJ S:rleh,
Abdel Latif Itrahim Abdel Latif, :rncl Hassur Mutu,ellr Abdulla, kept us comfortable, killecl
suakcs, and suppliecl endlcss colcl drinks er.en aftur the refngur-rtol broke dorvn. Spccial thanks
must go to Lisa l(ealhofer ancl Brenda Baker, to w.hom goes:r l:,Lrge por:tion of the creclit for the
overall success of the seasort. The rvork wrs supported financiallr- b-v a National Scicnce
Founclation Disscrtation ltnpror-enrent Grant, an Americrn Rescarch Center in Egvpt/Unitcd
Statcs Informatiorr Agencv fellon'ship, and funds from the Deparrmenrs of Anthropologl',
LJrrir,crsit,v of Pcnnsvlvalria, and the Egvptiar-r Section, Universitv t\4useum.
For morc rcceltt work, I thank the personnel of thc Abyclos -N{icldle Cemeterr, Projcct u,ho par-
ticipatecl iu the :rspects of thc n'orl< most rclevant to the topic of tl-ris book: Penny Minturn ancl
Atrtra I(onsttntatos, \\,ho excavated tlie X,liddle Kingclonr pair statue of Intef ancl Ita n 1999;
Amrncla Sprochi, rvhose ccramic ana]r'sis establishcd tlrat tl're srrrue \\'1s Iiddle l(ingdon'r, not
Saire Pcriod(!); I(orri Tr,rrner, r.vhose p1-rotographl. of its conrexr and arel aclorns tliese pagcs;
(ieoff
Comptot.t, the project survc\or; Tot-nasz Herbich ancl l(rzl.stztof Stilr,varz, n'ho carricd ollt the
magnetic surrev in 2002; Rcis Ibrahim l{ohammecl Ali ancl his crerv of srecialists from
Qift;
and
A1'rrnct Rageb, House X4au:Lger of the Pennsl'lvania-Yale Institute of Fine Arts Expedition housc
and the clrrrent staff of thc l.rouse (Hassan N4itr,r'alli, Mustafr Hanafi, Sinjab AbdLrl Rahim,
Abclcl Latif Abclel Latif, Lashiin Al-rmccl Lasl-riin, Abdin, Zacaria Abdul Nur, and Walicl
Hammen). Thc AN4C project is and h:,Ls been prornoted in er.crv rvr'bv Elaine Gazcla anci
Sharon Herbert, past ancl current Directcrs of the I(elser'-N'luseum, :rnd supportecl fitrancially b-v
the Universrt)'of Michigarr (l(else' Nfuscum; Office of the Vice Provosr for Research; Collegc of
Liter,rture, Sciencc, rn.l the Arts; ancl Nerr F,astern Stuclies Departnrent), the Institutc of Fine
ArtsiNelv York Universitr; tl.re National Geographic Societl', Terry Rakolta, N.'larjorie Fishcr,
aud an anon-vmous donor.
For thc tcchnicrl preparation of this book, I ern ver)'grateful to man-v friencls ancl colleagues:
I(av Clahasser'- and Lars Fogclin for large numbers of bcautifulll. executcd figures (arrcl all clone
undcr a tight deadline); i(arcn O'Bnen for soldiering on r,vith the referenccs; M:rrgaret Lourie for
assistance r.vith the figr-rres; Terr:r'Vilforrg for: the gorgcorls graphic of :L generalized Xrlidclle
I(ingdom rock-cut gravc; Gall' Beckmrn for eclitorial suggestions; Helen Bal<er,
.fackie
N{onk,
Jcnnifer
Nester, ancl Debbie Fitch of the l(elsev Muscr.rm front officc for hanclling financial ancl
computer and suppl,v issucs; and Donna Hcrron formerlv of the I(else,r,; Maric Mcl(night of the
Mltseum of Antl-rrorologr'-, ancl Susarr Pettc,vs of Near Eastern Studies, also for hclp u'ith financial
issues. I am gr:ateful to mcmbers of rnv book "bucldl'" groups for their support, enc()uragement!
arrd frienclship over thc
ycars:
Ca:la Sinopoli, Lisa Young, Thelma Thomas, ancl Marjorie Fisher;
Christina r\Iclntosh, no organizecl much of the fielcl material;anc1 Brcncla Brkcr for once again
stepping into the breach to help out r'vith upclatecl bioarcl-raeological information on the 1988
\ liddlc l(ingdonr hunrn renr.rin'.
For help n'ith sccuring permission to reproduce imagcs, I thank Stephen
Qurrke
at thc Petric
Muscum of Arc}raeologt', Universitv College Lonclon; Patricja
J.
Spenccr -rr thc Egrpt
,ELl' rurq o, s'r
.uorss.uqns
o, ,,,,,.r,,:.i]"ii:,l:,r1llJ,::rxlli]il,jrrlill,l;;.,.
-ndaq
prtt aluatlecj
strl Srrruttluteru
p'e'e1.r-,
pLrE sEJpr
qruo-rcrcrr
l
s.{.no aqr ol slsr.rr -ur:.r pu' luar{Jlp 3ur'lr8'asnru
pLr.
.-urrrs'or,,
lnrro1odu,.,r" i* iu,r';,r.rrr,
ur rlr.Lr ol rr1.:r.
j
'*eN
rnde tlt Jlls
I,Io.\\p[elJ
l],!\o 5^rrJ LLro{ s-la'el E'rssor8.r,
p.," u-J,rual,eaq
Hurp'as
gr_ .
-
tu,,tu,t1:,:rF
".rrs
l-rocl.l,r,
;o
,,"1,.i
r,,,,riu,r. 1r Lrracl sELI Lps,')i
-rrEr.rrS
.rsrrJ
ra^ru
l.cl ls-.-_
'r'p$oq
'(r1ag '>u,,'"i:.::j$:r'#Hr:fi'fi:T*:fl
liil,':];'l[,T:];*':';':;.''
-ro] Lulr
J
'rDlolltrs
t sP ]rrauclola'rap
u'os'racI
-{ur ol osc
rnq
rooci
s^rr ol
'oJuo
rou Jqr11rr\ur
Lr.:- J'\utJ LIoIlEs-rJ'ru<
Futl-elur
-iclaap
prtu Sutiirrcr-epr,n
u.{ueru
Jo
asJrlof JrJl JJlo suors-.,-:..-
puu slq;l-tsur sIq pLrE
(66

.rcurs
lraurHur.r.r,"
,.r*, ,ir.,,
-.
.:;,.:.1-.:.:'.l
an;r-ee.:
pur puJr,r; .\I^r
.srpJ^
.{u*r ,ralo .rorntt"
c1ar
<l
ar-r.os rup E u3Jq sELl 3'o1r--q.i,r-:
zi,,,r.,,,u,r*
pr. ,',.,,io,.r
.,g ,,.,,
;,;,
,;,r.:;liil ii,'r:l':illi:l';ffi:::i
]l.,lj,
.11,,".
Pr'trrru
'o;aq ruopSrrr1
srpprl,{.iru
o1
|r1a1r:3
.ua uu
J
irrlunb
"rr,ro
,r, ur Jrur.r{Jlp
Jo f i-
E aPEL'
ldtstruuru
JElrrJ
cLJl
1r':utli'"
rarlool-JLrrJ l1c1rp:-rr'r
puE Lro srq;-.orr
snoeua'
s,,.: 'sauIEfl
uqol ruo'l drqs-rtJotJls
Jo
saclsusir"1r,,n,r.
ur uorre;rcJsur
Jo
JSop Bgors u put_. .irr.: .
rLIJrluE rro s'Jpr;o
a'urqrxe
J'nu''otr
e pa.rofrra e,\rlr
J.sJp'JJp o,\\l Lrrrrl a-ro.u
-roJ -rorLro ).
Pl^PQ
tuo'lJ'rro'!\plu
rrr3010euq:;p
Jo
^rs,i[Eur
-ruu
arr]rud
eLIr pLrE,erruc1
_i::-.
.. prrr _rlaros
uurld.{Bq
tLrJrtrLrE
o
s8ur>,ro,lr
Jql
lnoqE uJtJi ot e1c1c it_uraq
1o
.tia1r.ruc.l
lBF .i.. . slsor uoIlPP'rtot
t"nttt'\t:l:t
sl 'salrnbp'Y
Jo llru.or
aruercln5
aqr,ro rr,p. ur su ilur>-ro.r,.
.,
.
'LItILIE)
arrurf
,o
.i,re8us
JEr-rolrpJ
,."J._pj,,o^
Jrll prrE
,ss-ld.ilrs;e,rru
e;pr-rq1ru3
t
jr)r.:-.
-totrtas
'1qa eliltBag
;o
dleq puu lrrs3orn,rrl,
rooq
srq'uo'e,rrcisur
rE,1'rrrarlrr ssrrpunocr
,.*";:i,:l;fij::,;ll]..]::,;:r:::].lrl,,
.
It lpri \ aq lou
P[no.\\ Iooq
slq]:<,pa,no
"-,"
rr1,r"q,
Ftrads,ra_ra,\\oq,acloaa Sur,lrol15
aqr or '(irnrEls
:rrcr;alrrJ
aqr Burrrlsur,rr
qrr,'. cleq'rrarJr
.a>J'e;g
'J1r.r['pun
'oqor.rl
uo
-
rs'l rul ttt puu) srq'noql
llrql ..ro{ illra;B
palurrrrq
pur
ra,ro[ua
r,rir.
1
-u.,*.r.^rrs
pr_\ra
r,.:
'tuE,II EUrlus
'lr'I-unog aLrruef
.;au;-ar
j.rn
;,"rr"rr,rolt
rrlr*uo(J
,r,u*,py
_n.JLIllrtr.V
.rIur_i
1e1raq 'a>:tn| ueqdar5
'ErE,\oru-I -rara.J
,r,oqo_rd"1
p1.r,ro
,rn.r
,.ro1 o_urpn1.ur
,etlr_.-
u'tu Lrlr"[
lr'ru-r
Je'\o o trosad ul
)ooq
JLI]
Jo
lrrJllror LIl passnls^rp r-,\ri
J
s,rue,i aqr.ir.i '(;auFa
rasnoH ra;rruef'o,
u." .1.,"q,
qr,,oi .uu.rn1,,q
rruE.\J,isrtrrd
Jo
.ilrsra,\lrr1l
.LLU
\ir.
P'rECl
ol
.rut '(q:uu ErrEre
pLrE
,.rraquaddg
piap' ,rrJlv
sa,uuf r or,,, ,rJrl,rrr::;,
i,' l-rv
Jo
ulllJsl1tr' urlrlodo-rl;rl{'llorr-iy
EJrlloJ(,o
ol s)irrqr.iru:1ooc1
srql rrr passnJsrp s.\rol so-r'iqy aql Sirtpuno-r:ns
senssl agl
;o 'tu.,ru rno.ln ,ur.J, .l lr'n.roilcfo
eqr pnLJ
I
Llf,rq,\\
Jo
rs-rro: aql Frrt'rnp
,,'rcl,i'q lurlrlrY ru -i1r.,5
.u. 1"npr.rrpul,, pa'r i'ooarqr.ry
o
'rnas.-r
.ias1r, aql tr-'ea'i
lsPJ
PJlullll I
tlolllqlqxJ.,",rt
r-r.p,,. ol
IruJlrJF
os[E ru'
J
,irrr,rr,r,,r11J]'ls
'Lrozl-ry
J(
tsleg EprrJ,rB
pur lumu.rl
isrruJ
Jo
.irrs-r:_vrr :rrJr
Jo
slucpy r\\equJ,{ :_ilrsJr.\rrrll
TloI
,!\JNiist,ty
suIC
JO
alnlllsul JLII ttr.lorruoJ,O 'g
pi_\EC runa.sntrq
erue,r.isuu.l
Jo
_ilrs.r.rrull
rJt lE uELu-r.\lrq
a PJr\EQ
ia;r-pr'rqrue'''unasn*
ruElIr.\\z]rg
rrrl lE Lrorqsy
u'y-,tu5:ilr.os
uorrc,rolcrrq
SINSWDO!-IAAONYf
V
.uorssltJsrp
oLIt UroJJ _
Se^rJ p._
-ol3P
PtlE Pccllrlstll IEILTJIUI1LIOtLI u'\\o loLl
PJP
otl \
-
sotllJLlorr
papn[JXa seq 11urrrrrur,-.
snJoj tr q.ns'suoll'lof,JP
Jel-IolJId
put
enrxal
rIJLll -tc pepr.to-rcl uorluLU.roJLrr
Irro: -
sseullrql
pa'rtc:-Iac1 eLIl
Jo
asltrJLl suorssnlslp
seql ur fltuauruto,rcl
c,rnlcJ s^J^urf
Ir]lu:-_.
-uou alll'p'rorer
urr8o1'euque'errcliSq rLrJrJLrE cqr
o
slred Jlqrssrrr'
rsoru Jr.[]
-JO
--_.
'artla
lsaq8rq rql roJ PIEP l'nlroru
J.
uorlclexa
J{J rilrrn
-
sarJorrJl esJLIr
Jo
-{urru ur :
'\'repuorrs u
'trd
or
PrPurl
r'\trq lEp
1rrr3ooaerrrv
'lrs
ElEp porro,rl u uo prspLl Lreq ..-
:
sutrlcl83
ltlJI:ILIE ar{l
JO
tlortEZttteS;o
Jenos
ar-Jl Brrrpuno.r,rr,,
,ar-rorqr rLIr
Jo
lsoru
,-r.\).,
'sl'rnos rrqdr:'8ouo'pLrE
l'nlxel
p,p.\\ol sr:rq
r:rr8oord.(Fg ruarequr LrE
lo
snr-r.rg
'otllll
sllll lE sJuJLIIruoJd
pc'relqru puu aduqs
Toot
ssElr rpplru lErrl sl)-aql eLIl -rElnrr-rr- .
P-IEi\\-loJ
Sutllnd',i,rorsrq
ltsrros
r]r-r,\\ ol rrr8acl s,rlor{trs
ler8olorcljFg reqr ruop8ur1
r1.r.._
el] r{JI\ sE^\
lI
'spolrad
Surpcra'rd
Jo
asoql ttEr{l pcrJE Joru pue slloreLunlr J-roul rllo!l r-
lcf iSE urop8ul) eiPpllr'{ L'ori sllrELlrr,r
[Errr]eLU
lplrra..rr.rop
lsnor,ra.,cl
ueql fla.os
lrr:r:
rr]l
Jo
sl^JJ J-Iotll strlJs^o-rcJa-r
pue por,iacl slql ,roJ sesEJltrut ,{lrrlrruu.tp
spur)
JIp Jo
arLlf f
[Pn]xf
'Qojz'eet
uosr-rrrt) Puar'
l']rlrlod
er-r
'rqlr,*
suorll'J q poretrd.a:cl scfr.r:,:.
-
su'\\
l'ql alucrsJ-IoLJJc
f;r:;a1t E
PJSsrtttL!\
ptte
'ro.,trod pzrJErlurJ JaJrls
Jo
surrel r, rlr-1r.. .: -
'atutl
,,1tlts-selt',
E sE sc^Jsrurql
suerrdi'E
aqr fq pa,*cr,r sun ruop'ur,1 rrppr'^ rLI_L
.
: :
]fjT-vlsT
El) spol,d ol'Ipa.'lellll
lsrrq pLrE ruop8rrr;,J
plo rar'l rr[] Lrr prr'rrur slroilrii... _
-stlEll
IEtrrlIIocl
prre
't:l8ooapr'lerros
Jo
Lrorl'rr*ulnf
q]
^\ES
l'rll EJJ rr':r,olsrLI
ucrri.r: ;
;o,irolrafelt
eqt urqli^\ porrocl
eto,rrd
e su,n (rfrr
0S9I_0r02) ..,opA,r,; rlppltr{ rrll
.ruer-if,
lerros Jo
sasaqrocl,(q
p::
-Jc'rap slsr30orc1'{3E
rJlq'\\ r(T por-rad
JtJr.rolslLI
rsrrJ rql eroJcraql su,n u-ropHur; rrpp\ .,_
'eutdtrsrp oql urqlrlN'(ara
g-c91-6
107'n 'sarlsuu-ip LI.luJrl.r*ll
oqr q.',rrJr qlue,\rlr
-rr.:-
utop8ur'J rlppll{ rrerrd8g rql LrrLIr^\ Brrril se lJ*ls
l'rros
srq]
Jo
lxoluotr
1e:rfioou.:-
-
aLIl
PrIJIIucpr
a']\Erl s'rEIorPs iiJerrgrrads 'pelEn[^a
lIurlurua]srs
uraq _ra,\oLr sELI r:-
-
rr.rlclrunsse
ur'fl'' o'llrulrailrlu
puorcs fFr:c aqr Srrunp
rci'g ur esoJ'..ssEItr
JIpp.Li..
r
Y
-L\''H-r- flilr.ryulrr'r
rylr3Ololdr3l
lrJ-L Nr
gfrrls
crfH-,JN()r
o rr,r,.r-r,,'roor.,"l
NOIIDNOOIIN
t
Inl
Ric
I,tir
J^-
uci
cia
rhe
f. .
an(
Ric
mI(
Ki
Co;
an(
hor
abc
pra
re\',
SOCIETY
AND DEATH
IN ANCIENT
EGYPT
Thus' the cluestio't
of social
change
in the Micldle
Ki'rgciom
has
'ever
been systerr.rat
caJJ assessed
frot, a nLtrtidinrcnsio,r"r
p"rrp"rtive,
itrtegratin
arc-haeorogrcar,
represenra
tional, ancl textual
datl ancj contemplaring
whole lanclscares _
cemeter)
and setrlemen
alike
-
in evaluating
ancient
social svstems.
crucial to such a perspecti'e
shoulc
be rl-rr
study of cerleterv
lar.rdscapes
.f the pe riod; the e'tie range
of morruary
behavior
insteac
of a simple focus ou elite renrrins'
Given clocumented
rncienr Egvptran
attitucres
toward
cemeteries
rs loci for the recreatiot
of ideal ancl real social orders and the close connection
betrveen these landscapes
of death a'd the li'ing lanclscapes
to nl.rich tl.rey were adjacent,
these data can rnd should play a central role r' reconstructing
sociar :lncl political
process.
Tl-ris book explores
the connection
benveen
society
ancl dearh in the specific historical
setti'g .f Micldle I(ingdorn
Eg)'pt, ir.rvestigaring
the reality
of an ancierr
Egyptian
middle
class and considering
it es eu example
of cliffere'tirtion
and char-rge rn comprex
societies
ge'eralll:
Taking
a rultidimension:rl
perspective
tor"",ard
archaeological,
rextual,
and pic-
torial data' the book seeks also to bridge humaniries
ancl socirl screr.rtific
approaches
in
tntegr:ating
the archaeology
o1: indivicluals
r,vith the archaeology
of commul.rities
ar.rd
reiro1's as irn importrnt
'rethod
in the reconstrucriolr
of socirl ancl political
process.
rwith
the archaeological
consequences
of :r spike in access to previously
restrictec.l
aspects
ancj
spaces of ritual and mortuarv
culture,
the grcater
accessibilitv
of settlemenrs,
ard the sucl-
derr explosion
of texrs of all kinds r,vritten
more revers or societv rhan in earlier period:,r".i'Ti:ruT,I,:11':t*ll'],l'il;::lJ
provides
a fruitful grourrd
for such research.
The Historical
Setting
and the
problem:
Middle
Kingdom,
Middle
Class
The Middle I(ingdom (2010_1650
BCF) rvas a period
of political
and curtural
unity folror,r,-
ing the politic:rl
al.rd cultural
clecentralizarion
of the First Intermediate period
(ca.
2260'2010
ecr) (see
Figure 1)' It comprisecl
the ele'enth
dl,nasty from tr.re reunificrtion
of
upper and Lorver Egvpt under King Nebheptre
Montuhotep
II (2(J40-r991ecr);
the
twelftlr dvnastli
"rhe mosr stabre royal line e'er to rule Egypt,, (euirke
19gg:4) (r991_r7g3
lcn); and the thirteenth
dl',nasrv (1783-1650
ecr), less polirically
stable tha' rhe twelfth
d}'n:rst
but mainraining
significant
political
ar_rthority
throughout
Egvpt (euirke
19gg;
Bourriau
1981;
euirke 1990;
p:rrkins
on 1991).
At the heart of this centralized
period la1-the
t'veifth dvnasrr,;
chrracrerrzed
by political
cotrtttlr-titv'
with relativell'few
rulers ascenciing
the rhrore
over t\,vo centu'es.
c)ne possible
explar.ration
for this stabilitv
r'vas tl.re practice
of coregency
b1, several kings of the dynasty
(x4urnane
1977;
Iarrsen-\finkern 1997; \x/egne r 1996a;
bur see Deria 19g0 rnd obsomer
1995 nor dissentir.rg
opinions);
one inclex of tl.re degrce
of cel.rtralization
rnd economic
:086I
*a1)["srur:1 0^. arl
Jo 'razrrs (aqr sr
]eq.uaLraLUV)
,,i
f.*r:1-f31
JB f1r3
1,-i.
?!\aLr E p'JSrJqurse'.ilsuufp
qrJJa.,{\r
..1'
o
r"-,,uno
cqr
,
roruraurluv
l'rr. selrrpl'
3-rcpr
\:
]ffiillifi"l],l:,'"",''te:
ruopBur'
pto
"rr
or Bu.r-rnr.,
o
p".,r.,,
.iror.rd
*Erpr*u',i
,r<,q'no.rqr
u.,,",,.n.,n'lI',,',."",,il,il',j'..,.:io"."u:,:lJil'::;
::L:'iil:lili
'lo-i'oJou.'*l
l'urrur:(r,-...rr,,iirrr,1
1
p(r sprEyr)r .,
.,"u., .,ro,,rt-l'.'.l,1t;,lii];.
trrt:.ii:ff-.i::,:'i,:lli\.
\l<t'Ll,\D
UtTr
lrJlnnl
rrl0Z
uL.,l
,,ro..,.
,r.,,,i,rij
u{ap?;ur\
appt1
arlt
Jo
iootto.Ltl_1
lL)u.ntul
Jrir
0_c9I fglI
r:r8
0_c9I_fglI
1)x
L8,Ll_66L:
'r)fl
L6LI-+|8I
r:)fr
ltg l-g/gi
Lrf
8l8I /68 L
rlf
z68I-626
i
7.),
9761-I |
6I
r:)s
fgl J_I66 l
.\lsBu.\P
qlrl
nrJou)f,(l
os
,,\J lBrJtrrJua[r\j
IJI
.lrLJruJUrulV
JI [
]aJso.rsUes
I]
tJ,lso^\srrJs
IJ tELJrtrLt3rtrF
[
]JJSO,\ruJS
I
tPq[iJLrLUY
I r' tl 11 tt o.
)
r Lr t
F
] 1I,l
t
o t,t ar a tt t
ltt t z,
Pot.r
ilDtuov
P
o 1.t.) .) | a r Ll
!
o l.l
POt.t
ilot:-.n
_irsDtr.ip
qr0g
.itsr:rr-ip
rr6
_rrsrn ip rg
_ilsBrr_ip
rll
POt.tcl
al[
I
,r:suu.ir
r1t9
POt.til
)lrrl
.rlsru.ip
gtSZ
.rrsr:u.ip
ql
If9 t:)
!f9-,c6f.-rl
-c6t
Jl_lltl
It-
.l:rfl
Jf_z$
r.)8
Zf t--ft!
r:r8
tt!- Ogt
rlr
08i._66a
:r:rr
668 ?0t
:r.
fot--cz_c
].t8
-C_c__cgg
1.)tr
9s9-19L
l-1,
_cg9_g l
l:)
_c9g Er-gg
7.),
TLL
g16
r:rc
9t6-001
rlf
0/01-_c8 t I
?:)s
-qgl I_t6l
1.)s
f6Zl_0/_qJ
_\lsr?Lr_\P
irJr
.ilspu,ip
prrZ
.usru.ir
1s
7
PO
u :l rP ) ut,t llt
I P.!
| tl
J
.ir"^uu.ir
q:g
.usru.ip
qt5

.i:seu.ip
rtg

tuotEt.rt,tta
.t:r8
0/_c J-999 I
l:)fi
_c9_cl__cggI
.rt
09ct_gg9l
1:).
_qg9l_02./
J
rft
0_c9I_!8I
:r.)s
fstI-t66,
t
rl,.i
I66t_0f0
.rlf
0t0zJf IZ
l:)s
_ctoz__(/
LZ
:r.)'I
_cl] z-09z
.P-)
1.)\r
09TZ-L\lT
r)fl
l)fa-llvs.
1:).
tt_cz-og9Z
rt,J
0892_0_(.z
'r.)q
t)-rLa_0067
r:)s
0062_00 | t
rllr
00tt_0s-2t
l:)f
0_cz._00,
,Jrfl
001.t 00zf
r.)8
00zt-008t
_\tstrr_\P
rltil
.itseu_{p
rt9
i
lsos).\H) sr:uir qr_c

_rtscrr_ip
rlfl
POl-Id
J]t]I
PJITIIs]UI
PUO.TJS
.irsrurp
qr
jlsuuip
rllzl
UIUq
puZ) rrsuuip
rr1

ruopBurJ
appr1
(,llull tsll u.ip rfrJ
I
.itseu.ip
Lllo
J
srus-tu,ip
LIr6
,q.rg ,rltl
por"rJ J1rrPf, ruletul
ls-rr-J
.rrsuu.ir
qt9
_irsujp
rlr,c
.itsEUip
qt.l?
jtsu,ip
pr.
ruopiurJ
p
]\.tsPU^P
puz
.r:seuip
ts

t
r: r.r sr -t t ls utl q,i1.r t,1
g ,itsurr,iq

upebu

rpubr
l
upBbpN
uurJuirug
t
ct t.t ar s r I s Ll u,{ p at
r
NOtDnoouJ.N
I
ff
&
IH
l"g
i=
In Soc
D ;^L.
\lr -'
:
-:- -
-.1:' :.
_ _
: il
.-J
-
F.lch;
*i.1.-:
L'1.-
I\rI<\
Coml
--J -
arlu :
tdtlcL
hon'l
abour
SOCIETY
AND DEATH tN ANCIENT
EGYPT
Parkinson
1991
)'
believcd
to lie at the mouth .f the Fayum,
a'd ki'gs focusecr
'.ruch
of their
roval
b.ilding
activity
in the vicinity
of this city. For rheir morturry
monumenrs.
Ament'rh
rarrr rris sr'rccc\\ors
rcsurrecfed
trre prranrid.rs
r prorrint,''l.,-n,,,
o.-l"rr_
ing tl"rc la'rdscapc
and c.mmunicating
royal porve r, and constructed
elalroratc
complexes
at
el-Lishr,
el-Lahun,
Hawara,
Dahshu
ancl Abydos (see
Chirptcr.Five),
nestecl in a s.pporr_
rve string of towr.rs housir.rg
the populations
that carricd
ou,lnd
supported
erch r.r_al
mor_
tU:lr) cult ,Figrrr.c
2).
Royal building programs
at this time also emphasized
the consrrucrron
and embeilish_
menr of gods' tempres
the lenEh
of rhe Nile (r.nost
notabry,
at Ezber Rr-rshdi,
Heliop.iis,
Kirrnilk'
Medamud'
and Tbc{), materializir.rg
ar increasing
stress on roy.l piety in the cen-
tral ide.l.g1'(Frarlke
I99-5).
Archaeological
ad textual
evide'ce
for the goverrlmenr_
org:rnized
quarrviug
expcditio's
connecrecl
to fhese buirdi'g progr1ms
abouncls (Goyon
1957; I(ernp 1989; Franke
1995); the governmerr
als. initiatecl
exresi'e
irrigati.n
projects
u'ithin Egvpt a'd dedicated
ertensive
resources
to militarism
ol a scare
'ot
previousry
rlanifested
in Egl,ptian
historv
The twelfth dyt]astv
sau' the begirrning
of true imperi:rl
activity on the part ()1:
the
Eg1'ptian
state
'
inclr-rcling
a n:rssive fortificati.n
proaram
t. the south, r,r,ith thirteen forts
attesteci
archaeologicall'
and/or tertu.llf
in Nirbia; rhere mav also have been additiona]
fortifications
along trre easrcrlr
eclge of the Delta (Kemp
19g3; o,con'or
19g6; Fr,rnkc
1999)' There is e'idence
for a sig'ificant
numbcr
of rnilitar:y
rorr,",
abroacl arcl for Egypr,s
first stancling
arm1" rvith a co'c.mitant
rvealth
of irscriptio'al
eviclc'ce for profcssion:rl
srldiers (Leprohorr
r97g; Bai'cs r9g7; Snape 199,r;
euirke
1990).
sir,uita'eorsrl;
erhnic
cliversity
r'r'rs increasing
rvitl.rin the Egyptianpoptrlation,
perl.raps
in part rclated to thc irre_
vcrsiblc
cntry i'to a u'ider *.rlcl preci.ritatecl
by this r.'ilitarism.
The rncreasing
migration
of scminomrdic
peoples
from both rhe Levant
and Lib1,a into Lor,ver L,gvpt (p:rrkinson
1991:11
Bietak 1996a)
nou' parallelecl
rhe conrrnuing
incorporation
of Nubiars ir.rro
Egyptian
society (Fischer
1961; Bourriau
1991b).
Iu contemplating
thls cly'amic
historical
setrrrg,
ser.eral themes
emerfle reiati'g
to
social change'
one issue of long-statcling
interest
has been the allegec.l suppressio'
of the
provi'cial
nobility by senr'r'osr:et
III i'the later t'velfth dvnast."-
1.".
tsoz-ts+.1
ncn), tlccom_
p.rricd
b,v a globai
reorganization
of the bureaucr:rcy
(Erman
1g94
Llggj_7 l;Hall r92r;
Haves 196i; Bottrriau
1988)'
closcll'relatecl
is thc rraditional
theorv that a miclclle class
arosc cluring the N{iddlc
I(ingdo'n,
believecl
b s,mc ro bc a,"r,,,r.,
this clelibcrate
go\ernmcntal
leveling.f
elite factio's.
I'the literarure,
this latter issue is als. li'kecl to a
s.-c'rlled
clem.cratizrtio'
of the osiris m1'tir anc'l r rvide rirg of access to fhe ccntrlj
mor-
tuary religion
and practices
previ'r-rsrv
resrricecl
to the ki'g ancl elites.
Further
issucs are the irnplications
of the ver1. existencc
ef a standing p16fessional
army, the practice
of rotrtrrg g.rrris.ns
in rhc Nubian forrs, rnd the impact
of both on the
'I JrtlxrJ
'9002
l)zr:fer1 _ratr ii;sr-erJc1.
)
strs ,\rI rJlrj\ tdi8q
lo
dll\
. eu$uEqdeE VlenN H31v1Ol
I
N
i
1d^93
gSddn
eUJBUV
rlgrlsre-le
JlO
UBSBH tueg.
tdAeS
31QO[^
.qojno
.e&rBl-funqB-l
l,r.n'n^",
ld^03
u3MO]
B@O-13
llol.
ueaue_uaapaw
NOIDNOOUINI
I
F.
.\,
..
'
SOCIETY
AND DEATH
tN ANCTENT
EGYPT
organtzatiolt
of Eg'ptiarr
s.jt't- cspcciell'
rvith rcgarcl
to ol.rportr:niries
for social and
political
rnobilitr':
Finaliv,
since the late i980s
somc sch.lars
h.ve char,rcterized
tl.re period
as.ne in rvhich the central go\crnmcnt
esp.used
a "prescripti,".e,'r,isio'
of socrct1.,
u,ith:r
rigicl :icl-rrinistrltioll
erercisin
ntore c.ntr.l
than pre'ror:slv
enf.rccd
o\cr every:-rs-rg
sf
the li'cs
'f
tl.re Egvptian
ropr-rlation rnd a tu,.-tieecl
org:rnizati.n
of the pop.larion
into
elite ancl ronclire
crasscs (Herck
1963; I(emp 19g9;
euirkc 1990;
parkinson
1991),
an ide-
ologv expressed
in buildil-tgs,
ro1'al mo'umertal
texts, litcrarl.
tropes,
and the cxistence
of
imperialisnr
itsclf' sr-rch rn oricntrti.r'r
coulcl be expecred
to ha'c significant
consecr'elrces
for the organization
:rnd operation
of societr,:
I
i:
t-
a
i
\'
1.,
"l
pl
LC
i
k
ts
F,
I
3
h
The "Suppression"
of the
and the Reorganization
of
Provincial
Nobility
the Bureaucracy
To r'r'-hat degree do thcsc theorles holcl r-rr? ir manr. instrnces
thc clata lsed to argue therr
boii dorv'to
one categorl-
of $'idence.
For exarnple,
tl.re disapl.rearance
of pror.ir.rciar
erite
dec'rated gr.r'es
after the reign of se'r,r,osret
III has been p.t forrvard:rs
thc nrai' er.idence
for an acltninistrati'c
refotn
b1' tl-rat king clesigned
t. curb tlre porvcr of an elite facri.n
_
the pro'inciirl
nobiiity
-
ancl simultrttcousi'
e'hance
the c'rtror
ancr scopc
'f
the ce'trar
bure :rucrircl' (Deria
19g0:16-r;
I(c.p rggi:r r 1;
eLrirke 1990:5).
During
rr-ris proccss,
senu.sret
III hac'l allegedly "shot
the p.rvi'ci:rl
'obles
of their rraclirio'al
rights ancl prir,-
ileges and rcduccd
rhem to rrre srarus of political
non_enriries,,
(Havcs
r961:50-5_6),
in an
inc'itable
shift fronr feudarism
r. bureaucracv
(Hall
192r:31g).
As recentry
as 19gg,
B.urriau
stated tl-rat senl'.sret
III's profo''cl
reorganrzatior
of tl-re government
,,had
the
cffect of redrtcing
the por'vcr
of tl.re local f'rmilics
r"",ho cont.llecl
tire pror.inces
(nomes)
ir.rto
n'hiclr Eg'pt u'as cliviclcd" (BoLrrriau
iggg:.39;
see als. Grajctzki
2007a .
This argu'cnt
is rvelkened,
horve'e r, b,v the li.rtc tw.elfth clr-rasty
clate of the largest of
these pro'incial
tombs at
Qa'el-l(ebir (Quirkc
1990:5)
ancl the fact that the c.li'ri'Lrtion
in
freqr:encv
of these tombs has ne'cr bcer demonstrarcd
t. bc a result.f
r..al policv (Dclia
1980:167)'
Furthcr'
t(cmp has p.irrteci
out that r,r,ithi' o'e gencrarion
rrre size of
^rval
t.rnbs also clccrirecr,
doubtrcss
as a rcsulr
of irstabiritv
*,ithin ,;; ;;-:;;r";J;
1983:112)'
Previouslv'
Helck hacl suggestecl
that rhc disr.'antling
of tl.rc pr.r.ir.rcial
pon,er
strlrcture
began rnuch errlier in the Middle I(i'gcionr (Helck
19-g: lg-19),
and rhe evcnrul
disappear:rrlcc
of the large elite tombs r'vas only a part of tl.re process;
rvhile ltanke sa*, rhe
process
Iess as a violeut "stlppressi.t"
than a gracltr:rl
alro.uvance
of the office,f
nomarch
(provincial
govcrrlor)
to frli int. clisr-rse (Fra'ke
1gg1,1gg5),
a less abrLrpt elir,rnation
of
poter.rtial
political
cornpetitors
thror-rgh
maragemcnr
of thc office over trme (cf.
B^rrnfiel
1989).
'JJLll,rnJ:.\.trlpLlL]
prrc JZrs rlLIl Lro pesEai JEIels e,\nr?iorueurllroa
pLrE,i.lrnt;oru asLIl Lr. ..
pJnpJp (sr,t,r1snor,rc1o pur) ac1 plnotr sJsnlrls llLuouoleolros
1o
afiuu1 pli\\ y
.J-rllt
\.-.
-uror ocfuuct sr-rrso qt ot tuettfpe,sop,icl
Jo
JJrs Llllltnos JL[] lp arroz (,.qc{uouar...r .\.1
rLll putr srr,rtrLlrar rrlt Lrro.rj rElels ruop8lrl)l alppll\r;o clno,ri e3-re1 eqt rcl ol sLLr\.1
,ro,i1sn.,su,r JaqlJLI.\\'uorrctun.^sl srrp rJoddns or psn frrcpr,\e rueloclur lsorlr rP i-.
'slstsraci uolloll JLII lng
'(ntleal
uo:^LIIl.rud)
!!.JrrlJ-qns,
prlrllrrl r
JO
srr rrll q,\\ rr1r-rr...-.
lEIros
rll ur eFrrlr-1t rqBrls u
lsrse8iins
arucpr,rS],,:tJlqs
lrtos
srrlt l1r()Llu sno11rrr ,r, .-
llrJr] ).\l'rL \r.t()t.il'nlL:.\:
lJlt'l
'lr.rrlilU.r.r,';l
lt'-r:tr
(ll .irl uot..ruJ lll.. LrI
Jo
Ll()l\\.rlrlrll].
\_
-qlleP tr qlLr
Puurl
trr
PurrT'turrr-1
Jli.PII\ rqr Srrrrnp paclola.rcp,ileros uertd.i83 Lrr s(:. l
JIpPltu t teql .ilarur:u'a;n]u-lrl
r:rr3o1ofcl,iii3
aql Lrr ptEtcl,iacl ,rUr-r:qt uortcftus...
uu przr,rEruLulrs pLrt (gIt:tZ6
l) IIUH
pur (16t:t6gt) LrpLurg.icl aprur stLrrLLrrllts,rl
-.rJ paorlJJ ,l.tct1st7
lLtat)uV aEpt.Lrltut,- JLlt
Jo
LlorlrpJ s096,I eri] irroJJ Lr()qrlonb a.loqr rq_T
;ruopSur ctppllv rL[] Lrr sslrlr rlpprru r
-Jo
rsrr or-t Srrrp-rc8c.r .roeqr rr[]
Jo
rrq,\\ prr\.
(_cl,:T96
l
sr.!EH)
'sot,ic1.
tc tcload:s:r1t it1
rtfrlff
l.Lrls ssrllr1o.t eql ur pur saanluts l,r.1cl
\no.lrililtu
L;-rr,'-t1lrr.ri:.ll )\l Ul.'.\
...Jril1.1.Orluil
l\Ur.\Jtnt-tilJ.)\,,r]
\\ ulr\u JLl.t.rIll
JLll prrB siJur,rEJ
JJrLLrs'LlJLirsapu-rl
.lrJLLrst]r-lr
1o rasodruor,ss[r
alpprru urrrcl,i8E
aql
-1o
aturB.reura aqt,it1 prrucrluro:.r:.rc st.n.rlrt1o11 pJprrrrIJrp
1o
urssalclcfuts Jql
. . .
eJIIrerJV eql
Jo
uorlezrlerJotuecl eql
Pue
sslJ elppllN 0gr
Jo
asru er{f
'Plslltr
'i1sLror.re,rcl
loLl lJ'\\ sLIOstJ,r
lrlBolorrqrrr;o
snor3rp-r JrLl.lrJ loJ t.cl p.tsr\l
sriu'rlE rru1 rrr srprl asrqr rr:qr sr ,ilr|clssotl ;arpou-'(g r>lzratrr) t0661 a>1,rrn| :gg61
trlC) srrlsPu.tp qlrtorr-trrr
Plrlr
tlryI.\\r llr otur Surnurluo pur urop8ur rlppll\t rLIt LrrrLIl
.IJlllt rlftlru rtniiccl aSrrurr
1o
ssc--to,tcl r:4o l-rrci;r-rJ,\\:^JIII sJLlt ltrlt aclrssod sl tr..ilrqo
Jtll
Jo,,LloIsse;clcltls,.
Jtll LIIL\\ St
c51-r,ot
JJLllo r,rl 'slrLtpr-\rpul
o
cBrru-r JL)t.\\ u
JO
sJltr-\ptr
eqr Srrrp;or:.r
ptrrp
IE,\rrlfrE Jo
qllta,\\ r rrrllt Suol-rr i.i-lotsrq LrrrrclBE
o
spor-rad Furprr
-,r.1\l )tll {)l tlo\t.ll'(lLuu.\ Lit l'tt'l) i.tItLl)rUlt.)ol.
Jo
\l)Ul)
llr: Jr)
rL()t\()l(lr: rrU
(.1
lrr/tJJlJr,.n,rl.
su,$ urop.SLrr,J elppll{ r{|pir.\lq polrd srql Luo.l-J sllrJLllrlfop rpns
-lo
-itr1rr1u.rL-r:ns -rrr
-le(l Lll ol
Ptul"I
ac1 -{enr Jellrl eql rr ucrclclt JIJLII llLI,\\
,stLr1tnLr91r
rlJns
J6
ruotJp
suotFtlc.r Jtll LII uollEXEIe-r N trrLl:J.tlckurs ,ir:ur reru-to- qt uo se[]rl sql
Jo
etue-rroclclu rr;r1-r
-pns,i13urruos Jrll',r,lJ,\\oq,ptssntsrp sl sy.slLrrultfop J.\rlr-rlsrLtrruprr Lll pul suorssa;chur
ItlS PUlr
SlPas-
Ptl1]
SlLl;rttTnU{rLLr ,i.rrllt-rtttrr ]t. \l-TLl Uo 3Ut-r.n<t SJlrl JllrrjlnfJjnq
Jo
rlOlltj
-r1o-rcl urppns Jql LIo'(E-c,886t nur:,rnog)
'irrc1ou
LIt
Jo
uorsse.rclcftts ar-1t rllrr\ lrolltLlltfuol
ttr a:rt1d trJll 3.\1rtl ol Ll;rs purr
JIJ
tJrs-o,$oJs yo lrira-t Jqt ot pJln(irJIE oslt,.rrr:ltnrr;nc1
L)LItr
luLLlLlie'roii atp
Jo !!ttolluzlulrS,roa-r
runoo.rc1,,
r
o,irocr-11
rrll psEq r,\url stEIorlf,S
NOtItncourNt
SOCIETY AND DEATH IN ANCIENT EGYPT
tirc eristence attd
yartetl', or lllsencc, of titles also contribr-1tes to the it1lltrctsit'lr trf erul.t-
sive diffcrenti atior.r (Sirr pson 1 97'1; O' Conn or 1 98'5)'
That:r rnicldle class:rLose rn L.gr,pt cluring the N4idcllc I(ir-rgdom scems thercforc to have
bee. positecl on lirrgelv the sarne categorv of eviclencc citcd for the "re.rrg:luiz-tion uf thu
burearcrac,v" The appealaucc of ncrv textuL eviclencc ilt thc archaeologicirl rccorcl lorver
ler,cl bureeucratic titlcs, on either rrortlrr\'or \-otivc rtt()ltllnlcllts ol in aclmirlistr:rti\e
clocumets srlggestecl this social change to schttlars, provicling vet allother cx.'-mple of the
prir-necy of cbcumcntar,v cr..idence irr thc rvriting of Egr.'ptiirrt historll Thc tertuel evic'lcttcc
is
''der-riahlv
intriguing ar"rcl suggcstir,c; but in cLrntrast. trother prol'rosed line of cviclcnce
for this social shift
-
the rlchacologicallt' attcsted e risteucc of cxtensit c lon-.r
'
)rLlcr cctllc-
tcrics f.l the periocl
-
hirs not bccn foregroundecl in treclitionrl cljscussious of thc prol'tlenr'
Firalll; tirc hvpotl-resis of r clenrocratizetion of the aftcrlifc, u-ith r'r'rclcl social access to
rlre clir.ine
(Parkison 1991:11) t1'rrough clirbolrte burial erlcl voti\c conrlremoriltlorr
(Bor-rrr.ia. l99la), has lso bcen usecl as inclircct er,ic'lencc for the rjse of thc mjclclle clrss, as
it u,as bclier,ccl to bc relatecl ro rhat proccss (Hall 192't:323; Hrrvcs 197 1:59 Plrkinsorr 1991;
Frarkc 1998;
parkinson
2002). Hall sln the national clevotictr.r to
(Jsiris
rt Abvclos orr the
part.f t1-rc Egr,ptian population as a clcliberate icleological utatlcutcr
()il the
Frrf
of
trl,elftl-r-c1r,n.rstr.
kirrgs to foster a fceling of ctlnrrntllt Upper F,gv-ltialr r.raticlnalitt'(Hall
192.1:323),irnplving
tht such ctlntmur.rin spifit rvas clccnrcd llccess1r\-ltoI tl-rc 5ss* of
the statc. Llltimirteh', ,Lncl irr r.cry circular fasl-rion, this hvpothcsis rcsts I.lro\th-ol1 th s'1ln(
tertual clata usecl ro subsrantjrre rhe "rise of r nriclclle class" (Frankc 1998; Parkinson 2002)'
Thc datr usccl to slrpporr thc pro.rosecl lise of thc miclclle clrss arc tar-rtalizrng but prob-
lelrrtic. The appearence Of a n.idel range of titles thilrr prer-ioush'attestccl oll lllortllar)'
arcl v.tir,e monllrnents or of lou'cl orcler rortuarv monuntcnts rvith no 'Lssocirtccl inscrip-
ti.rs is s.bjcct ro the snme criticisn-r brought to bear ott thcorlcs regarJirl'J lllu lctrgrlriz'r-
tior-r of the burcrucrtCV: thrt t1-rc "llc1r," categorics or clrsses of prcrs'rtrs l'cpfe\tlltcLl by
tl-rese titlcs ma\.alwrys or previouslv l-r:rve existecl rn F.gvptian socletr bn f.,r r'tiulv ul:
reasous *,erc recorclccl or prescrr,ccl or-rlv es of the X4idclle I(irtgclon-r' Thu crisenct of tig-
r.rificart lorvel:rlrcler cer.neterics fcr tl-ris pcriocl, noted elrlicr rs rclclrti"rl,rl
\upPort f'rr'hc
thc.rr,,, was not in fact :L phcn,rrnenon unic-rc to thc beginr-ring of the seconcl rnillcnlliul-r'l
LCF_. llrn.t.rr clocunrcrrtecl such l:rlge pror,inci:rl cer-neteries alreadr: bv the tinrc of the First
Intcrmccliate Periocl, most notablr,:rt
Qau
acl Bacleri (Brttntor-r 1927)
,
rllcl reccrrt \\'t'rk itl
rhe larer Olcl I(ingc|rm ar-rcl First Ir.rterncc'liate Pcriocl ccmetcries at Abt'clos hls est,l[.tlished
that such ce t.netcries rlso eristcd hcl:e
(Richards 2003a, Hcrbich ancl Rich.rrds in press)' Thc
,,lor,r.er
orcler" gr:,Lves of those ccmctcrics drsplavecl r remark:rble retlge oi size ancl u'cllth,
aEiarlr srlggestlng:r c()mpar,rble r:Lngc of socjrl cliffererttiatiorr cxisting prior to thc liddle
I(ir-rgclorn. Fiallr.. it Ias Lcet-r c]cnronstratecl thirt thc ttrrogatiotl of ror-al sl'nlbols of strtus
to prir,ete iclivtclurls
(sLrcl"r irs thc right to beconre C)siris aftel cleath erl.l fhu ttse
''f
ror-'rl
rfl
r#
l
E
r
'i'rlrcpr pur s:r'roc1ol
.orrrJurrol
)^, prrr',irr-r.,s
rrplro,rq
..,r,r, o:;:::?ilt:::i:;:'
-Pltrt ttr:tlc,'i3l
Jqt
Jo.surrur:1'--r:rpr11 ur plracl ,l t1rq
,sJrr.lluru
J,ra,.r,r,,rurr.rc*,
ru..
,s1
's-]tlcu.llllJs
ttlo-IJ luPI-\a
rJlt'*
le1t-tiilttr pLItr slr\^
^J'1rl-ro.r
-rJLJlo.ro,r,
Lror-rrrlr-roJrrr
rr-
PJtllcltuor'EltP esrLJl-
"\\ollir
PItlo'\\
-]1rrs E rlf,1rs
lo.rrLrof
lrlor
oLll ut,rll
pJrn(lr.rlsrp.i.r1-
;lioul
q)lltu Ftttlcl rrucl:^
p'lr str.\ls.st.'i
ol s^slf'lr,rrcJ
LJ'r\.l'ls
_,e.rrtclutsl.t
r: ut
-rll'l:c1xa
Jq
P[no'!\
]tt['\\ ()]
'ir:lt. Lrorl'.lrs
,, ^rs^JH;rs.)-ro,\\prJr-l
l.JfJl
Jo
slrir.
'rqr
3urpn1:ur
'e-ralr:clurs^rur:r
'i-ruur-rour uropSrl
tpp,\ LJl -r(4 rqErrr.\1r
lrlrp
rlrr Jo
rr,
-lr-IPlSrror
a'rrsuarJe:cfLurl
\j (("!\Jl.\ 'rrltrl;--rs-rcj,.
cql ur -ilur'r,,,.r.r',r,
pJ.rnlu{ ed_\r Lrl
str'\\ol
pJLls^lJ(lulsr-ltlLUrrrr.vrii
ori
Jo
Juo
J()
uotllrlol
Jrll pu JLll ssJtr.rlpprLLr
r
JO
s,
ozl^Jtltod.\LJ
ol
fiJsu
cufJls,+()
clno?i.il.r
oLlt
JO
cl.ln()5^ Jrll
.JlJslr
so_r_iq,
Jo
r-s LJt sr \\.
Pto-rcl
r LJrn5-
Jo
uulocJrur
tqt
-1o
rlclLurxc
.ir>1 y
.sclno-ra_
utr1rOc{
purr
JtrrJos
uuril i:
ItIJIltlu uJJ,\\tJrl
sc'lrr:^uorteJ:.t
Srrrsrrr:rl:irilssJ5__B
Olril,!\opril.\\
lurl,lOclrul Llll pr.\,
EllrP
'\'ltrlll-Ioru rrurlcJ'i83
Jcl
ltrc.rlclruor
JIru
rLJl'slJporu..r.l'clurs:.rc1.,.rrrrJ:rr
r-rorlr..
Puu 'ill--ros rr-ropFury
JtPPltr'[
Jo
sttor]oLr
f
ErrollrpE-rl
LJlocr L'or-+ Jfrrsqtr
slr,tcr sur'rcJsrr,
eteq fren,row
BurleFoi
L.
'<(lrrl arrl'\r
Jo
slllEls aqt liurqreo-rcfclc
clno-ii.iuu,_o
urrlrci.,
orrlrJ,JJ
arlt t.recl.x:,,,u
r,,,,,f
.: i,tf'
-l;ls
PJJIO-lltlo: -irqi:-rl 1r Lrlls LII
"irr:'r-111
xrc'hur.-r
u
Jr
luur.irJcb-r
prrr: ru:urcrol:.,.
;tl ri8no.rrt
pur,tlroruuolr,\rr
!.lJtnq.,.ir_io.r u
1o
uortrnclrurru
epr.,t_lcl,iHq
uu q;_ur,.r-
:i:1ln .N ur:rlcJiSq
aqr rncq'3tro-tqr,rrarr.s
,o
Lrorsr-\
pJ-rrr-o,\\l u jo lLrJ.rrJ-ro,J..r r,
filrsocl laporu
e,rrlclr,r-rsa.rci
srr1
.(6,96
clruay i66
.i.rerrrE)
urqn Lu srr.\\ol s_s.uroJ
f
.
6bir'l
ilLtr:y :J6i
r
)l'lrr(J
ujlrrlr-rr
lf Lr.\\u.r i.rr.n.r.r,r1 .r1
;'.r. ...t,,,,..,
,r,,,,,,.^1
.',
-rt't'3
lErltls'
crl -ici paln:rxJ -lLItlrJJlrs
f-r'urIc{.ilrrr8rr ruo-rJ ]urpr.\o
fiLrlr
por-rit1 .-,
Jo
slxrl f rltl.)11lr-rnq
prlrulrp.i;tsualur
Lro 5^rlr
,(2007,L661.I66[
rrosLil]rDd:qi66l .lrf
-
e>:tn))
por'rrci u-rop3r-rr;,J;rrppri.\r
r[],+o srrorsslrlsrp
ur pclrr urr]o,\\()Lr
pLlr
5351
rrr tl.r
-.
-ic] pailr:lap
lst'J iiltcls
-Jo
tloIloLt
.,.rrrclrs-rcJ,, LJl 'srrr'Lrrr-r
lurrtiol.euql,rr
-Jo
rror.rrr:...
-JJltIl
'\\o-lllrtt
'il'rtlttcltu'r u artsFtt.r
rrltp
rrrrrxJl
ur,iIr:urr-rcl
pera,r oslrr sErr *i.';..
.
JIPPllr tl] tlI stlorlPIJr
Iul]os Jo
tlolst-\ 3rlcltu.
trterr-t.iF.rrr:1el
i:.rHroua.t1urrLrr,r
t\ro-t^rLI
uurlcli8q
Lil
lrecl
,rJrllJrU _ir.l _
.(lros
L[]rt11 .
Jr-
HttlLttltll-ttu
PLIt
tlolltrlltlJ'leJJlp
JLll JoJ suorrr:rrlcrur
i:-urrurclscr-ror
LJrr.\\
-
ru:ruclol.r :
)^ll
'Jo
sloor rrr'ruopHur
rpprL\ eql rrr,irro
ssrJr rrpp.Lr E,roJ rrrrpr.\e
llrnlxl
rrl
ol ur:-rl 5^.lEloLIrs
qiinortu
.lurJt
slsF8ns
srrlt
-Jo y
.(066I
pulsrrrurJ :1
tT,f l l:,,,_ -
rrosLrJoS
uupLrrpod:6g6J
surrg)
uuFlrl unt.torJp,1o
uorsse-r,3surjt
IpErH
rl ]ir .
rlrrtl,\\
ltr't-ttopiirrr;,
plo Llr
-Jo
prr rqr
tu iprerr
unHq
puLl
_
:lrJ.rrl-lc
rLIl
,Jo
tror.tr./. :
-rouIP rll
-
(lgo6l
'886l s[rrJ[r\\]
5^urJJOtr
rprsul
prlrr'cl srrrfcl.
Jo
szrr,rl qr rrr sJO!rr,.
NOIIDNOOUINI
10
SOCIETY
AND DEATH
IN ANCIENT
EGYPT
In this b.ok' I takc a nr'lticlinc'sional
appr-rach
ro rhe srare-rcver
societl-
,f sec.rcJ
millerrtritrn'r
ncl Egt'pt'
espcciallv
rhnr of the tr'fidclle
1(ingclo' (20.+0-1
650 BCI), clra'iing
prim:lrilv.ll
atr:Ll1'sis
of the archac.logical
rcmilil.ls.f
nlortrarr.behavirr
bur r,r-ith rcfe-
crce also ro colrrempol'a^'scrrjemcnr,
rexrr:rr,
"u.t
i.,.,,r,,*.,;;r;:
;;;" Fr.m rhis irtcrc'isci-
plrnarl'perspecti'c'
call a mlclcilc clrss or gro.p,
s. often rcferrec]
to rn the Egr.ptol.gical
litcrltlrrc
(e'g''
Hall 19?'3; Havcs t96 l), reallv be substantirtecl
for this pcr:rocJ,
ancl, if so. h'* cl.cs it fit irlt. broacler piltte r' .f social arcl cconrrnic
clf'fcrc'ti:rricn
f.r the r{iclclle
l(ingclorn?
\xlhat rrle clicl it plav in thc [roaclcr
s.cia] a'c1 political
cler-eropnrents
of elrrr-
scconcl
mille nnium Egt-pt?
--
vr!!ra'
As a prelucle
t. aclclrcssiltg
thesc clLresti''rs,
chaptcr
c)'e consicrers
social svster.ns
ilr r-nore general
alrd theoreticll
terms ,urcl cJefines
kcl.col_rcepts
usecl thnrLrghout
the book.
chaptcr:
Tu'o prcsents
in nlorc clet'ril tl-re texturl
arcl r-eprcsentrtirnrl
clrta rh,rt h:r'e bec'
tri'rclti.nrllv
cnlphasizcd
i'c.nsicicr-rrrg
the cl.cstio
of srcrcn,in
the r,Iidclle
I(ingciom,
*'hile Ch.rptc Thrce rc'i*r's
the achacolc,gi.ri
.tid.,r..
t.r;,',,:;;r;orrlr1r\-
r:rncrscapes,
incluclirg
scttlemelrt
ancl temrrc
contc\ts.
Iu cr.,r-,1.,t..,
Four lrcl Fi'e, l m.ve to an ir_
clcpth c,nsiclcr'rtion
.f Egr
tr-rti:tt
ccrre rcrr, lanclscapcs,
bcgi'rirg
r.r,ith a gc'eral
discrs-
sion of sch.larll-
bias etl ssi'11
r1'1'1'1.1',..
i,r the Egr,1'rtia'
Nilc Vairer.
ancr co'tiruirg
r'r'ith a sur'e''f
thc t.t.lrt'of
nr.rtu:r11'practicc
cluri'e
the r\,lidclle
l(r'gcl.'.
'r
Chapters
six ancl se'cn, If'cus
rtn thrce c-asc stirclies:
rhc ertensi'e,\ridcile
I{ingcronr
cctlrcteics
at Haraga
ancl Riclcla in thc north rncl rr Abvclos
i, thc s.urh. Finallr,,
in the
book's
c.nclusiotl'
i irltegratc
the rcsults
fro'r rhcse
'ort.lrv
strclics r,r.ith clat:r disc.ssecl
i'the
first part of the bo,k to achie'c
a richer
ancr more c11.n.mrc
'rer.,..f
Micjdrc
I(ingclonr
soclctl'thatl
atrl'o1lc
l\e.Llc
of c'iclencc
allor,r.s.
I' this *,av r c.'r als. colrsicler
the rarurc of socier :rnd politic:rr
process
i,, L,gr-pr
";.r;,;.;;r;;ll-r,,carions
for trre
stuclv of ancient
sociefi. r-norc ge ne rallr:
\.
t
tr
F
n
E
r.i
fr
t
ShEISAS ]VIDOS
INEIDNV CO
ACINIS EHI
gNO
IHVd
t1
'sLrollEUltlclxr
puE slJpottl 5^]r -roJ .i-ol:. :
JlLJdtlSoLItllJ LIo
'i[a'l
slI\JJrl]o
tsnlu qllLJr\ '.eloq,\\ r,r b-E sannos xJlclLLror
JO
rLralrrdol..
-
err
1r.ipnrs
r-[l .r qe.lddr irr q'rs
Jo
srror]nclrJru.r
1er1uo1.c-l
rrll ,ro1 IsEJI rou
l _
PuEIrrolV:186I
rtlolsl.FI:6L61 relJo^:t8:tS6I
s-mEpV'U,.i.a)
,t8lr:-rls
Irrrrr-rr
r,r su
l)...
rro:rc1 lluol 5-url seuorlos atrelrl
,lLrottLrp
1o
pnr.^ eql ur sts^jlrrrt
JEnlxel
prrr:
JrrrHoorr.rrr..
Jo
uorrEZrlrlrJ-ssorr sn1
.(Errr.tolloJres:96.3uo1r
:Z00Z,rIcE666I
ilr)s,1
i696 rirL.-.:
lE066I
'qL6L JoLlLro-)O
,.3.e)
eru-r
1o
saclil rltocl alu.lodorlrr ol epplu uaocl srclureE pt,..-
-LI{)J Jrut[
'iJlrrarc'l 'to'rrler'r -{ug'(r66) sr-uoy c1 rrca:1 .]LrJrlrt,roJ
pelori uorrrr-'-
-
e Burlcr.rrcI
'lerrtr:ru
rrr3o1o:r:qr_rE
Jo
IEr-l]xl
.taLljta
Jo
slsrtlELrE aql r_Eno,rql slrr:.
ascLJl
PeqlEo-rcldr:,t1u-rrue8
e'rer- rcl,iSg ILInlrE
Jo
sJu[orl]s 'slotlEJ,rarlto
Jo
LrorlEIr11.:.
JLII put'dns;naua.rde;lu..irr-rBu
Jo
uour:cftr aqr q8noqr,Luats.{s pr:os ua.tr8 I urri_
,irrrcloiu
JprJos
puu lrLrroLlole
Jo
luJlsrxJ cLJl pLrE,tr Errrr:lclsrp
Jo
spoL[.trLu aq] prr sn:--
.
]ILLIOLIO]OI]OS S.TITUUqUE
JO
SLLISITITIf,JLLI JLI]'(866I JEJJO
PLIE
SJLII.]g ILgI'L86II.1.]]
]]..
uosuqof :g96t s[Irrpv) sa:rnose; rr10c1ur,is,ro:.rurrrpold
-ro rmrorrorJ
JO loJ]Lrof,
-ro:
()]sse]]E[uI]t]J'IJJJrPSEPJUIJJP.]tlsc{U()i]EI]UJ'IqJIP]]uIOtlo]eoI]()sJ()]Ua]\;)|]]
p-rr:ia"r qlr,n.{letrecls'as ld tros
o.,(trxacl-'otr
rlt sat[ ]f,J[qns srL[l
J()
]_TEJLI arll t\
'll'uul.tt'Ll
prru.t'uorg:.
. .
:uorlulluJrJJlp
Iprlos Jo
SJIEJS a1c1rrnur Hlrrluldrr-rluo:
1o
ccurt_roc{rut eql Fun-ro1rn.r t-.
'sa;ttose ol ssJtrJlr
IUlluJ{JIP JO
tlollotr LJl slr qtns sLrotsuclurp
IErJn]t
cJn Surlls
,:
str qlns srutal ,i>l 8ur,rodxe
,sertrlocl
pur sclno-r8 LrJoporu prm lllJrJuu ut uonezrrru.ro :_
s-nlEls
IPrlos
pJlpnts a,ruq (stsrSolOaEqlrE,il.rr:lnrrr,rrd
pue) slsuucrs
]Ertos
Li.)rL[.\\ Lrr
.
:
tIl
'\\I^Jr
roJelJLIl
I'.ldeq
sltll uJ'trtcruoueqcl salll
Jo
srsilrue JLI.I ur slcporu
Iril-
-ssorr
PLIc ltrrljotll
,rpEoJcl )o,\Llt ol un8acl iprrarr-r frro e,rr:r_
.lcl,{t-q
tLr:r-rLlr tr\

lyuf\11) Nt f'.),\\Hl lyt:)os (INy

'SStll :tl(]cltI\ \':IO ..{SI}I lH.t_ l)NICryrfH \NoT\\ I ,.'LI
SSV]D JO NOIION IHI ONV
NOIIVIINEUEIC
Iq lVI3OS
3 NO ISIdV H f,
I
l.+
soctETy AND DEATH rN ANC|ENT Ecypr
The Study of Inequality
Thc stuclv .f srcial :rrlcl economic cliffcrentiatio
rrncl the mcchnisnrs .f political e'cl social
incqualitv l-ravc lottg bcen central intcrests in social scientific archaeologr,, par:tic.larl'
sirrce
the cie'elopmcnt of this phettomenott
has rlmost i'r'ariabl'
bcen co'siclcred r ce'trll f'crtllre
in thc e''l'ti.' .f c.'plex societies (c.g.,
chilcle 1936; Fried 1967; ser'.rcc r97-i; Cohen r97g:
.fohnsotl arlcl Ea:lc 1987); this clifferenti,rtion hls becn scen gencr.llr. AS orc lnc.S.re of culturc
charrge (Adatns
l')66, 1981; Rathje 1971;Fricdmirn
ancl Rer,r,lrncls 197g;
yoffee
199j). T*,cr
concepts arc subsltrnecl Lrnder this to1-ric: that of social inequalitv arrcl that of social sratifica-
tion' S.cial il-re qLrali'is
'iet'ed
rs .nc climcnsion of incrc:rsi'g cornplerrtv in c1c'ekrtr-rirg soci-
cties (Pa\'nter
1989:369); it "erists r.r'hcn sociallv distinct crrntics hl'c differcntirl lcccss rcr
stratcgic rcsources . . . arld this cliffcrcnti:rtion
giyes t1-rose u,ith acccss the ,rlilifl,to c.rtrol thc
Itctiot'rs of others" (Pavntcr
1989:-369-70).
Social stratific:rrion, clefinccl sinrilarlr.as cliffcrcr-rtial
rccess ro rncl,trr control of econonric or proclucti,,.e resorlrces (Aclams
.1966;
Tohnson ancl Errle
1987:1'7), is associatccl *'ith the "cross-c.tting
of s.cictv inro political/econ.mic
c6sses"
(scn ice 197'5:'198) rncl hls gertcrallv becn secn as charrcreristic
of chiefclom ancl cspeciall'
st:rtc-le'el societics' T]re clifference bctu'een the nv, concepts is theref'rc Iargclr- one.f
cieerec; the r'o terms, it-t fact, are oftcn Lrsecl intcrchangeabll.in
thc litcrrturc. Important t'
both dcfiniti.l-ts is the assttlnptiolt that "cliffcre'tial
rccess t. cclt,rir-l g.ocls confers eal ec.-
nornic powcr irnd legitimates existirle socirl hierarchics" (Costin
irncl Earle 1L)g9:69I).
The origirl attcl tlatrtrc of social stratificatirn remain .l nlatter o clcbete. Sorne scl-rolars
hirYc secn it as atl inevitable phcnomcnon
in the risc of statc-ler.cl socictics (Jol.ursor.r
and
Earlc 1987; Schiffcr 1988:'168)' but its r.lc in the rise of regional politics hes becn,rter-
pretecl in diffcrerlt
'r'avs.
Propottents tf thc Nlarrist scho.l .f :Lrchaeologv r,rssign t, it :r
ci'tr'tsrl role: the st1te cvolves itr responsc to social stratificatiol-1.
as a cocrcir.e
'rechrnism
to
rcsolve rntcrnel corrflict betr'r'een strrtificcl cllsscs (c.g., Fricd 1g67; Haas lggl). Nco-
evoltttiollists see tt more as att etfect: stltc-ler.el politics rrre possible only ti-rrough control of
the meatls of prodLrctiott;
social stratification results from rn increase in the irnportarcc
of
relati'ns[ri1-rs brsecl rll ec.t-l.mic c.rrtrol and a c.r-rcon'litant c]ecreilse in the inrportance
placccl on kin ties ([ohnsort
and Ealle 1987:157). In this model, thc cler.elopnrenr of socirl
str.tific.ttiorl futlctions al.ngsicle the relatecl processes .f s.bsiste'cc inte nsific.ti',. lncl
political i'tcgri'Ltio'-
b.th.f r.vhich encoLrrage the cler.eloprlent
of clif rclrrial access to
resource s (.fohnson
ar-rd Earle 1987).
Il-r earll asrrriirn states, the basis of porver ancl rverlth
-
and thcref.re.f s.crrl
strrtificati.n
-
\\'rs the coutrol of thc ne:rns of procluctiorr, gc-ncraJlr. \,este.l i. t6c.u,rer-
sl'rip of lancl or rights to its proclr,rce (Johnson
ancl E:Lrlc 1987), control 9f labrr (V,,ebstcr
1990),.r botli' The nlaln clivisiol-ts in thc socicfi'of iln agrilrian strte 1re thereforc plrclnc-
ers atlcl nl1]1:tgcrsr 'Lncl the importancc
of kin ties in social relrtirns clccreases in fa'or of
I
i""
'sJtull
PalllsLIn
'ul-ItlP
JsuJJlLIl
LJIJE'\\
ol ssJtrrE
fiar
lLreurJrp.\pE.roJ
scrlrrr'1.rocJfl.,
ii-. -llJoJL[]
'st
"{1t"t
aql rrt cButqr
lerrrtoc{ pLrE
JErtros
1o
,-,,u,,r.0
Eurlro1c5
igrssod
ls,*r st ruls-'{^,itre
ur,i1qiu
lErros
ltr{l ps-odoJc1
oslu surl r1
..,,,"rr.i,
lurlos
LrEr.rErocl.:_;1q
ur
'r1rrcloru lo
sJolullJllejl
'i;trut'rd eqr 3urac1
su
'ape-rt tuo4
rqrucr/rl
u.rlucllrl-lccr
rr-rr
r -iPLIr lo] seutilnl.clckl
sE
fiJr\r
st'sri.tssop-rcJ
Jo
rn.rdo*.i.q,
pl]u Lrorr'ZrJ'rlecls
-r1r:r Lro prslrtoJ .wq urruulocJos^rJiy
ur irrtcloru
lErf,os-
JO
,un,rrn.rrp
Geet
,eef)
s.rJJoI
prrl'?rross'
.r*qr
qrr,*) .{raros
Jo
s*rro-r
Jrua'eueru .,,, .l'::lLtJlJ::r#fi":::":
su'xoqloot
_{tl[q,r..,
rl] ol _iu;alrIppr
uE J^\
(punlr
ur tciBE ]uJrJLle
o
aclLuexc
lr]nds
Jql qlra'spoo'
0[c]u-rols'ro
rllJE'\\
Jo
srlrroJ S1lolr',\
olur cluo,rS lo,,irur:3,rnpr.rrpur
arir .{ci peru,o;:srrr:-'Jrl
Lrerl] LrEJ LIJrqr\
,s'Jdrns
jo uort'InLrrnrJE
r[] ruoJIr srrlrrls
asJqf
.(6
'6L7.:L86L elrta
puc uosurof)
_ill.ior.,
i,,,.,pr,r,_.,,r,
ol prrrl osJr Lrrr LJln[,!\
!ruo]s_is
l)cur
PazrlEJoJ
,Io
JtruorlrLl
u rrr Burludrrr,rrcl
.ici pr-ru ipuel
_Jo
sluE_rF
rB'olrl
LrJlJo
,slJrplos
lEnLrr.\
-tPUr.roJ
JrrerrleJrrr]tp
apr.,ro'lcl
lEql sjo.\EJprro
_t't11rlrur
r,r B,l,rrr.Jnrt_recl
_ic1 islc>J.rr:.tocirI
3!rrslr1.,
Jo
'ul'e.rpp
{El or prr'
[J]\J
eJrrrlsrsqns
Jr[-] J.\oq'
pcr_,i s,.rrurr
rLIl osra_rJllr
ol tll,c1
'rie;p*r
'irtu*t
liut'r.'r
-ic1 par'tqrre
eq LrDl .ttrcloru
,,r.or
r,r1 srlrunl.cic{o
rELJr -rol -a'rrq1
.rc,sa88ns
a'rtq
-tcq1 'lr
olclap
pLIf rr'rnrunrr
ol sJ'rlpr,\rprr
plru scrrrB
,
-irr1rc1r
rtll
Ptl'
(L6:L861
cJ'rE3
Ptl!
rr.srrqof
) ir'\[rLla]srsqlrs rqr r,roclr: s.icl.rns
sr,t1r161
Jo
x..rl
*ll pJrJrluaPl r.\Erl JJ,tEJ
p'r: rr'suqo{-
.przrJ'rrotll,aclo
e-ru r,oc1 qtrrq,!\ _\q sporJlrur
JLJ' pur
-
ttlJlss
JrJl uIqlr.\\,irl[g,r,u
].lrollor
Jo
prre sauo8lr
rrlos
a-urp:u.:-a,.(rrirclrxag
urriio
-oJPI
Jo
Jr'lslxJ
Jtll J-lu'ltos
ue'rt' e iIl uoIlEIltla.rJrp
JaqllnJ
^.ri
s-E
r[c]$
sE
,sssro-rJ
rstJl
Jo
tJloq LII s'loll'J
[elrn-]')
'sJllnos'I
ol sscJlE
lrrcprtedaput
pLrE ,^lrrros
urLJlr n
'iruort.ltle utr:3 sarJrrur:,1
alrlJ ol F.rii'.14t1
.{la.rrrraga
prr' Lro ruepuaclop
'tls^nor,\aJcl
scl.o,r8
pL^_ 5^ltnPr.\Iplrr,iclc:er1,u,.i_tlrrrsed
eql
lo,,Brrrco-r1,,
1r:npu-r8
r[] st serlJrJos^
[J.\oJ
]Els,,lEpn,J..
trqlr'\\
ruerucroo.rep.i-rru'r1r'\
L[.1
Lri
).ro,!\
]'ssocl
JJqlorry.uorrrrncrocr
JL[]
J(l (,rtl-rofr:ru
lsr^ plrE)
lst eql plrtr rllJr irrrn,r
Jrurs
er[] uar,\\tcl
Brriil
.sr
t1qj:al])ptLLtparu.rl
Jcl rr'l
IELII sstrJl o cluo3 r:
o
1'eucl'1J':\cp
Jlcl.,]lr\Jrrr
lsoruJE LrE prr' rrorl'Jr-JrrE-rls
I'rao! Sutsuul
p-rr^\ol .ilrepurt
pozrr:;aue.:-
r Brrr,iyrluapr
.paurEllr,,.".1
,,,q
JJ^Jl
clrls LJl
rrr'J's'lo'os
xaduor
ru eSrrrr'Jo
enssr i{l pesscrpp'
a,rr:r- (361) r,ru'
pir' u.srrqof
s,o',,orcl
-ro
sr.,o',p,.,.,,.,.,,*;::.j];:";il:il:ff'J'il::;illj:il:.',,.il,
'5^rllerros
lr,\el-rlls lsout rrJ
.966I .tE
la srprrpl,{
p:9lT:1_g6IcJlEq
puE r-rosr,rqol.)
r:r:ti<
PrrE
srrrosa;1r
uorrclrunsuo:r
snonrdsLror
ur pc.irclsrp
sr -r.*,cJ -rrJrll prrr,(g66r
..,
r....
srtr-IrPr'{
ep :666
[rpr'r-I
plrp lLrtrs i.135
o,rcg
p'r
'osuq.f
:6
rrHr,16) _irrorua_rer
p'r.
IPn]Ir
ut
POIEPIIP'\
puu'PL]ltrltlteru'przrrr'rl,'Lu
st rtorlrsocl;raq1
!uo11r.crocl
Brr.'pr,r.i
cql'l ([g61 tt.snq'f i7161
-i-r:tr.rlJ]
-ruu.rnsrrr
srr
se rrns) srlr.\rrs
Brrrpr.r,orcr
arrl
IEr-ri -EUEul rE rallfJ eLiJ'(t0E:1,86
I
rJrtsg
puE rrosLrLlol-)
crrc Furin-r
prltj:r.rEurp
E pL* sLrors
-1,\lP ssElf, rtt,n'-rczrrreS;.
-iJurror'e;
pul]
IrJ^JJ-rrrlatLI sr uorl'zt'u',o
lur:o5.sr.t
trrlrorro
SSV'TD JO NOIION
f HI ONV NOIIVIINSUIIIO -IVI,Og
SOCIETY
AND DEATH
tN ANCIENT
EGYPT
Yoffee
'rrlci
/ohnso' ancl Earle have
cnrphasizecr
tr.re import:rnce
of vie.,vir.rg
srate
sociar
s)'stcms
as corlsisting
of "contplcx
hicrarchies:
*,ru"r,r,rr.rr,"r r.,.rn..hi..,
ron,,
hicr:rrchics,
crnlmunitl'i'rierarcl'ries,
famrh'
rricrrchies
ancl so fortrr,, (yrffee
1!
tlre coexiste
nce
'f
;;'-
":
rut LIr ( roitee
I 979:14'
. This pre suproses
,,, r, cr e' c,, r,,, res,;l::ff
I i,;-ilil
:11
*L :Til:ilil
T;;;:Tj,,
,',
The rchaeology
of empir.es
lr.iclcns
th. ,n.inl,
politrc:rl,
,rncl crl
rhcse
s'srcnrs
inreracr ,"vithin
,, ,r.o.r.rr,.i.r.
;"t;.,::::l',,":.:1,:'n"r..
scates
'f
incJLrir
as
therefore
imporr:rnr
to clistinguish
r.,.,ru.."llll]"-ttti:oo.li .1991;
Alc.cl<
ct al. 2001).
It is
et thc locl
and regi.nal
ler.els
*4ren str-rcir-i
soctetl'*'ide
clif'fcrentiation
:u.rcl clifJe renti;rtion
c.tsicleriug
rhc r.r'icJer
,..*,,,,-'or
;;r; ;:;;;tt-a
socrals'stem
(Car.rcian
1976:2291,,rs
rv.lr,rs
Itirrrl'i.llt,lc
rirt..
- -h""rr
'rrr(r
ur)l'lc
c()lL\r
ol':r gircrr
l.rli1 .rr.r gir.r
oirrr
,r,
it>
For rhc purposes
of this book,
ancl as oftcn
irsecl br.archaeojr
s.cial
ancl ec.n.mrc
differentiation,
rhe rcrnr
c/s_.
clen.re,
,iillt:*:,::::*T:
groupr'g"
r,,lcvcl."
It lacks
the specific
rr.,",r....,r,.,::,,:.:.: :.
tc'si.r.r
u'cJcrstoocl
i, the Marxist
usc of ,n,r.,nrr..,
of iclcntrtr_,
self_rntercst,
ancl interlevel
as rrscd
herc crenotes
rrre .nequ.r
.,..,,,,*.,;.',::
:l::::::
]li?;,]T
7u;;ctifferentittict,
sociar
g*rr-rps,
*'irrr r''erticarcriffercntiarion ,,r"fe.fringl
spccificarlr
:iltl]:i:i:,il:: tron
of the crnditiorrs
of existencc,
arcl it resLrlts
i';;r;;;,
;,
i#i :'; ;; ; x
:
":
JT;::,ll
lil
l.:::#n
m :t
hiT,::
:'
ffi
: ::1 I
:r
religiotrs
climensions.f
rJif",-,.-,.
-...
.
---
"r'r,LtLrrLr1rl()Il connotcs
nlorc
socirl
ancl/or:
ri,,' ro o n e, n o rh er'.'
l_ii:ffi;f
:il,,'::,"::i
rr.
:,,,.:ll.tjJ
I:*l
#* .,; i::
dcnce
grouls
l'ithill
settlemcnts
ancl rn thc n'rorphologv
of settlenrents
that intcract
systenricallr.,'
(yoffee
1979:2g).
The term /
sc'ciei'supporre{-r
bl surprLrs,
r'rcrcas
,t,,tr,!ti"r:il::
j:",ii':::'i:r::':l:,T.'o:[':ii]l
idivicl_ral
or groLrll
in sociocconomic
systcm.
Lr rhc absencc
of cl
;::
jr*:*;*::::r::,,::i;l:il::.]:;.:]..;iJtTi::*:;:.,::ffi
::1r
clistribrtio,
of nr.l_,ir,p
terns.
Thc rc-scrrrch
1,ocus
hrs been on the l_ricracjrical
ar.rcl spatial
a s s,, r, r p ri,, n,,, r,,,
"
n,
o'.:_:iil
:l,ilji:::,
fi
:,
j
T:. r il:
#ffi
J:: ::: . :,,r,1.r,];
:j
nrailltai'rclrti'ns
of soclal
incqLrali.;
n'rd, tl-r.r"fo,'e,
pattcrrir-r
in trre bujrt cnvlrnnrenr l'cflc't'
I)'ltttrllil!' ill tlle sor'icr
Pr'lrr
r9!
r.
lor.
l(crn
rqsv . .\ r..l:rq.
,1.1i5..,,I rrli,
iiffTl,:r:1":r1',f:;:"""n
the size r'ci r'c'rrion
of hal,itatio,rs
rr*.e
a rcratronship
to trre
curtuc
respc,ncrs
,.
"ll''l'J;,,,::i:,..lu;,:T,:Ti.':T::.,,i#::.irr;:j:;m;;
Consurlrption
p:tttcfns
are' thercfore,
bclie'ccl
r. ref-lecr
the cliffercrtinl
o...r,
ro rcsourccs
ttp.n
nich
stratification
rcsts
and hcttce
the strucr.rc
that geer1tecl
then-r (costi,
r'cl
I
*
n
t
fa1u
cJ rrerrd-i'q
qr.l iu,lr
prl.urI r],r
pLr, (/g6
I
Juors:rg6I
sruEp\.:6_f: ae1lo
''3'a) tttur:rrcJ.sI,{
ur.ilrrn'r.rucl .srrr:'s,rr.,r,,r--1".*
rLrrJrrr uo rlfrrs-r.
,
PriolcJrur
Lrroq osrr suq qruo,rclclr
plu,r'lur
slgr_.(srre
r
rJJoI
pu, soLrr'a 366
ur.rrri.
PLItr
)^11r,Iul,,\ :1661
.6g61
[rJ*rn.r,,:OSOt
f
.sp]
rllll.\r)
..u,,rr,rr-,
ir,,.,,,r,ro,u,,rrrp,,(ii.o.r:-
''t'lrocj
Jo
sLlolss^tllsIP
lu;r-t sJzl-tJlJlrjurrr
osJr'pJrr,1.\oB.irrr
s;r-rr[uou
q o] clrrrsLrr,
_ -r[J'1
-]rerrr sr
rJe'\\
5^r(srorlzrJr-rJr,,rr:arl-,,
JL[] r'rrlr,,\
aroJ
-rrcql p'u sJrrre
Jo
rrorlLr-rprsLi(
l tll ol Ll-rnlJl
v
'slrttoclPur:ls
Jurrii..'rr:ql-l., Jo
rr-rriioorqc{ -r;rrrre rLrorJ 1[urrL,
pJ,rprsri( -
.rJsnor.rucl
.sul-os
luJrf llt JllrJllI
rlro-l-+
]rrJpl,\
,ir]uanrnt)p
pllE
rrrfolotrrur: rt,,-
-o.ipnfs
p]u.lstur'r
trr,_tJ
l_rr'[r-...,i
,,1 .rl,.,r,
rlrr.r L[] pJllr,llsrroruJ[.)
s.rl (000 rrJJ.[-J 11.., :0002
[rr'*rnr[l)
s_e.rrcirur
r]l'I
purr rrlzy rLIl
p'r
!(1661
>1r'r1y,.)
,_,,.1,,.,",ir;;;:;, .i::^
'f;t661
'7661 ',Lg6L sr'r-ro)
Jrr,rf)
Ilrlrssurr
LIlr.\\
{ro.\\
;-ur1r:o.rc-rrn._r3 ,.iluarr_r
a.ro1
-rrrp.ro
,.r ,,,c1,rcr,uo.,.,,,,
";il:];iil".:li:ff"1[T",
,],,:T:l:::::,,l,l,ll]:. Jtrrl 't'''t'ttt[]'PJu-rlstt'LtlP
Jtls 'LIoru
srrrlr.rer
r:11fi1LJr,rlr Jrll o,,.,rr
,.,.r,.,,a
,,... '\trLJ
lotl
PJllor
ltLIl LIOllurlLIf,'rJJl[r
JEI:]o5^,1'seclrrtrr.rcl prr ^ror;rrrLL,rr
rur,:r,r,;r;
,:,.,'
-o-rc{ r:1-r
irlllxJl
orlr iir-rs.ro.rrrrJ
.JOrU
.i,-1uq..r.1
pLrp _
sssrrl
JJ.rrrr
lsrJr r'
,Jo
a-lLr-}sr\
L
-
Ploclclns
t11Jpr,\J
1r:rHoo;trqrlu Lll
((s^JUotnrroJ
[)rrlr
_-a1c19u)
.t]r._r's
r' sJss'[:)
to sJ.\_] .'*l
'iiu.
PrJJlltlrPI
slxel
PJttr'tctl3-lf-rtsl.. p.p lrJ sLll srJJJLf\,\
!rELJr
pl'.rlsrlo.rJp
rrl(
''llrlln"rls
JNllcls
JII[c] rqlrf,s;rP
ol
-i[lt'ltlrlap
]to lJs LJJTLJT\\,lo
Llros
-
srxl ucruou
-i.ri.. -.clutelrtrl:
tll JILIL)l'\r
rLJl
PcrPnls
JLls'sl\t
snrue8rpur
Jo
JJrrrs^cl
rqr LII
.(r/6r
.irurrr-r,1
srlf,llcls
xocftuor
1o.irns
LJt
rri ulrp
L..rrioloauqr-rr: pur
rnxa.3r1
prrr rf,rrulrod.ur
rll
Jo
rrorl'-'sr[lr
Brrr>r-us
p.,r'.ir.r.;
r".lr;;;];r,ttt'"r':
J.
sc'cltrr:-rf
:'
s.'ir*rn'r
rlorrr '[r:r]uloci
lrr,r' srrr",,.,.o,
xoc'*r'r
lrrl,
",
;Hl:::]::j,,.r,::f
PLrr [ur:]os 1..irn1s
eql or srsr:up
LJ'rs
10
rrorrerrldclE
cql
lJ^
.scJlrrrls
IrrtroS
Jyr:_._s-.r..
sJIlrtlPtutlq
t[-]
Jo
suollec{n,d
lurcliloa'rs arr Br'r-rolurc,r ,sr.ralros
'-rorsrrl.rcJ
qlr i., IJEJP sELl srlrJocJ
ltlslJLltr,o
p'l:^
Ptitrrto
^lIur-]os
Jr[-]:r()
LiJ.ru
lrL[-] Jlcrrrrrlorr
5^r lJ -(0002
sprEr{rlX
puu rrr,rnB
LrEA i966
seurug i6661
.retsqa
or.ic1a,r
s.rppoiJ !951
.rcurp;e)
puE.icrr-rg:rsot.tlllr
pu" rr,14;
JorlLrof,
Jo;):)LrELrlurEL' pu,.orl -lcllrlslP
LIl ul srolJtrJ
st 'oocpr
Jo
LIOtlalILItrLuruoJ
plrtr uor-]rrlo'au
Jql pu,, eHpa,*our.
JO
srrrf,'r''rerq
r{rJru
11p :,ruq
're,ra,ror
,scrno,3
[rrrrrocl
-r,r., ,,,.o,
n,,
,u,i,rr,_,rJ,;
l'"..:, ),olu\'(LL6I
sr1)i pLrr srlrrrrd:6
,{a1u-r..r3)
.r,,r.-r',r,
-.r,.,o,-io.-,,r-.,iino.*r
r\[.r'ru
rqino: trrrcr srlr[] s'LJ prorJJ
1u:r30rar:qrrr r,rolsrq,rc'
eLIl Lr uorlrrzrLres.
l"rro,
-r,,
luJprr\q
r:ru*uc',1a.rcp jo ,,o,rE.rrprsrror
eLrr
,.;]ff1,i:,:'jiljTil;ilili,::Hf
ili,::
rcl
PIIlor
ttotldrun^uo
Pool
ul su-lallecl
pur'(96
r:.rrs1r'g)
irrp'uruo,,a.rrsueclxr..
'I.LU E Jcl ol
Pulllsse 'lr:ett
Jo
sltlnotult
-talta;E J[rnsuo.
or p"ra..r"a
aq
rq'r'-r sicnpr]\rp'r
JJrqlJ?aA\
l{ltos
PrJrlEJls
t-'rtt ttotttsocl
Furrragcr
se uorrc{rrnsuor
po(! ur s:rer-}ucj
-J.
Itrtl]
PpPE
eq uEl
'IJIIJuJ plll sot-l'3le
[tn]lEJIl'tE pLr.
[E,r-r]JrlrLIJle rql oJ
.(6g6r
r.lrf
SSV-.I' JO NOIION
3HI ONV NOIIVIINsAJJIO -rvtfOS
LI
In So
Rch
Mid(
depa
class
ee
an
and.
Rich
midr
King
Com
ancir
and r
varie
how
abou
prac
fge'.
1B SOCIETY AND DEATH IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Like that of Mesopotamia, the study of ancienr Egypt carries the advantage of rarge
sets of archaeological data as well as indigenous, contemporary
textual data.
yet,
with rel-
atively few exceptio's (e.g., o'connor l.97za, L990a1 Baines 19gg; Kemp 19g9; Meskell
1999a,b,2002; wilfon g2002), the potentially
rich results from more integrated exploration
of these data have remained untapped. Studies of the social organization of ancient Egypt-
where they exist
-
tend even now to be based on either textual or archaeological data, leading
Tiigger to comment that "ideas about the generai nature of Egyptian society and culture
remain largely implicit and unexplored" (Tiigger 1979:29).Issues
such as rhe,,rise of a mid-
dle class" have continued to occur as unsubstantiated comments within essays focusing on
political historv; it has been only since the early 1970s that the issue of Egyptian socioeco-
nomic organizatton has been resurrected as a topic in its own right, with attention paid
to
multiple lines of evidence.
Chapter Two begins a contemplation of society in the Middle Kingdom by considering
the range of pictorial and textual data available for the period and of how scholars have
used these data sets to comment on social organization. \X/ith Chapter Three the inquiry
moves beyond text and image to archaeolog as a prelude to considering the importace of
data from mortuary landscapes in evaiuating social reality and sociai process.