Classification of Fire

1
KOVAI FIRE AND SAFETY COLLEGE

DIPLOMA IN FIRE & SAFETY MANAGEMENT COURSE

FIRE TECHNOLOGY PROTECTION AND PREVENTION

2

CONTENTS

1. physics and chemistry of combustion
2. classification of fire and fire extinguisher
3. fire protective clothing
4. breathing apparatus
5. small gears an hand tools
6. safety devices
7. ladders & ropes and hand tools
8. fire prevention (NFPA)
9. international fire marshal association (IFMA)
10. air craft fire fighting & ship fire fighting fire administration
11. hydrant & sprinkler system
12. chemical hazards flammable materials
13. solids liquids and gases

3

Unit-I : physics and chemistry of combustion classification of fire and extinguishment media
extinguishers type of extinguishers- extinguishing fire portable fire extinguishers inspection /
maintenance of fire extinguishers fire extinguisher inspection tag hydraulics pumps and primers
hose and hose fittings.

Unit II : fire protection clothing breathing apparatus small gears and lightning safety devices and
special tools rubber gloves safety belts leather protective gloves hand lines ladders ropes hand
tools.

Unit III : fire prevention national fire protection association (NFPA) international fire marshal
association (IFMA) tariff advisory committee (TAC) aircraft fire fighting ship fire fighting fire
administrative and organization .

Unit IV : hydrant system sprinkler system water spray drencher system riser system foam system
non water based system automatic detection system fire protection system design.

Unit V : chemical fire hazards flammable materials flammable liquids flammable gases
flammable solids principles of safety in storage in the transfer of chemicals solids liquids gases.

4

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

Class A
Fires are those which involve ordinary combustible materials such as wood, paper or cloth. These fires
should be extinguished by using a dry chemical extinguisher. Water is effective in extinguishing these type
fires, however, water extinguishers are rarely found in the Medical Center
Class B
Fires are those which involve flammable liquids, gases, oil, paint and greases. Either dry chemical or
carbon dioxide extinguishers should be used to extinguish these type fires. Note: flammable liquids may
reignite after being extinguished. DO NOT USE WATER
Class C
Fires are those which involve electricity. Either dry chemical or carbon dioxide extinguishers should be
used to extinguish these type fires. DO NOT USE WATER!
Class D
fires are those which involve combustible metals such as magnesium or sodium. Water can react with
sodium and other alkali metals explosively, therefore DO NOT USE WATER! Also understand that CO2
extinguishers are unlikely to be able to contain a Class D fire.
Classes of Fire:
5

There is a universal system to describe different types of fires. This system incorporates the use of letters,
colors, and symbols to help users select an extinguisher suitable for the type of material involved in the
fire.
Class A: Ordinary combustibles, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, many plastics, and other common
materials that burn easily.
Class B: Flammable liquids. Includes gasoline, oil, grease, tar, oil-based paint, lacquer, and flammable
gas.Class C: Electrical equipment, such as wiring, fuse boxes, circuit breakers, machinery and
appliances.Class D: Combustible metals. Includes magnesium, aluminum, lithium, and other combustible
metals or metal dust.
6

Types of Fire Extinguishers

There are many different types of extinguishers. It is essential that you familiarize yourself with the
location and operation of fire extinguishers in your home or workplace!

Stored-Pressure Water Extinguishers:
These extinguishers are suitable for use on Class A fires only (ordinary combustibles). Caution: DO NOT
use these extinguishers on Class B,C or D fires! Standard water extinguishers contain 2 1/2 gallons of
water. Under normal conditions, stream reach is 15-30 feet. Discharge time is 30-60 seconds. These
extinguishers must be protected against freezing if they will be exposed to temperatures less than 40
degrees F (4 degrees C).

7

Film-Forming-Fluoroprotein (FFFP) Foam Extinguishers:
These extinguishers are designed for use on Class A and B fires. They are essentially 2 1/2 gallon water
extinguishers with a FFFP foam additive. When using this type of extinguisher on a Class B fire, you must
be careful to avoid splashing liquid fuels. The foam has the ability to make water float on fuels that are
lighter than water.

Halon 1211 Fire Extinguishers:Halon 1211, or bromochlorodifluoromethane extinguishers, are primarly
designed for Class B and C fires. Hand carried extinguishers are available in sizes from 2 1/2 to 22 pounds.
Caution: when used in a confined area, halon can cause dizziness and loss of coordination. You should
immediately evacuate an area after using an extinguisher of this type. Larger wheeled units are available up
to 150 pounds. Stream reach is about 8 to 18 feet. Discharge time is dependent on the size of extinguisher.
Dry Chemical Extinguishers (Hand Carried):

8

Dry chemical fire extinguishers are the most common extinguishers at Davis-Monthan AFB. They are two
types available: those rated for Class B and C fires, and those rated for Class A, B, and C fires. These
extinguishers are available from 2 1/2 to 30 pounds. Caution: when used indoors, these extinguishers will
produce a thick cloud of dust, which obscures vision and may cause choking. They have a range of 5-20
feet, although they can be easily affected by wind. Discharge time is 10-25 seconds.
Using Hand-Held Fire Extinguishers
Extinguishers have their limits:
A portable fire extinguisher can save lives and property by putting out a small fire or containing it until the
Fire Department arrives. Portable extinguishers are not designed to fight a large or spreading fire. Even
against small fires, they are useful only under the following conditions:
the fire at hand. It must be available and in working order,
fully charged.
in an emergency.
the extinguisher. It's easy to remember how to
use a fire extinguisher- simply follow the steps- "P-A-S-S" Pull the Pin: Pull the pin
at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed. Break the plastic seal as the pin is
pulled.
Aim: Aim the nozzle or outlet toward the fire. Some hose assemblies are clipped to the extinguisher body.
Release the hose and point.
Squeeze: Squeeze the handle to release the extinguishing agent. The handle can be released to stop the
discharge at any time. Before approaching the fire, try a very short test burst to ensure proper operation.
Sweep: Sweep from side to side at the base of the fire until it is out. After the fire is out, watch for
remaining smoldering hot spots or possible reflash of flammable liquids. Make sure the fire is out.
When to Fight a Fire
Be certain to report any fire before
attempting to extinguish it!
Fight a fire only if:
behind you.
Do not fight a fire if:
Inspection and Maintenance
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) sets the standard for fire extinguishers in the regulation
NFPA 10. This section will briefly explain the inspection and maintenance requirements for fire
extinguishers.
Inspection:
9

An inspection is a "quick check" that an extinguisher is available and will operate. It is intended to give
reasonable assurance that the fire extinguisher is fully charged and operable. This is done by verifying that
it is in its designated place, that it has not been actuated or tampered with, and that there is no obvious or
physical damage or condition to prevent its operation. Fire extinguishers should be inspected when they are
initially placed in service and thereafter at 30-day intervals. They may require more frequent inspections if
circumstances dictate.
Inspection Procedures:
1. Located in designated place
2. No obstruction to access or visibility
3. Operating instructions on nameplate legible and facing outward
4. Safety seals and tamper indicators not broken or missing.
5. Fullness determined by weighing or "hefting".
6. Examination for obvious physical damage, corrosion, leakage, or clogged nozzle.
7. Pressure gauge reading or indicator in the operable range or position. Note: Internal pressure is affected
by temperature.
8. Condtion of tires, wheels, carriage, hose, and nozzle checked (for wheeled units). Personnel making
inspections should keep a record of inspections, including those found to require corrective action. The
record should include the date the inspection was performed, and the identity of the person conducting the
inspection.
Maintenance:
Maintenance intervals begin on the date of manufacture, which can usually be found on the extinguisher
nameplate.
Dry Chemical Stored-Pressure Water Foam (FFFP)
Monthly inspection (by user)
Monthly inspection (by
user)
Monthly inspection (by
user)
Monthly inspection (by user)
Yearly maintenance Yearly maintenance Yearly maintenance Yearly maintenance
6-year maintenance
Hydrostatic test (every 5
years)
Foam replace (every 3
years) 6-year maintenance
10

years)
years)
years)
If an extinguisher has received maintenance, it should bear a tag or label indicating the type and date of
maintenance
and that identifies the person or company who performed the service.

HOSE AND HOSE FITTINGS

DELIVERY HOSE
General remarks
The raw materials for endless-woven fire hoses are high-tenacity polyesternb yarn and tubular felt made of
high-grade EPMD rubber mixture polyurethane. High pressure-resistance, extremely high resistance to UV
light and ozone, complete with rot resistance and neutral behaviour towards a wide range of different
chemicals all these characteristics give modern polyester hoses a virtually unlimited lifespan and mean
that they require only
a bare minimum of care and maintenance. On top of this, they offer good flexibility, low height, very
limited space requirements and scarcely
measurable elongation even when subjected to intensive stressing.

11

Structure
The fabric is made on circular looms from twisted high-tenacity polyester yarn generally in a twill weave
so as to preserve the greatest possible abrasion resistance. The fabric is responsible for withstanding the
pressure entirely on its own. The inner lining (be it tubular felt made of high-grade EPMD rubber mixture
or polyurethane) is incorporated using a special vulcanisation process, and makes the hose completely
watertight. Where applied in addition to the above, a polyurethane outer coating enhances theabrasion
resistance, and thus also prolongs the lifespan of the hose.

HOSE REEL HOSE

12

Cleaning Drying Storage
After use, clean the hoses with water and a soft brush or hose-washing
equipment. Soak badly soiled hoses before scrubbing them never
brush them when dry.
Put the hoses under pressure, locate and mark any damaged areas.
After cleaning, dry immediately and carry out any repairs that may be
necessary.
Only store away the hoses in the fire station or in the vehicle once they
are dry.
The hose store must be dry, well ventilated, and protected from frost
and sunlight. Avoid contact with cement and concrete.

Treatment and care instructions for pressurised fire hoses
Excerpt from BFV (the Austrian Fire Service Association), guidelines on the
treatment of pressure hoses:
Lay out the hoses without any kinks or twists.
Do not drag hoses across the ground or over any sharp edges.
Never pull any hoses which are full of water but not under pressure.
Do not place them on broken glass, debris, rubble or glowing embers.
Do not allow them to be soiled by caustic or adhesive substances.
Across roadways, lay them at right angles to the road, enclosed by hose
protection ramps.
In extreme sub-zero conditions, never interrupt the flow of water.
Never forcibly roll or kink hoses that have frozen.
Do not throw or drop hose-couplings, and always protect them from soiling.
Store hoses in the vehicle in such a way that there is no risk of them
being scraped or abraded during transit.
Water
flow rate
(l/min)
Pressure drop in bar per 100 m length
42 mm 52 mm 75 mm 110 mm
200 1,50 0,50 0,10 --
300 3,50 1,10 0,20 --
400 5,30 2,00 0,40 --
600 -- 4,00 0,80 0,10
13

800 -- 6,50 1,40 0,20
1.000 -- -- 2,20 0,20
1.200 -- -- 3,00 0,40
1.600 -- -- 4,50 0,80
Pressure drop through friction inside fire hoses to
NORM F 2105 and DIN 14811oz

Delivery hose "Synthetic Special"
Construction:
Polyester jacket, circular woven, twill weave inside
lining of EPDM-rubber.
Characteristics:
Economical, flexible, light-weight, space saving,
weather resistant, rot and mildew proof, resistant to
aging, ozone, seawater and many chemicals, good
abrasion resistance. General purpose fire hose for
pumps and vehicles.
Certifications:
Certified as to DIN 14811:2007 and Austrian
Standard NORM F 2105:2007.
Testing pressure: 25 bar
Bursting Pressure: 50 bar
Synthetic Special Coupling system: Storz
Fire Hoses
Weight Remarks
Delivery hose "Professional"
Premium inside and outside-rubberised delivery hose in a class of its own.
Fabric ply: High-strength polyester/polyamide yarn, endlesswoven and
completely embedded in the rubber.
Inside and outside rubberisation:
5Fire Hoses
Delivery hose "Professional Light"
Inside and outside-rubber lined delivery hose, light duty and economical model. Manufactured according to
BS 6391:1983/Type 3.
Fabric ply:
High strength polyester/polyamide yarn, endless-woven and completely embedded in the rubber.
14

Inside and outside rubberisation:
Top-grade nitrile rubber, pressed through the fabric ply during extrusion, smooth on the outside for goodn
abrasion and heat resistance, maximum flexibility and small coil diameter.
Characteristics:
Durable and lightweight hose; resistant to oil, petrol (gasoline) and chemicals; heat and weather proof; no
cleaning and drying
needed. Standard length: up to 100 m, standard colour: red. Temperature range: -20C up to +100C. Up to
size 75 mm: Testing pressure: 22,5 bar; Bursting pressure: 45 bar. Upon special request: "Professional
hoses with British instantaneous and BS 336:1989 couplings can be fitted with rubber protection cuffs.
Professional Light Coupling system: British Standard and American NH Standard
Professional Light Coupling system: Storz Ord
HIGH PRESSURE DELIVERY HOSES
High pressure delivery hose "Synthetic Rekord H 38"
High-pressure hose certified as to NORM F 2105:2007. Fabric: 100 % polyester yarn, endless-woven in
patented special weave with warp threads reinforced; (every fourth warp thread is twisted 12-fold).
Inner lining:
Reinforced, highly durable EPDM rubberisation.
Characteristics:
Greatly enhanced flexibility and abrasion-resistance;
easy to handle; rot resistant and cold proof; very resistant to ageing; care and maintenance-free; easy to
repair. Testing pressure: 60 bar; bursting pressure: 90 bar Comes with Storz 38 coupling, made of
gunmetal.
206610 Synthetic Rekord H 38, 15 m
comes with couplings Storz 38, made of gunmetal
Weight: 7,05 kg.
206615 Synthetic Rekord H 38, 20 m
comes with couplings Storz 38, made of gunmetal. Weight: 9 kg.
High pressure hose "Synthetic Mammut H 38"
Made of high tenacity Polyester filament yarn, and provided with a high quality EPDM rubber lining. For
additional protection, the exterior of the hose is covered with black ribbed EPDM rubber, giving extra
abrasion resistance. Certified as to Austrian Standard F 2105:2007. Working pressure: 40 bar. Test pressure
60 bar, burst pressure 90 bar.
206710 Synthetic Mammut H 38, 15 m, 38 mm diameter
comes with couplings Storz 38, made of gunmetal. Weight: 7,05 kg.
15

SUCTION HOSE
Made of SBR-Quality (Styrol-Butadien-Caoutchouc). Steel wire reinforced.
Maximum pressure loads 6 bar, maximum vacuum load 1,8 bar.
206610
206715
Oral Weight Remarks
HOSE ACCESSORIES

149010 Suction hose rope with
Suitable for handling the suction hoses and strainers. Made of Polypropylene plastics, rot-proof. Comes in
a length of 15 m and a diameter of 8 mm. Delivered complete with rope bag. Weight: 0,75 kg.
291900 Hose carrier
For easy transport of delivery hoses, either normally rolled or "Dutch rolled. The carrier consists of a
perlon strap 750 mm long and a galvanised grip with clamp. Weight: 0,22 kg.
292200 Hose holder
Certified as to DIN 14828:2004. Suitable for fastening fire hoses to ladders, structures etc. Consists of a
Polyester rope 1,6 m long, 10 mm diameter. One end with wooden twist, the other end with loop. Weight:
0,2 kg.
16

292400 Hose holder
Suitable for fastening fire hoses to ladders, structures etc. Consists of a perlon strap 300 mm long and a
galvanised hook with buckle.Weight: 0,3 kg.
Hose jackets
Seals punctured fire hose on the spot and allows fire fighting operations to be carried on. The hose jacket is
made of light alloy, with soft rubber liningfor positive sealing.
295200 Size C, 52 mm (2"). Weight 0,11 kg.
295300 Size B, 75 mm (3"). Weight 0,13 kg.
295310 Size 38 (1 1/2"). Weight 0,11 kg.
295315 Size 65 (2 1/2"). Weight 0,14 kg.
295350 Size 110 mm (4"). Weight 0,18 kg.
Recommended Accessory for hose jackets:
295400 Carrying bag
Suitable for storing a maximum of 18 hose jackets, size C.
Weight: 0,4 kg.
Hose carrying basket
Certified as to DIN 14827. Side part foldable.
292420 Type "C
Suitable for storing of 3 delivery hoses type C, 15 m each.
870 x 520 x 115 mm, Weight: 3 kg.
292430 Type "B
Suitable for storing of 2 delivery hoses type B, 20 m each.
870 x 520 x 145 mm, Weight: 3,5 kg.
292460 Type "BS
Suitable for storing of 3 delivery hoses type 2 1/2", 15 m each.
870 x 520 x 115 mm, Weight: 3,5 kg.
291900 (comes without hose)
149010
292400
292200
295400 + 295200 + 295300
(comes without hose)
292420ozzles 149

17

Hose Accessories
292510 P ortable fire hose reel
Certified as to DIN 14825:2004-05. Made of steel sheet, painted fire red as per RAL 3000. Comes with 2
carrying handles. Suitable for accommodating either 90 metres of11/2" to 2" hoses or 60 metres of 3"
hose.Weight: 15 kg.
292515 Mobile fire hose reel
Certified as to DIN 14826:1999-01. For fixing on fire trucks.Frame, made of steel, with air tires, painted
fire red and white.Suitable for accommodating 180 metres of 3" hose.Dimension: 1300 x 920 x 1370
mm.Weight: 90 kg.

HOSE BRIDGES

292600 Collapsible wooden hose bridges
Certified as to DIN 14820:2000. Solid wooden hose bridges for fire hoses, with under-strapping made of
synthetic yarns. Each hose bridge accommodates 2 fire hoses up to 3" diameter. Supplied in sets, each set
consists of 2 hose bridges. Weight per set: 19,9 kg.

292700 Folding heavy-duty rubber hose bridge "Crocodile
Extremely robust and resilient, can be carried in one hand. Folding principle saves storage space.
Reflective strips increase visibility by day and night. Each hose bridge accommodates 2 x 11/2" or 2 x 2
1/2" hoses. Compatible with other conventional rubber hose bridges. Supplied in sets, each setconsists of 2
hose bridges. Weight per set: 23 kg.
Heavy-duty rubber hose bridges
Solid rubber hose bridges for fire hoses with slip-proof finish. The links, which also act as handles, are
used to increase the track width as required.
Supplied in sets, each set consists of 2 hose bridges. 292701 for accommodation of 2 x 1 1/2" or 2 x 2
1/2"hoses.
Weight per set: 23 kg. 292701005 for accommodation of 2 x 4 or 2 x 5 hoses.
18

Weight per set: 25 kg. 292702 Aluminium hose bridges Heavy duty hose bridges for fire hoses, as per DIN
14820:2000. The bridges are slip resistant by means of profile inserts. Each hose bridge accommodates 2 x
1 1/2" or 2 x 2 1/2" hoses. Carrying capacity per hose bridge: 14 tons. Supplied in sets, each set consists of
2 tons hose bridges. Weight per set: 47 kg.292510, 292515, 292600, 292700
292701 / 292701005
292702
150
COUPLINGS AND FITTINGS

COUP LINGS, STORZ SYSTEM
A symmetrical, hermaphrodite coupling, no female and male part such as a
screw connection, enables trouble-free matching of hose ends and
connections. Quickly coupled by a 120 rotation (click!) and also quickly
disconnected.
The coupling consists of:
1 Clamp fitting.
2) Tail piece, mounted inside the clamp fitting. During coupling the clamp
fitting is turned, the tail piece remains stationary, no rotation of seal on
seal, no twisting of the hose.
3 Circlip prevents the clamp fitting from sliding back on the hose.
4) Washer.

Coupling system STORZ light alloy
Made of aluminium alloy, certified as to EN 1706:1998 and EN 586:2002. Threads according to ISO 228.
Working pressure 16 bar. Washers made ofNitrile rubber
Delivery hose couplings
Suction hose couplings
Blank caps with chain
1 2 3 4nozzle
19

Couplings and Fittings
Adapters
Adapters-Reducer
255900 Adapter Storz 38 D
From Storz 38 to Storz D. Made of light-alloy.
Weight: 0,4 kg.
256000 Adapter C D
From Storz C to Storz D. Made of light-alloy. Certified as to
DIN 14341:2007-11.
Weight: 0,4 kg.
256100 Adapter B C
From Storz B to Storz C. Made of light-alloy. Certified as to
DIN 14342:2007-10.
Weight: 0,6 kg.
256200 Adapters A B
From Storz A to Storz B. Made of light-alloy. Certified as to
DIN 14343:2008-07.
Weight: 1,5 kg.
Coupling adapters
Couplings System STORZ - gunmetal
Made of gunmetal, certified as to EN 1982:2007-11 and EN 12420:1999.Thread according to ISO 228.
Working pressure 16 bar. Washers made of Nitrile rubber.

Delivery hose couplings
Suction hose couplings
Blank caps with chain
Adapters male/female thread
Spare parts for Storz couplings:
Washers for delivery operation
made of Nitrile rubber, for Storz couplings

Washers for delivery and suction hose couplings
made of Nitrile rubber, for Storz couplings
Circlips for delivery and suction hose couplings
made of steel, for Storz couplings
20

INSTANTANEOUS COUP LINGS CERTIFIED AS TO
BRITISH STANDARD 336:1989
The British Standard 336:1989 is using on the delivery side the non-symmetrical instantaneous coupling,
consisting of a male and female part, which are simply pushed together. Spring-loaded plungers in the
female part grip in the gap of the male part. The couplings will be disconnected by pulling or\ twisting
release lugs. On the suction side round threaded suction hose couplings and equipment type BSRT are in
use, while the female part always has to be swivelling. The correct use of the female and male parts has to
be taken into consideration.
British couplings system - light alloy
Made of aluminium alloy, certified as to BS 1490:2002. Coupling certified as to BS 336:1989 and
non-standardised 11/2" British instantaneous. Working pressure 15 bar. Washers made of Nitrile rubber.
Adapters made of light alloy
276670 Storz C 2" 0,010 kg
276680 Storz B 3" 0,016 kg
PLEASE NOTE:
m............. male
f .............. female
B. Inst..... British Instantaneous
BS........... British Standard
336:1989
BSRT ...... British Standard
Round Thread (certified
as to BS 336:1989)
244389
244390
244387
154
Delivery hose couplings, per pair
Suction hose couplings, per pair
Blank caps with chain, per unit
Adapters, instantaneous to instantaneous and BSRT, made of light alloy, per unit Other sizes upon request.
British Coupling System - gunmetal
Made of gunmetal, certified as to EN 1982, EN 12420 or EN 12449. Coupling certified as to BS 336:1989
and non-standardised 1,5 instantaneous couplings. Working pressure 15 bar. Washers made of Nitrile
rubber.
Adapters, per unit
21

PLEASE NOTE:
m............. male
f .............. female
336:1989
as to BS 336:1989)
Delivery hose couplings, per pair
Suction hose couplings, per pair
Blank caps with chain, per unit
Coupling adapters, per unit
Washers for delivery and suction hose couplings, per unit
Adapters Instantaneous or BSRT to Storz System,
made of light-alloy, per unit
PLEASE NOTE:
m............. male
f .............. female
336:1989
as to BS 336:1989)
277110 B. Inst. 1 1/2" 38 x 85 mm, serrated 1,38 kg
277116 BS 336 2 1/2" 38 x 85 mm 2,75 kg
Suction strainer with non-return valve
Strainers prevent obstructions in the suction line caused by entry of stones, small pieces of wood and other
debris. Suction strainers with drain
arrangement and non-return valve. Made of gunmetal or aluminium alloy
Low level strainer with non-return clapper
This design allows draw-off almost down to the ground and provides good stability. Oblique outlet permits
better guiding of hoses through cellar windows
22

Wicker basket
Offers maximum protection, prevents even very small objects from entering suction line.

275560 3" Wicker Basket 0,9 kg
275562 4" Wicker Basket 1,1 kg
275564 5 1/2" Wicker Basket 1,4 kg
21150409 Swimmer for suction strainer
Weight: 2,5
Wire mesh basket
Offers together with Suction Strainer maximum protection, prevents even
very small object from entering suction line.
Rosenbauer Ejector Pump
Safety type ejector pump, for pumping out of liquids in basements, pits, shafts, bilges etc. Output up to 800
l/min, depending on the hydrant pressure available. Comes with check valve. Weight: 8 kg.

Bilge Turbo Pump
Suitable for emptying bilges, basements, ducts and pits. Thanks to its small dimensions, it can also easily
be put into tanker vehicles through manholes, by means of 2 lifting eyes. The unit is made of corrosion
resistant light alloy. A closed circuit water turbine acts as driving engine. Decanting capacity approx. 1.200
l/min, with a working pressure of 10 bar at the turbine pump. Working head of the bilge pump: 8 metres
water column (0,8 bar).
MULTIPURPOSE BRANCH PIPES
262020 Euro nozzle
Flow rate and throw distance conform to EN 671. Provided with Storz 25 coupling, made of light alloy.
Weight: 0,5 kg. Infinetely variable by turning the head clockwise from shut-off to spray to 90 to full jet.
262000 Multi-purpose branch pipe size DM
In full conformity with DIN 14365 and NORM F-2190. Provided with Storz-D (1") coupling, made of
light alloy. The branch pipe valve allows for 3 positions: stop, full jet and spray. Comes with 4 mm nozzle
tip. Length: 300 mm. Weight: 0,6 kg.
Multi-purpose branch pipe CM
Certified with DIN 14365 and Austrian Standard NORM F 2190, made of light alloy. The branch pipe
valve allows for 3 positions: stop, full jet and
spray. Comes with 9 mm nozzle tip.
Multi-purpose branch pipe size BM
In full conformity with DIN 14365 and NORM F-2190. Made of light alloy. The branch pipe valve
allows for 3 positions: stop, full jet and spray. Comes
23

with 16 mm nozzle tip. Weight: 2,20 kg.
Multi-purpose branch pipe size CMM
Comes with nozzle tip 9 mm. The branch pipe valve allows for 3 positions: shut-off, full jet and spray.
Special control for water curtain for maximum protection of the fireman. Weight: 1,9 kg.
Nozzle Tips 261700 DM Nozzle tip
1/4" thread, 4 mm. Weight: 0,05 kg.
NOZZLES
Selectable Gallonage Nozzles
High performance, maximum protection
Durable, light-weight construction
Ergonomic design

SelectFlow "EN Nozzles
The new line of ROSENBAUER Select Flow Nozzles Type "EN" is certified as to DIN 14367:2002 and in
accordance with EN 15182:2007 for an\ operating pressure of 6 bar.
1) Spinning teeth made of stainless steel: for superb fog pattern when using "water curtain"-setting.
2) Stream adjustment: within 100 rotation adjustment from straight stream to fog pattern.
3) Ergonomic pistol grip: for better handling and reduced fatigue.
4) Shock-resistant pattern adjustment bumper: with integrated pointer. The Flash-over position at 45
(Pointer at 12 oclock position) is easy to detect, even wearing fire-fighting gloves.
5) Rugged, ergonomic on/off handle: glass-fibre reinforced and additionally light alloy reinforcement on
both sides.
6) High-quality materials: Body hard anodised light alloy, water carrying components corrosion-resistant
materials (brass, stainless steel andman-made materials).1 2 3 4 5 6 167
5Nozzles
Technical Data:
* The flow settings and the stream reach for the types SelectFlow RB 99
EN, RB 100 EN and RB 101 EN are measured with reference to an
operation pressure of 6 bar.
Straight stream
Working from a safe distance with extensive throw range
High kinetic energy to eliminate ember and fire pockets
Variable fog patterns
Fine water droplets for rapid heat reduction
Minimisation of water damage due to smaller volumes of water
ideal for cooling, fume abatement and combating solvent fires
24

Water curtain
Finest water droplets and wide spray angle to create a large area water
shield
Maximum protection against radiant heat
Adjustable flow settings
in l / min *
17,30,80,130,45,85,130,200,130,230,300,400
Max. stream reach * 32 m 36 m 44 m
Length (without coupling) 28 cm 28 cm 28 cm
Weight (without coupling) 2 kg 2 kg 2,1 kg
168
All nozzles are available either without couplings (female thread BSP) or individually fitted with Storz,
British Standard or NH-couplings. Other coupling systems are available on request.
SelectFlow and ProJet Nozzles NFPA
The ROSENBAUER SelectFlow nozzle Type NFPA conforms to all aspects of NFPA 1964:2008. It
permits multiple flow setting using a selection control ring with detents.The ProJet nozzle provides a
combination stream: straight stream and fog together. This combination stream allows attack by the fire
fighting teams and an extremely effective extinguishing capacity

Straight stream
Working from a safe distance with extensive throw range
High kinetic energy to eliminate ember and fire pockets
Variable fog patterns
Fine water droplets for rapid heat reduction
Minimisation of water damage due to smaller volumes of water
Ideal for cooling, fume abatement and combating solvent fires
Water curtain
Finest water droplets and wide spray angle to create a large area water
shield
Maximum protection against radiant heat
All
Automatic nozzles
Strong lightweight aluminium construction.
Automatically adjust to changes in flow and pressure.
The slide-type valve allows the operator to control the flow without
effecting the stream quality.
25

Volume controlled by 6 positions of handle including the shutoff.
Pattern detents for positive pattern positioning.
Combination of fog and straight stream.
Flush without shutting down.
Flow rate 40-475 l/min (at 7 bar)
Weight: 1,65 kg.
Strong lightweight aluminium construction
Play pipe with solid compact design for better balance
Easy grip vinyl coated handle
Constant selectable gallonage - flow remains constant in all patterns
Change flow without changing pattern and flush without shutting down
Multiple pattern detents for positive pattern positioning
Tight straight stream and 110 wide dense fog pattern
Quality stream performance even at low pressure
Replaceable spinning teeth made of stainless steel
Excellent for use with inline inductor and foam making branch pipes
Certified as to NFPA 1964 standard
Industrial Nozzle
Brass construction.
Tough, corrosion-resistant design for harsh industrial and marine
environment.
Heavy-duty spinning teeth made of stainless steel for powerful fog
pattern.
Multiple pattern detents for positive pattern positioning combination fog
and straight stream.
Suitable for refineries, offshore platforms, chemical plants, storage
facilities and more.
Ideal for use with foam inductors and foam making branch pipes.
Weight: 4 kg.
Dual agent handline nozzle
26

Made of hard anodised light alloy. Comes with 2 female 1,5" BSP connections. It is designed to discharge
water / AFFF solution and dry chemical powder. Side by side horseshoe type valve handles allow Water /
AFFF or dry chemical powder to be discharged either separately or simultaneously. For water / AFFF
operation, a flow selection control ring with detents can be set for a flow of 50, 90, 150 and 230 l/min or
flush (all flow figures refer to a nozzle pressure of 7 bar). Change of flow or flush is possible without
shutting down. A moulded bumper ring in front of the nozzle can easily be turned to produce straight
stream, narrow or wide angle fog - allowing for man protection water curtain. Heavy duty and replaceable
spinning teeth for very fine fog pattern. Dry chemical powder operation: output between 1,5 and 2,5 kg per
second. Weight approx. 2,5 kg.

27

UNIT - II

28

FIRE FIGHTING CLOTHS
Introduction
Firefighters during their job are exposed to:
fire,
water,
static electricity and
chemicals.
Their protective clothing have to be:fireproof andwaterproof.
Firefighters' protective clothing has to satisfy the general requirements:thermal protection,
convenience during interventions, comfort under normal climatic conditions and proper ventilation system
performed due to release of heat produced by natural firefighters' metabolism.

Protective clothing from heat and flame should be designed to fit comfortably.
The European standard EN 340:2003 "Protective clothing - General requirements" - dimensions of
protective clothing Three main body measures are necessary for establishment of size of protective
clothing:chest circumference,
waist circumference and body height.

Three groups of body height: a low growth to 167 cm,
the normal growth of 167 to 181 cm and
the tall growth above 181 cm.

Comfort of the protective clothing
can be classified as:thermophysiological comfort - maintain a comfortable state of heat and moisture
(thermal resistance, partial air permeability, transport of moisture through the material, the amount of
moisture in the material, the possibility of refusing water ...). sensory comfort - various sensory stimuli
during the contact of fabrics with body contact (rough or soft cloth, a feeling of warmth or coldness of the
body due to contact with the fabric, creating static electricity, tingling sensation, itching ...). comfort during
the use of clothes - the ability of clothing to allow free movement of the body, reduce stress or follows the
contours of the body / body part (elongation, weight ...)

29

Protective equipment for firefighters
Firefighter's protection equipment can be divided:personal protective equipment (protective clothing and
footwear, helmets, masks and belts with accessories) and collective protective equipment, (clothing for
protection from heat and aggressive substances, suits for RCB-protection, climbing ropes, equipment for
respiratory protection, dosimeters and detectors, and decontamination equipment)

30

Protective clothing for firefighters
Multilayered and typically is made of four basic layers of material consisting of a combination /
system:external material is also called "outer shell" is very strong, a high resistance to heat,
flame and chemical resistance, barriers to moisture - reduce the amount of water from the
environment can penetrate into the interior of the garment, combined with a woven or non-
woven surface, which gives it strength and durability, thermal interlining, a material designed to
slow the passage of heat from outside to inside of the garment and inner lining that protects the
material thermal barriers, and provides comfort to user and an extra protective layer

Materials for production of the protective clothes
have to satisfy specific conditions of the flame resistance, water resistance, high strength
materials can be impregnated and coated with a special coating against fire and water repellency
if it is necessaryFlame-resistant cotton fabrics, impregnated and single layer metalized
Edirne canvas flame resistant, impregnated and single layer metalized Nomex
Conclusion
The studious approach to the selection of materials for making clothes that are used in extreme
conditions (protective uniform for firefighters), special attention should be paid to the designing
of the garment and its construction adding commotion during making cuts should be made for
multilayered clothing, extreme movements and extreme conditions the construction of a
seemingly unimportant detail on fire interventional clothing is extremely important
Classification of Protective Clothing
Classifying personal protective textiles or clothing is
complicated because no single classification can clearly summarize all kinds of protection.
Overlap of the definitions is common since there are so many occupations and applications that
even the same class of protective clothing often has different requirements in technique and
protection. Personal protective textiles can be further classified according to the end-use
functions such as thermal (cold) protection, flame protection, chemical protection, mechanical
impact protection, radiation protection, biological protection, electrical protection and wearer
visibility.

Step 1: Assess hazards
31

Step 2: Identify relevant standards, specifications or
guidelines

Step 3 Screen materials based on protection performance of
fabrics, e.g.
Cold climate protection performance
Chemical protection performance
Biological protection performance
Flame and thermal protection performance
Mechanical protection performance
Step 4 Select materials based on other major factors
Job performance
Comfort
Cost
Durability
Use, care & maintenance
Firefighters are exposed to many hazards associated with their work environment such as. Toxic
substances in the ambient air high radiant heat intensities hot flames are common risks in fire
extinguishing work.
ICriteria that define heat and/or fire
performance
promote physical or chemical change or both.
All organic fiber forming polymers will eventually thermally degrade at or above a threshold
temperature often defined as the pyrolysis temperature, Tp. Level of damage to skin provides a
relatively severe, yet survivable, performance criterion level for protective clothing.
Human Skin
32

One of the primary objectives in the design of firefighting clothing is the prevention of thermal
damage to the skin. To properly understand test methods for the evaluation of fire-fighting
clothing, one must have a sound understanding of the affects of thermal exposure on the skin.
The skin is composed of three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis.
Skin Damage
the skin has been damaged. Several
scales exist to evaluate skin burns and the most common is to rank
by first, second, third degree or higher degrees
.Superficial (First Degree)
rst degree burns are appropriately the most superficial. The thermal damage in this case
only affects the epidermis. The physical signs of a first degree burns include redness and some
pain
Partial Thickness (Second Degree)
when the epidermis is destroyed at the burn location. A
superficial second degree burn does not damage the dermis. If the dermis is damaged, the trauma
is considered a deep second degree burn. Physically, the skin will appear red,
blistered, moist, and will be painful. A pale white color will appear under the blisters if the burn
is deep.

33

Full Thickness (Third Degree)
burn extends below the hair follicle depth. Damage may also penetrate the subcutaneous tissue.
The skin is unable regenerate on its own, and will appear gray in color, charred, and have a
leathery texture.
Fourth Degree and Beyond
third degree burns exclusively, the rating
system does extend to a sixth degree. Fourth degree burns are those which require skin grafts to
heal the patient. Fifth degree burns are those in which the muscle is
damaged. Sixth degree burns damage the bone.
Rate of Skin Damage
32.5oC, and thermal damage will begin
when the temperature at the base of the epidermis, approximately 80-m below the surface, is
increased above 44oC. Damage to the skin is a function of the skin temperature, and the period
of time when this temperature is greater than 44oC. The rate of damage to the skin increases
logarithmically, such that the rate of damage at 50oC is 100 times greater than the rate of damage
at 45oC
pplication of the heat flux, the temperature rise, and therefore the
2nd degree burn tolerance time, are related to the amount of heat absorbed by the skin.
Firefighters garments or Proximity suit
The term garment, when referring to firefighter
turnout gear, is defined as the coat, trouser, or coverall
elements of the protective ensemble designed to
provide minimum protection to the upper and lower
torso, arms, and legs, excluding the head, hands, and
feet.
Fire proximity suit is a heat-reflecting metallic finished fabric, used
in outer layer of fire-fighting applications.
-deposited aluminized material.
chemical fires.
designed for rescue operations
34

and places at a temperature ranging 6000F.

90% heat.
1930s 1937-43s modern
suit:- The outer surface of the proximity suit is made by a mirror polished
aluminised finish.
Collar:- The collar is designed to be twice the height in the rear as in the
front.
Sleeves:- The sleeves of the coat are designed to act as zippered vent
opening in pit.
Front fastener:- The coat is opened and closed by both a backway zipper
covered by a Velcro closure.

Approach suitused for work in the general area of high temperatures
such as steel mills. (Ambient heat protection up to ~200 F )
used for aircraft rescue and fire fighting (AR-FF) & for kiln
work. (Kiln suit ambient protection upto 700 F)
used for entry into extreme heat and situations requiring
protection from total flame engulfment. Most commonly made of Zetex and
not aluminized. Entry suit ambient protection ~700 F for short duration and prolonged radiant
heat up to 600 F

35

Material that used for proximity suits
-up of fire resistant fibres mainly aramids
such as Nomex and Kevlar, Polybenzimidazol (PBI) fibres(<10
microns).
-resistant fabric would not be destroyed easily
through charring or melting .
-least few seconds in a flashover situation before catching the
fire .Further, it is self extinguishing

36

BREATHING APPARATUS

Aims and Objectives:
BA is used in atmospheres that would be hazardous to health. Often the work, undertaken in BA
will be complex, physically and psychologically demanding and in circumstances where the
normal sensory perceptions are denied. The wearer may face risk from hazards in addition to the
irrespirable atmosphere, such as from fire, explosion or structural collapse. To reduce these risks
to the lowest practicable level,command and control procedures are required. The procedures set
out in this guidance must be adopted by all firefighters in all brigades at all incidents.

2. This guidance will allow the fire service to apply a risk-based approach to the wearing of
BA. This requires the Incident Commander to identify, analyse and assess risks and select the
appropriate BA procedures for risk control prior to committing personnel wearing BA. Fire
Authorities must therefore ensure that officers are trained to make these decisions.
3. The use of standard procedures is essential to ensure:
(a) the competent use of BA;
(b) adequate support and emergency arrangements;
(c) the safety of the individual BA wearer;
(d) the safety of other BA wearers at the same incident; and
(e) the successful conclusion of operational incidents.

4. The procedures adopted for operational incidents apply equally during training. In
recognition of the risks likely to be faced by BA wearers, only those firefighters who have
satisfactorily completed a BA Initial Wearers' Course should be allowed to use BA for
operational duties.
37

5. The procedures in this manual must be reinforced by appropriate training designed to
develop and maintain the professional competence and safety of firefighters, officers
and others with a role in using BA and its associated equipment, and to secure the
effective implementation of the procedures.
6. In complying with the procedures in this manual Fire Authorities should have regard for
BA manufacturers' instructions for use and maintenance.

Legislation
Legislative requirements to note include:
Fire Services Act 1981
The Act requires Fire Authorities to fulfil certain functions:
Section 10.2.a to make provision for the prompt and efficient extinguishing of fires in
buildings and other places of all kinds in its functional area and for the
protection and rescue of persons and property from injury by fire.
Section 10.2.b to establish and maintain a fire brigade, provide premises and make such
other provision as it considers necessary or desirable for such purposes.
Section 15.1 It shall be the duty of a fire authority to make arrangements for the efficient training
of personnel of its fire services.
Fire Authorities (Emergency Operations) Regulations 1987
The Minister for the Environment, in exercise of the powers conferred on him by section 27(4)
of the Fire Services Act 1981 hereby makes the following Regulations:
Article 2 "Emergency operations" means operations of an emergency nature under
section 25 of the Fire Services Act 1981 other than operations for
extinguishing a fire. Article 3 Every fire authority shall -
(a) appoint an officer of the authority to be the person who shall be in
charge of and shall control emergency operations of the authority,
and
(b) appoint an officer of the authority to be in such charge and control
in the absence of such first mentioned officer.
Vii Article 4 Where a fire authority is carrying out emergency operations in its functional
area and the person appointed under article 3(a), or in his absence the
38

person appointed under article 3(b), shall have sole charge and control of
the operations and the operations of other fire authorities providing
assistance in its functional area.
Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act 2005
The Act requires fire authorities to make suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks to
health and safety of firefighters to which they are exposed while on duty and includes the
following sections:
Section 8.1 Every employer shall ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the
safety, health and welfare at work of his or her employees.
Section 8.2 The employer's duty extends, in particular, to the following:
Section 8.2.a managing and conducting work activities in such a way as to ensure , so
far as is reasonably practicable, the safety, health and welfare at work of
his or her employees.
Section 8.2.e providing systems of work that are planned, organised, performed,
maintained and revised as appropriate so as to ensure, so far as is
reasonably practicable, the safety, health and welfare at work of his or
her employees.
Section 8.2.g providing the information, instruction, training and supervision
necessary to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the safety, health
and welfare at work of his or her employees.
Section 8.2.i having regard to the general principles of prevention, where risks
cannot be eliminated or adequately controlled or in such circumstances
as may be prescribed, providing and maintaining such suitable
protective clothing and equipment as is necessary to ensure, so far as is
reasonably practicable, the safety, health and welfare at work of his or
her employees.
viii
Section 8.2.j preparing and revising, as appropriate, adequate plans and procedures to
be followed and measures to be taken in case of an emergency or
serious imminent danger.
Regulations
39

Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (Confined Spaces) Regulations, 2001 (S.I. No. 218 of
2001).
Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (Chemical Agents) Regulations, 2001 (S.I. No. 619 of
2001).
Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (Explosive Athmospheres) Regulations, 2003 (S.I. 258 of
2003).
Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (General application) regulations, 1993 (S.I. 44 of 1993).
Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road Regulations, 2004 (S.I. No. 29 of 2004).
ix
The following abbreviations are used in this manual:
ADSU Automatic Distress Signal Unit
BA Breathing Apparatus
DSU Distress Signal Unit
DSX see ADSU
ECB Entry Control Board
ECO Entry Control Officer
ECP Entry Control Point
ECU Entry Control Unit
OIC Officer-in-Charge
IC Incident Commander
MC Main Control
MCO Main Control Officer
MCP Main Control Point
RDB Rapid Deployment Board
RDSU Radio Distress Signal Unit
TIC Thermal Imaging Camera
TOW Time of Whistle
TTW Time to Whistle
Abbreviations
x
The following definitions apply to this guidance:
40

Access Point / Exit Point
The opening into a building or structure through which BA teams enter or exit the risk area.
Automatic Distress Signal Unit (ADSU)
A Distress Signal Unit (DSU) that includes an automatic alarm function.
Breathing Apparatus (BA)
Self contained respiratory protective equipment.
Breathing Apparatus Team
A number of BA wearers designated to work together in the risk area.
Bridgehead
The position, in safe air, where entry control procedures are established within a structure at a
distant point from open air.
Cylinders
Compressed gas / air containers of varying shape and size used in conjunction with BA or
airline equipment.
Distress Signal Unit (DSU)
A distress signal unit is attached to all BA sets. It is a manually operated unit designed to
provide an audible emergency alarm to alert others that a BA wearer is in distress. (see ADSU)
Emergency Team
A number of BA wearers designated to standby at the entry control point(s) for emergency
purposes.
Entry Control Board (ECB)
See page 4-8.
Entry Control Officer (ECO)
A BA wearer nominated to monitor the wearing of BA through an ECP.

Glossary of Terms
xi
Entry Control Point (ECP)
The position for monitoring and controlling BA use, and access to and from the risk area where
BA is used.
Entry Control Unit (ECU)
41

A telemetry radio base station configured similar to an ECB.
Exit Point / Access Point
The opening into a building or structure through which BA teams enter or exit the risk area.
Full Duration
The period during which BA is expected to provide respiratory protection from the moment
the cylinder valve is opened until the cylinder content is exhausted.
Incident Commander (IC)
The Incident Commander will normally be the senior officer present at an incident according
to each Brigade's policy determining rank and responsibilities at incidents. On occasion a more
senior officer may choose to attend an incident as an observer. That officer will have overall
responsibility for the incident, but need not assume the role of Incident Commander.
Main Control (MC)
An additional level of control required to oversee the requirements of Stage II procedures
demanded by the circumstances of a large protracted BA incident.
Main Control Point (MCP)
The position for monitoring and controlling BA use where BA Main Control is used.
Normal Working
The remaining working duration when the safety margin has been deducted from the full
duration of a cylinder(s).
Officer-in-Charge (OIC)
The Officer-in-Charge of personnel, fire station and/or equipment, e.g. crew, watch, appliance.
xii
Portable Unit
A battery powered telemetry unit incorporating an integral radio transmitter and receiver
connected to a BA set which can transmit and receive data from the Entry Control Unit (ECU).
Radio Distress Signal Unit (RDSU)
A combined radio telemetry portable unit and ADSU.
Rapid Deployment Procedure
The control procedure used in exceptional circumstances when BA has to be deployed
immediately and resources are limited.
Risk Area
42

That part of the incident area to which BA entry control procedures should be applied.
Route
Each "access point" to a building provides a maximum of two routes into the risk area i.e. left
or right.
Safe Air
An environment where the air is breathable and will not be harmful without the use of
respiratory protection.
Safety Margin
The period during which the low pressure warning whistle operates.
Stage I Procedure
The level of control required to monitor the wearing of BA at small incidents which are not
likely to be protracted, where there are no more that 10 wearers and a minimum of 1 entry
control board.
Stage II Procedure
The level of control required to monitor the wearing of BA at incidents which are likely to be
protracted, where there are more than 10 wearers or 2 entry control boards are in use, or where
branch guidelines are used.
Team Leader
A breathing apparatus wearer designated to lead a team of BA wearers.
xiii
Time to Whistle
"Time to Whistle" is a feature available with telemetry equipment. In addition to indicating the
estimated "Time of Whistle", telemetry equipment can display the estimated number of
minutes left before Whistle Activation.
Working Duration
The period during which BA is expected to provide respiratory protection from the moment
the cylinder valve is opened until the moment at which the low-pressure warning whistle starts
to operate.
xiv
Introduction
Objectives
43

To ensure the safety of firefighters and the effective use of Breathing Apparatus (BA)
during training and operations.
To meet the different and varying demands of incidents.
To outline the resources available to the Incident Commander.
1. To ensure safe operations whilst using BA it is essential that effective control
procedures are employed. Control procedures must be implemented as soon as the
decision is taken to use BA.
2. The control procedures described in this section are designed to form a single
progressive system for managing BA operations. The procedures for "Stage I" and
Stage II" have been retained to denote different levels of control that may be applied
to differing demands and resources. It is recognised that there may of necessity be
occasional circumstances when the full control procedures are unable to be
implemented. To address this, procedures for the rapid deployment of firefighters are
set out within this guidance.
3. On arrival at an incident, the Incident Commander will need to assess the risk and the
available resources and apply the appropriate level of control procedures. The
procedures applied may change with the gravity or complexity of the incident but,
whenever BA is in use, a control procedure must be in place which is sufficient to
monitor the risk to the safety of BA wearers. The level of control adopted will apply to
the whole incident and should not vary for different sectors or access points into the
risk area. The standard procedures will be used in all cases.
Note: Rapid deployment procedures should only be used in exceptional circumstances;
where urgent action is required and a limited number of crew members form the initial
attendance.

Section 1: Control Procedures:
1.1
4. As soon as resources permit, rapid deployment procedures should be replaced by the
full requirements of the Stage I procedures. If an incident is seen to be large or is likely
to be protracted, Stage II procedures may need to be introduced immediately. In such
44

cases the Incident Commander may decide to await reinforcements before committing
personnel if the initial resources are deemed inadequate to proceed safely.
5. Particular attention is given in this guidance to the use of Entry Control Points (ECPs)
and the duties of the Entry Control Officers (ECOs) in implementing procedures. All
firefighters are required to maintain their understanding and use of these procedures
whenever BA is in use for training and operations.

BA Entry Control Points (ECPs)
Objective
To secure focal point(s) for the effective management of Breathing Apparatus (BA)
incidents and the safe control of access to, and egress from, the risk area.
1. Entry Control Officers (ECOs) are to be nominated for each Entry Control Point
(ECP). Their duties depend upon the procedures adopted (see notes on Stage I page 1-
7 and Stage II page 1-13).
The siting and number of BA ECPs should take account of:
a. the size of the risk area;
b. the location of access points to the risk area;
c. the number of levels or floors involved;
d. wind direction;
e. the physical limitations of the site, in particular, the obstruction to firefighting
and effective control that can exist if the site is divided by major roads, railways
or rivers or other physical barriers; and
f. the likely development of the incident.
2. The ECPs should be sited:
a. as near the scene of operations as is commensurate with safety so that the
maximum duration of the BA can be used;
b. in safe air in such a position that should the incident deteriorate it will not be
necessary to relocate the ECPs (see "Bridgeheads" page 1-4); and
c. so that the position of the ECO is easily located by all BA wearers.
3. The Incident Commander should be aware of the position of all ECPs.
4. The number of ECPs should be the minimum necessary to deal with the incident
45

effectively. Additional ECPs should not be established merely because teams enter the
risk area using different equipment or access points to a building unless they are so
widely separated as to make the use of one ECP impracticable.

Bridgeheads
Objective
To provide a central and advanced control point for occasions where it is necessary for
the use of Breathing Apparatus (BA) to be initiated at a distance from the original point
of entry to a risk area, whilst remaining in a safe air environment.
Notes on Bridgeheads
1. Under normal circumstances before entry is made into a risk area using BA, an external
position close to the access point into the building or structure is usually designated as
the Entry Control Point (ECP). However, as part of operational planning, there may be
some occasions when it is operationally necessary to enter a building or structure and
to proceed some distance away from the original access point before initiating use of
BA. Examples, which may require such an approach, include tunnels, complex major
developments, ships or high-rise building incidents. Under such circumstances, the
Incident Commander must make an assessment on whether and where to establish a
bridgehead and ECPs. In reaching this decision the following factors should be taken
into account:
a. the immediate operational considerations;
b. the need to initiate use of BA in safe air;
c. whether there are any shorter and safer access routes to the incident;
d. the safety of all personnel working ahead of the bridgehead;
e. the need for effective communications between the bridgehead, BA control, BA
teams and the Incident Commander;
f. the distance from the initial access point to the bridgehead;
g. the availability and location of BA relief and emergency teams;
h. security of access to and egress from bridgeheads and forward control points;
and
i. the need to consider use of a guideline laid from the initial access point to the
46

bridgehead position.

2. Where a change in circumstances or conditions (such as escalation or deterioration)
require a bridgehead to be relocated, the potential risk to the BA wearer should be
recognised. BA wearers calculate their working duration on their cylinder content at
the time and point of original entry into the risk area. It is therefore essential that BA
wearers are informed immediately of any relocation of the ECB as this may extend the
time taken for them to reach a place of safety on exiting the risk area.
3. Additional information on the use of Bridgeheads in High-Rise buildings is available
in the Fire Services Council's, Junior Officer Handbook, page 4-14.
Rapid Deployment Procedures
Objectives:
To apply a minimum safety control procedure where the crew members available are
limited and where persons at great risk require urgent assistance, or where dangerous
escalation of the incident can be prevented.
1. The objective may be met by maintaining a minimum record of elapsed time since
entry of the Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearers to a risk area. As far as is practicable,
the principles of the standard Stage I procedures should be extended to incidents
requiring the rapid deployment procedure.
2. Rapid Deployment Procedures are for use in exceptional circumstances only. The
procedures may be used only when the total number of BA wearers in the risk area does
not exceed two, and:
a. it is immediately clear that persons are at great risk and in need of rescue, and
are either within view or known to be within a short distance of the access
point; or
b. dangerous escalation of the incident can be prevented by immediate and limited
action.
3. Before entering the risk area BA wearers will ensure that tallies are attached to a
"Rapid Deployment" Entry Control Board (ECB) so that the "Time In" is recorded
automatically. A Rapid Deployment Board is included in Appendix 4.
4. As soon as practicable the Rapid Deployment Procedures shall be replaced by Stage I
47

or Stage II BA control procedures. When transferring to Stage I or Stage II
procedures, care should be taken to ensure that the BA tallies are effectively handled
to ensure accurate and prompt recording and monitoring of BA wearers in the risk area.

Stage I Procedures
Objectives
To apply control procedures to meet the demands of small or limited incidents and to
monitor the safety of Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearers.
Notes on Stage I procedures
1. The objectives are met by:
a. ensuring all firefighters are aware that Stage I procedures are being applied;
b. appointing an Entry Control Officer (ECO) to implement the procedures at the
Entry Control Point (ECP);
c. recording BA wearers entry (using their tallies) and monitoring their estimated
air supply;
d. ensuring effective communication between BA wearers and ECO;
e. appropriate provision for relief and/or emergency teams; and
f. applying the procedures for use of related BA equipment.
2. Stage I procedures apply where:
a. the size of the incident is small and the use of BA is unlikely to be protracted;
b. no more than one ECP is used; and
c. the total number of BA wearers within the risk area does not exceed 10.
3. The Incident Commander is responsible for nominating an ECO to monitor the
implementation of Stage I procedures and establish an ECP to the risk area. During the
application of Stage I procedures the Incident Commander is responsible for
effectively monitoring the BA wearers/teams within the risk area and for ensuring that
effective briefing and debriefing takes place.

Note: Branch guidelines are not to be used under Stage I procedures.
Nomination of Entry Control Officers (ECOs)
4. The Incident Commander should nominate ECOs for each appliance equipped with an
48

ECB (see "At the Fire Station page 2-13). However, in all cases, the ECO must be an
experienced BA wearer. On arrival at the incident, the nomination can be changed
depending upon the nature of the risk and the competence, experience and rank of
available personnel.
1.8
Duties of Stage I Entry Control Officers (ECOs):
1. Stage I ECO duties are restricted to those directly related to the monitoring of
Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearers who have entered the risk area using the Entry
Control Point (ECP) for which they are responsible. It may be necessary to have an
officer rank close by to give direction as to firefighting requirements, equipment supply
or casualty handling.
2. For identification purposes, ECOs must wear a black and yellow BA control tabard.
Monitoring Procedure
3. The ECO shall:
a. take up the position nominated for the ECP by the Incident / Sector
Commander;
b. provide an Entry Control Board (ECB) complete with suitable waterproof
marker (ECBs are shown in appendices 4 and 5);
c. indicate clearly on the ECB that Stage I is in operation and ensure that the ECB
is clearly sited;
d. receive tallies of BA wearers and check that the name of the wearer and the
cylinder content at the time of entry into the risk area are correct;
e. enter the "Time In" on each tally;
f. place each tally in a slot on the ECB so that the tallies of each team of wearers
are together and are indicated as a team by bracketing the tallies using the
waterproof marker (the earliest "time of whistle" being placed outside the
bracket);
g. calculate the "time of whistle" for each wearer by using the ECB clock and
enter this in the appropriate section of the ECB, opposite the tally.

The time of whistle should be calculated by:
49

(i) taking account of the guidance given in " Withdrawal of BA Teams"
page 2-10 paragraph 2 and "Incident Procedures" page 2-15 paragraph
(ii) carefully referring to the correct section of the duration tables
(Appendix 1) or using the dial calculator, noting both the cylinder
pressure reading at entry and the type of cylinder/apparatus in use;
(iii) acting on the guidance of the Incident/Sector Commander if necessary,
restrict the length of exposure in difficult or strenuous conditions. In
such circumstances the BA wearer and team leader must be advised to
withdraw from the risk area at a predetermined pressure gauge reading.
The ECO should calculate the time of exit and make a note in the
remarks column accordingly;
(iv) where appropriate, taking account of any elapsed time since entry of BA
wearers who entered the risk area under the rapid deployment
procedure.
i. indicate the location of teams in the column provided and record details in the
"Remarks" and "Location of Teams" columns on the ECB as necessary;
j. where practicable, ensure BA wearers are appropriately pre-briefed prior to
entry to the risk area (see "Duties of BA Team Leader page 2-8);
k. where a BA team re-enters a risk area (see "New Entry and Re-entry to an
Incident" page 1-24), annotate the ECB;
l. when BA teams exit the risk area, remove their tallies from the ECB and return
them to the respective wearers; and if appropriate, ensure that they are fully
debriefed; and
1.10
Note: The "time of whistle" may be read directly where provided by an
electronic contents gauge/indicator incorporated with the BA set.
m. keep the Incident / Sector Commander fully informed of all relevant
developments or requirements related to the wearing of BA and the operational
aspects of the incident, using information gained from BA wearers at the
incident.
Miscellaneous Duties
50

4. The ECO shall:
a. whenever radio communications are to be used, carry out a radio
communications check prior to entry into the risk area;
b. attach BA main guideline tallies to the appropriate line as necessary and remove
them when the Incident Commander indicates that the line is no longer
required;
c. inform the Incident / Sector Commander of any breakdown in radio
communications with BA teams; and
d. notify the Incident / Sector Commander if it is considered necessary for BA
teams to stand by at the ECP.
Emergency Procedures
5. The ECO shall:
a. commit an emergency team(s), if available, and immediately inform the
Incident / Sector Commander of the incident if:
(i) any team fails to return to the ECP by the indicated "Time of Whistle"
(indicated outside the brackets);
(ii) an ADSU is operated;
(iii) it is clear that a dangerous situation is developing which will affect the
BA team; or
(iv) it appears that any BA wearer is in distress.
1.11
Note: If the Incident / Sector Commander is not available, the ECO shall initiate
a radio assistance message, "BA Emergency".
b. prior to entry, ensure the emergency team is suitably briefed (see "Emergency
Team" page 1-22 paragraph 4).
As soon as resources permit, a minimum of two BA wearers should be kept available
at the ECP for emergency purposes.
Special Incident Duties
6. At incidents involving radiation or hazardous chemicals, liaise with the
Decontamination Officer. When a radiation check is considered necessary by the
Incident Commander, the ECO must ensure that all personnel are fully briefed on
51

entering the risk area, and fully debriefed, if appropriate on exit.
7. The ECO must also enter the dosimeter reading on the reverse of the tally on entry of
the wearer and (whist wearing appropriate protection) check the dosimeter reading and
record it on the reverse of the tally when they leave the risk area. A permanent record
of the exposure of each wearer to radiation should be made and passed to the Incident
Commander at the conclusion of the incident.
1.12
Note: UK Technical Bulletin 2/1993 gives guidance on procedures at incidents involving
radioactive materials.
Stage II Procedures
Objectives
To apply control procedures to meet the demands of "larger" and "more complex"
incidents and to monitor the safety of Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearers.
Notes on Stage II procedures
1. These objectives are met by:
a. ensuring that all firefighters are aware that Stage II procedures are being
implemented;
b. appointing an Entry Control Officer (ECO) to implement the procedures at each
Entry Control Point (ECP);
c. recording BA wearers entries (using their tallies) and monitoring their
estimated air supply;
d. ensuring effective communication between BA wearers and ECOs;
e. appropriate provision for relief and/or emergency teams; and
f. the application of procedures for use of related BA equipment.
Application of Stage II Control Procedures
2. Stage II entry control procedures normally supersede Stage I procedures and are used
where one or more of the following apply:
a. the scale of the operations is likely to be protracted or demand greater control
and supervision than is provided by Stage I procedure;
b. more than one Entry Control Point is necessary;
c. more than ten BA wearers are committed into the risk area at one time; or
52

d. branch guidelines are used.

Duties of the Incident Commander
3. The Incident Commander is responsible for overseeing the implementation of Stage II
procedures and establishing Stage II entry control at every ECP into the risk area.
During transition from Stage I to Stage II procedures care should be taken to ensure
that the number of BA wearers whose entry control tallies supervised by an ECO (on
one or more ECBs) does not exceed ten (excluding the emergency team).
Nomination of Entry Control Officers (ECOs)
4. Stage II ECOs are required to supervise each ECP. The Incident Commander should
nominate ECOs for each appliance equipped with an ECB (see "At the Fire Station
page 2-13). However, on arrival at an incident, the Incident Commander will need to
give careful consideration to the complexity of the incident before confirming the
personnel selected as ECOs. In broad terms, the greater the complexity of the incident
the greater the rank needed for ECO duties. However, in all cases, the ECO must be an
experienced BA wearer.
5. In circumstances where it has not been either necessary or possible for the Incident
Commander to appoint an officer to manage operational requirements at the ECP, the
ECO should be above the rank of firefighter. An additional ECO (any rank) should be
appointed for each additional group of ten BA wearers entering a risk area through the
same ECP. If practicable, and where resources permit, a firefighter should be appointed
to assist the ECO, especially when several BA teams are being monitored at the same
time.
Duties of Stage II Entry Control Officers
1. The duties of a Stage II ECO include all those specified for a Stage I ECO (see "Duties
of Stage I ECO page 1-9). Additionally, the Stage II ECO's duties also include those
listed below.
Monitoring Procedures
2. The ECO shall:
a. ensure the Entry Control Board (ECB) indicates that Stage II procedures are
being applied;
53

b. check the "Time of Whistle" calculations of the Stage I ECO if being relieved;
c. ensure BA teams are relieved at the scene of operations in sufficient time to
allow their return to the Entry Control Point (ECP) by the "Time of Whistle";
d. have available (at least 5 minutes before they are due to enter) sufficient relief
teams to allow pre-entry checks and briefing to be completed without delaying
their entry;
e. liase (by radio, runner, etc.) with other ECPs;
f. inform other ECPs of the names of BA wearers who leave the risk area other
than via the ECP at which they entered;
g. liase with a Main Control, and ensure that personnel who have collected their
tallies report if required to Main Control following necessary debriefing at the
ECP;
h. ensure, if it becomes necessary to use additional ECBs, that tallies remain on
the initial ECB under the control of the ECO (tallies must not be transferred to
a second ECB, wearers must collect their tallies before the initial ECB can be
disestablished); and
i. synchronise the clock of the Stage II ECB and the Main Control clock to the
clock on the first ECB used.
1.15
Miscellaneous Duties
3. The ECO shall:
a. nominate BA communications teams and communications operators as
necessary;
b. attach BA main and branch guideline tallies to the appropriate line as necessary,
remove them when the Incident Commander considers that the line is no longer
required, and annotate the ECB with details of which team has been committed
on which line (see "Guideline Procedures page 1-27); and
c. at cross-border incidents, be alert to potential monitoring issues (see "Incidents
in other Fire Authority areas" page 1-25).
4. The ECO shall:
54

a. have a minimum of one emergency team of two BA wearers standing by for
every ten BA wearers committed to the risk area.
b. have, where resources are available, a fully equipped emergency BA team (see
"Emergency Teams" page 1-22) rigged and standing by at the ECP throughout
the period that it is in operation.
5. Stage II ECO duties are restricted to those related directly to the BA function. It may
therefore be necessary to have an officer close by to give directions as to firefighting
requirements, equipment supply or casualty handling in accordance with Incident
Command procedures.

BA Main Control
Objectives
To ensure Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearer safety by establishing additional control to
co-ordinate BA requirements where there is more than one Stage II Entry Control Point
(ECP) or the number of BA wearers is large.
1. Where there is more than one Stage II ECP, or the number of BA wearers is large, an
additional control to co-ordinate BA requirements should be established. This control,
known as "BA Main Control", should be set up at the most convenient site for easy
access and communications with all Stage II ECPs and the Incident Commander (IC).
2. BA Main control is a necessary function in order to provide the Incident Commander
with a directly reporting officer whose role is to monitor BA wearers entering the risk
area in all sectors of the incident. BA Main control is responsible for BA logistics and
to advise the Incident Commander on the number of personnel required to support BA
operations. By operating on a separate radio channel to communicate with ECPs BA
Main control reduces the number of messages on the command channel. BA Main
controls co-ordinating role maintains efficient use of resources, ensures that time
55

records are synchronised and that appropriate call-signs/radio channels are used in all
sectors.

3. A control unit, emergency tender, or other suitable vehicle may be used as the Main
Control Point (MCP). Examples of BA Main Control Boards (MCBs) if required are
shown in Appendix 2.
Nomination of BA Main Control Officers
4. A BA Main Control Officer (MCO) should be appointed by the Incident Commander
of the incident.
5. The MCO should have the appropriate command and management skills and have
shown proficiency in the responsibility required.
6. MCOs and their assistants should wear black and yellow chequered BA control
tabards. MCOs should be identified by means of appropriate words or initials on their
tabards.
Monitoring Duties of the MCO
7. The MCO shall:
a. establish and record the availability of BA, associated equipment and personnel
at the incident;
b. identify the location of each Stage II ECP, record the name of each ECO and
establish communications with Stage II controls and the Incident Commander;
c. take account of any time variations between clocks;
d. establish and record the requirements for relief teams of BA wearers from each
of the Stage II ECPs; and
e. request availability of sufficient BA wearers to provide the relief teams required
by each Stage II ECP and dispatch them to arrive at the ECP at least 5 minutes
before required.
Emergency Provision Duties
8. The MCO shall:
a. after liaison with the ECOs advise the Incident Commander on:
(i) the number of emergency BA teams required; and
(ii) the number in each team.
56

Note: All members of emergency teams should be fully equipped at least to the
standard of BA wearers committed to the incident.
b. in preparing the advice at 8.a above the MCO needs to consider:
(i) the number, size and location of BA teams committed to the incident;
(ii) the complexity of the incident;
(iii) the potential hazards from development of the incident; and
(iv) where possible, the need for one of the emergency teams to be at least
of equal number to the largest BA team committed.

BA Equipment Duties
9. The MCO shall:
a. obtain sufficient fully charged cylinders and other equipment necessary for
preparing BA for re-use, including the collection of equipment from appliances
in attendance and arranging for mobilising controls to be warned of likely
future requirements (e.g. for cylinder recharging and re-supply);
b. control and account for, cylinder stocks at the incident, including
exchange/issues of full for empty cylinders from bulk stocks to users;
c. control the return of all cylinders (full or empty) to the appropriate station /
establishment during and at the conclusion of the incident; and
d. maintain records necessary to allow the duties of the MCO to be conducted.
10. Where a BA Main Control is in operation, BA wearers should report to the ECP after
leaving the risk area, collect their tallies and if required report to BA Main Control,
after any necessary debriefing.
Note: As a minimum there should be one emergency team of two BA wearers
standing by for every ten BA wearers committed to the risk area.
Duties of Breathing Apparatus (BA) Wearers at an Incident
Objectives
To ensure Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearer safety by confirming that all equipment is
functioning correctly and by the application of standard control procedures prior to
entering, inside, and on withdrawal from the risk area.
57

1. Firefighters ordered to wear BA at an incident shall:
a. check that the apparatus is functioning correctly by carrying out the tests
referred to in "Pre Entry Tests" page 4-2 paragraph 1 (including checking the
tally details for correctness and the ADSU by brief operation);
b. ensure that no electronic equipment is carried into the risk area e.g. mobile
phone, pager.
c. ensure that information contained in the briefing provided by the team leader is
understood before entering the risk area;
d. hand their tally to the Entry Control Officer (ECO) at the Entry Control Point
(ECP) before entering the risk area;
e. regularly check their pressure gauge whilst in the risk area to;
(i) monitor air consumption;
(ii) allow sufficient duration to withdraw to the ECP before the low pressure
warning whistle sounds; and
(iii) update the BA team leader, as appropriate.
f. maintain regular verbal contact with other members of their BA team;
g. collect their BA tally from the ECO on final exit from the risk area;
1.20
h. on collection of the tally, ensure that any information of use to teams entering
the risk area, or the Incident Commander, is made known to the ECO through
the team leader; and
i. after collecting their tally, report to the BA Main Control if required (if one is
in operation).
2. If a replacement cylinder is fitted and the BA is required for immediate re-use by the
original wearer (see "New Entry and Re-entry to an Incident" page 1-24), the pre-entry
test should also include those checks referred to in paragraph 1.a above.
3. Personnel required to wear BA must maintain the area of the seal free from hair (facial
or head). Failure to do so will impair efficiency of the seal and create an avoidable
safety hazard to the BA wearer.
4. Guidance on the wearing procedures and the responsibilities of a BA team leader are
set out in "Duties of BA Team Leader" "Incident Procedures"
58

Emergency Teams
Objective
To provide prompt emergency assistance to Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearers.
1. Emergency teams of BA wearers must be established at all incidents where Stage II BA
entry control procedures are in operation, and at other incidents as soon as personnel
resources permit (see "Duties of Stage I ECO" page 1-9).
2. The Entry Control Officer (ECO) is responsible for informing the Incident Commander
of the need for an emergency team, (unless this function has been assumed by the BA
Main Control or the Main Control Officer). The Incident / Sector Commander shall
nominate an emergency team of BA wearers from those available at the incident. The
composition of emergency teams will depend upon the nature of the incident, the
location of BA wearers and the number of BA wearers in the largest teams. Aminimum
of two BA wearers will be required for every emergency team and these will be
equipped with cylinders (see also "BA Main Control page 1-17) with at least equivalent
maximum duration to the BA of the wearers committed to the risk area.
3. The emergency team shall be suitably equipped for the incident in hand. This may
include, for example:
a. radio communications equipment;
b. resuscitation equipment;
c. an additional set of BA;
d. appropriate air line equipment (see page 3-4 "Other Air Lines) ; and
e. any other specialist equipment provided for this purpose (e.g. thermal imaging
camera).
4. The equipment should be tested and ready for immediate use. Where BA wearers at an
incident are wearing protective clothing in addition to their BA, the emergency team
will be similarly protected.

Deployment of an Emergency Team
5. The following procedures should be applied:
a. the emergency team should rig (but not start-up) in BA and stand by at the ECP
until instructed to enter the risk area by the ECO, or until relieved of that duty;
59

b. prior to entry, the ECO will ensure that all members of the emergency team are
fully briefed about the emergency, the likely location of the wearer(s) in distress
(if this is known) and will collect the emergency team's tallies and record their
actions on the ECB;
c. when available, BA guidelines laid into the risk area should be followed; and
d. following deployment, the ECO (or the MCO) should inform the Incident
Commander, and call for a replacement emergency team immediately.
New Entry and Re-Entry to an Incident
Objective
To apply appropriate control measures where re-entry to the risk area is required in
circumstances where new entry procedures are either unnecessary or inappropriate
1. A team withdrawing from the risk area, closing down their sets and accepting their
tallies may service their sets and change the cylinders (where necessary). If another
entry into the risk area is needed this is regarded as a new entry and fresh records are
required.
2. If a team temporarily withdraws, e.g. to collect a piece of equipment or pass a message,
but do not remove their face masks, close down their sets or collect their tallies they
may immediately re-enter the risk area. This may be regarded as part of their initial
working duration and no fresh records or amendments to records are required.
3. In exceptional circumstances it may be necessary for BA teams to re-enter a risk area
to perform a specific task after they have withdrawn from the original entry, closed
down their sets and reported to the ECO. To allow a re-entry the Incident Commander
must first be satisfied that:
a. the re-entry is for a clearly defined specific task;
b. the cylinder content of all wearers are sufficient for the task; and
c. there are no doubts about the fitness of any BA wearer for the task to be done.
4. The rule of a minimum of 80% cylinder contents before entry may be ignored in these
specific circumstances. The ECO must record fresh details for all team members
involved in the re-entry procedure.
5. For all circumstances where a BA team re-enters a risk area the Entry Control Board
(ECB) should be appropriately annotated.
60

6. Unless unavoidable, the Incident Commander should ensure that BA wearers are rested
before re-entry to a risk area. This is particularly important if the conditions are
difficult or strenuous.
Incidents in other Fire Authority areas
Objective
To ensure inter-operability of Breathing Apparatus (BA) use between Fire Authorities.
1. It may sometimes be necessary for BA to be used in the mobilising areas of other Fire
Authorities.
2. Chief Fire Officers of adjacent Fire Authorities should ensure that efficient and
effective arrangements are in place to maintain the management and control of
breathing apparatus procedures in accordance with this guidance in circumstances
where more than one Fire Authority is operating at the same incident.
3. In such circumstances, firefighters from supporting Fire Authorities may wear BA, but
with the following additional safeguards:
a. BA teams will be composed of firefighters using the same type of BA and fitted
with cylinders providing the same maximum capacity;
b. BA wearers should wear only BA of a type identical to that used in their Fire
Authority and with which they have been trained;
c. ECOs and BA wearers must be alert to the fact that Fire Authorities attending
may use cylinders that provide different capacities (and hence duration) from
those operating at a similar pressure in the wearer's Fire Authority. Each wearer
must draw the maximum contents of their cylinder to the attention of the ECO
when handing in the tally so that the correct "time of whistle" can be calculated
from the appropriate duration table; and
d. where an ECB does not include a duration table for a particular cylinder
capacity and type, the corresponding table on the ECB from the Fire Authority
using that type of apparatus should be used to calculate the "time of whistle".
Although two or more ECBs may have been used in the calculation of the
working duration, the tallies may be placed on a single board (subject to the
total number of wearers not exceeding the maximum permitted).
4. The ECO may be drawn from amongst suitably qualified BA wearers of any Fire
61

Authority attending the incident (see "Duties of Stage I ECO" page 1-9, "Duties of
Stage II ECO" page 1-15 and "Size, Composition and Conduct of BA teams" page 2-
7).
5. BA wearers and ECOs should be aware that Fire Authorities attending a cross-border
incident may use ADSUs which produce an emergency signal different from their own.
Guideline Procedures
Objectives
To enable:

A team of Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearers in a risk area to retrace their steps to the
Entry Control Point (ECP).Subsequent teams to readily locate a team of BA wearers.
Subsequent teams to locate the scene of operations.1. The term "guideline" defines the
special line which is used either as a "main guideline"for initial search and to indicate a
route between an access point and the scene ofoperations, or alternatively, as a "branch
guideline", where it is necessary to traverse orsearch deeply off a main guideline. The
method of use of the line for either purpose isthe same. The term "personal line" defines a
special line secured to the BA set of thewearer, and which may be attached to the guideline
to enable the wearer to follow theline and in appropriate circumstances search off it up to
the limit of the personal line.2. Guidelines are to be used or discontinued in use only on the
instruction of the IncidentCommander. The BA guideline should be used where no other
practical or appropriatemeans are available for tracing the way out of a risk area.3.
Tactical ventilation can be used to improve visibility and may negate or supplement theuse
of BA guidelines (see "Notes on when to use BA" page 2-1 and Fire ServiceCouncil's,
Junior Officer Handbook, page 4-5).Note: BA guidelines must be used when entry is made
into areas of high expansion foam.4. It is essential to avoid confusion when using guidelines.
62

They should be always laid inaccordance with the following procedures and each
firefighter should at all times be
63

aware whether they are attached to either the main guideline or a branch guideline. The
exit route on all guidelines is identifiable by touch. Two tabs 150mm apart are fitted at
2.5m intervals along the length of the line. A knotted tab (consisting of two separate
knots, overall length 50mm) indicates the exit route and must therefore always be on
the "way out" side of the plain tab (unknotted and 125mm long). When a guideline has
been laid, the BA team leader must attach to it by use of a personal line.
Application of the procedures
5. The procedures for laying guidelines are as follows:
a. the guideline container is secured to the leader of the team nominated to lay the
guideline (or to the team leader's BA set);
b. unless the guideline is to be used to extend an existing guideline or to form a
branch guideline, it is to be secured to a suitable object outside the risk area,
and to be under the control of the Entry Control Officer (ECO), before the BA
team enter the risk area;
c. any main or branch guideline tally required for a BA guideline is to be fitted to
the line by the ECO before the team enter the risk area (see "Duties of Stage I
ECO" page 1-9" and "Duties of Stage II ECO" page 1-15); and the ECO must
check that the first tab to appear from the carrying container has two knots tied
into it;
d. the guideline is to be secured at intervals to suitable objects on the route by
other members of the guideline team. Tie-off points need not be close together
but at sufficient intervals to keep the line off the ground. The line is to be made
secure on the side of the search and crossing over from one side to another is to
be avoided as far as possible;
e. when it is known, or suspected, that penetration may be deep, an additional
guideline should be carried by another member of the team. A guideline can be
extended by unclipping the looped end from the container and clipping on the
snap hook of another guideline;
1.28
f. if an emergency withdrawal is necessary, the team leader should release the
guideline container and by following the guideline, the crew will then be able
64

to retrace their steps. If possible, the guideline container should be secured to a
suitable object before withdrawal;
g. the same procedure should be adopted when a team laying a guideline has to
retire before the objective is reached;
h. when relief teams are used, it is important that they relieve the correct team.
ECOs must ensure that teams are correctly instructed as to which main or
branch guideline they are to use. The relief crew must ensure they find the
correct guideline; and
i. outgoing teams on guidelines should normally take precedence over teams
entering the risk area.
Guidelines and guideline identification tallies are described in "BA Guidelines" page
4-11.
Main Guidelines
6. The following points should be noted about the use of main guidelines:
a. There should be no more than two main guidelines in use at any ECP;
b. Only one main guideline is to be laid along any single route leading from an
access point to the scene of operations. This main guideline may consist of a
number of guidelines jointed together as described in paragraph 5(e);
c. Main guidelines leading from an access point are to be designated "A" and/or
"B" by the access point and are to be marked by using one of the tallies
provided for this purpose (see "BA Guidelines" page 4-11).
1.29
Note: A guideline is always stowed in such a way that the running end pays out first.
Branch Guidelines
7. Branch guidelines should be:
a. used where the distance of the area of search from the main guideline is greater
than the length of one personal line;
b. limited to four branch guidelines from any ECP;
c. designated "1", "2", "3" or "4" by the ECO. The lines are marked by using a
branch guideline tally (the number of holes representing the number of the
branch guideline);
65

d. affixed with branch guideline tallies by the ECO before it is taken into the risk
area;
e. attached to the main guideline securely; and
f. secured to the wearer as for guidelines.
8. For safety reasons and to avoid potential confusion, branch guidelines should not be
joined together, or extended.
9. For safety reasons and to avoid potential confusion, branch guidelines should be
secured to main guidelines in such a way as to ensure that the branch guideline tally is
a minimum of 1 metre from the main guideline.
10. Details of the main and branch guideline to which individual teams are committed must
be recorded on the ECB by the ECO.
11. The ECO is responsible for the removal of main and branch guideline tallies when the
lines to which they are attached are removed from the risk area. They are not to be
removed by any other person or for any other reason.
Personal Lines
12. The personal line allows members of a BA team to attach themselves to each other or
to a guideline using the 1.25m length of line and also permits a search to be extended
from a main guideline or branch guideline to the full extent of one personal line. The
personal line is described in "BA Guidelines, page 4-11.
13. While a guideline is being laid, all members of the team other than the team leader
should attach themselves either to the team member in front of them by the short length
of personal line or to the guideline using the short length of personal line.
14. After a guideline has been laid the leader of any subsequent following teams must be
attached to it by the short length of personal line. The other members of the team must
be attached by the short length of personal line to the team member in front of them or
to the guideline. (Attachment by team members to the remainder of the team has an
advantage when the ground is reasonably level and passing teams may be encountered,
only the team leader has to unhook. Individual attachment of the personal line to the
guideline is generally more suitable where shafts or steep ladders may be encountered,
as it allows more freedom of movement).
15. When attached individually to the guideline, team members should also remain within
66

physical contact distance of the remaining members of the team.
16. When searching off a guideline, only the team leader may deploy a personal line to the
limit of its length and in such circumstances other members of the team should remain
between the team leader and the main or branch guideline. Where the area to be
searched is a greater distance from the guideline than the length of a single personal
line will permit, a branch guideline must be used.
Telemetry Procedures - Basic Telemetry
Objective
To provide additional information on the status of BA wearers in the risk area in order
to enhance the effectiveness of command and control at incidents.
Notes on Telemetry
1. The telemetry equipment referred to in this procedural guidance is an automatic,
electronic breathing apparatus control system which monitors the status of individual
BA wearers from outside the risk area. The standard Entry Control Board (ECB) is
augmented with a "radio base station", with additional electronic displays, which is
required for use with the telemetry equipment. This base station is referred to as an
Entry Control Unit (ECU). Radio technology is used to connect "portable units" with
"base stations". A "portable unit" is a radio unit attached to the firefighter's BA set
which is used to transmit and receive data at pre-set intervals. The equipment provides
the following basic functions:
a. "Portable units" have unique electronic identities so that they can be
individually "logged-on" to a base station at an incident. This is achieved by
inserting the ID encoded tally key into the Entry Control Unit (ECU);
b. The transmission of a distress alarm signal from a "portable unit" to any ECU
in range;
c. The transmission of an alarm signal from a "portable unit" to any ECU in range
indicating that the user is withdrawing from the incident for reasons of personal
safety;
d. The transmission of an alarm signal from an ECU to all "portable units" logged
on to the base station to cause an audible alarm on the "portable units" and
initiate an emergency evacuation;
67

e. The transmission of an alarm signal from an ECU to a selected "portable unit"
to cause an audible alarm and initiate an emergency evacuation of the "portable
unit" wearer and any other members of the wearer's team;
1.32
f. The ECU features a number of key elements. These include a clock display
screen and a group evacuation button. Various types of data from all logged-on
"portable units" can be selected on the ECU which can include;
(i) cylinder pressure;
(ii) ambient temperature;
(iii) time of whistle;
(iv) time to whistle;
(v) elapsed time.
g. Signals can be sent, received and acknowledged by BA wearers and the ECO;
h. In the event of radio signal being lost, audible and visual warning to alert both
the BA wearer and the ECO;
i. The provision of a downloadable data-base of base station transactions for post
incident analysis;
j. The provision for testing Radio Distress Signal Units (RDSUs) without
generation of unwanted alarms.
2. The use of telemetry equipment should be viewed as a means to supplement the
command and control procedures described in this guidance document.
3. Telemetry "portable units" must be physically combined with the functions of an
Automatic Distress Signal Unit (ADSU). Such a combined unit will function as an
ADSU if it is decided not to deploy telemetry at an incident or until a telemetry base
station is set up. For these devices, the log-on procedure is automatically initiated by
removal of the key from the unit. Telemetry is not regarded as being "in use" unless
and until one or more telemetry base stations have been deployed at an incident.
4. Telemetry may be used at any incident involving the use of BA and may be introduced
even after BA teams have been committed.
Note: In addition to the basic functions listed above, suppliers may offer other
features.
68

5. The procedural guidance in this document is based on the basic functionality of
telemetry equipment. Fire Authorities will need to develop their own procedures for
dealing with any additional functions of which their equipment is capable, bearing in
mind that other Fire Authorities attending incidents might not be equipped with
telemetry equipment or even if they are so equipped, that their equipment may provide
different functions beyond the basic functions.
6. Where used, telemetry is an additional safety feature. It does not replace any other
safety feature or procedure. Like any device which relies on radio transmissions, it is
possible for "portable units" to be out of range of the base station either because of the
distance from that base station or due to physical conditions at the incident which
further inhibit effective radio propagation.
Allocation and Training
7. Fire Authorities intending to introduce telemetry into their procedures must ensure an
appropriate "change analysis" has been carried out to their specific BA procedures
before implementing the change. This should include consultation with neighbouring
Fire Authorities.
8. Individual Fire Authorities will have to make decisions on the allocation and
availability of telemetry equipment and the circumstances in which it should be used.
Whilst it is envisaged that the use of telemetry may, in time, become widespread, it
may be sufficient for one member of each BA team deployed to be equipped as a
"portable unit" rather than for the allocation to extend to every member of the team. It
is also possible, and permissible, that some teams deployed at an incident might be
equipped as "portable units" and others not. These considerations should be included
in the risk assessment of the allocation of telemetry equipment and should be carried
out prior to its introduction.
9. Where telemetry is used, fire-fighters must have appropriate practical training in the
various telemetry functions and be aware of the implications for the command and
control procedures. Training must cover all the procedures that are necessary for the
basic telemetry functions.
10. The ECO can be assisted, if resources permit, by an Entry Control Unit (ECU) operator
who should be a fully qualified BA wearer. The ECO and the ECU operator must be
69

competent in the underpinning knowledge and skills necessary to safely use the
equipment. ECOs and ECU operators also need to have basic understanding of how
radio signals are propagated so that they can place the ECU in the optimal position for
maximising the effective range of telemetry.
11. The procedures to be followed in the event of a loss of contact or breakdown in
telemetry communications should take into account the existence of other means of
communications with BA teams, i.e. by radio, or by direct speech.
12. "Portable units" and ECUs have a unique electronic identity which includes a Fire
Authority identifier. This identity will be used in all ECU transaction displays and
records. In order to reconcile displays on the ECU with BA wearers it is necessary to
provide a durable means of associating the "portable unit" with the BA tally of the
apparatus with which it is used. This could be achieved by including the "portable
unit's" ID on the BA tally.
Operational Deployment
13. The decision whether or not to deploy telemetry at an incident should be taken by the
Incident Commander as part of the dynamic risk assessment.
14. For incidents where "Stage I" entry control procedures are in use, the ECO may also
be the ECU operator. Where "Stage II" entry control procedures and/or multiple ECUs
are in use or the incident involves large numbers of BA wearers, consideration should
be given to separating the functions and responsibilities of the ECOs and the ECU
operators as soon as human resources permit.
15. Where multiple ECUs are in use at an incident, all ECU operators should be in contact
with each other, either by radio or other effective means through BA Main Control.
16. Fire Authority procedures should ensure that the clocks of ECUs are correct. Fire
Authority procedures should also take account of how to deal with discrepancies
between the times of clocks on multiple ECUs in use at an incident and between ECUs
and ECBs. It is not recommended that clocks would be adjusted at an incident.
Emergency Evacuation Procedures
17. The audible evacuation signal produced by a telemetry "portable unit" should be
treated the same as all other evacuation signals by all personnel within audible range.
18. Where two or more ECUs are in use at the same incident, and a full emergency
70

evacuation is required; each ECO at the scene will need to initiate the emergency
evacuation signal.
19. After transmitting an emergency evacuation signal, an ECO will automatically confirm
that all "portable units" have received and acknowledged the signal. In the event that
one or more "portable units" do not acknowledge receipt of the signal, the emergency
evacuation signal should be repeated (such repeats will not affect "portable units" that
have already acknowledged the emergency evacuation signal).
Selective Emergency Evacuation
20. Selective Emergency Evacuation is an emergency procedure and is not to be used for
any other purpose.
21. Selective Emergency Evacuation is an additional emergency feature available when
telemetry is employed. It allows the Incident Commander to evacuate specific BA
teams in an emergency whilst leaving other BA teams in place. For example, to ensure
that an escape route remains protected whilst the evacuation takes place, or to evacuate
a team or teams from an unacceptably hazardous area.
22. The audible signal for Selective Emergency Evacuation is distinct and different from
that of the Emergency Evacuation Signal. It is specific and applies only to the members
of the BA team to whom it is addressed, and by whom it is received.
23. The Incident Commander is responsible for deciding to implement Selective
Emergency Evacuation and for deciding which teams should be evacuated by this
method.

Wearer Withdrawing for Reasons of Personal Safety
24. Telemetry allows the user of a "portable unit" in an emergency to signal an intention to
withdraw from the risk area because the incident conditions in the vicinity of the team
of which the user is a member are such that they present an imminent and unacceptable
risk to the safety or health of one or more members of the team.
25. Wearer withdrawing for reasons of personal safety is an emergency procedure. It is not
a substitute or a replacement for the Distress Signal on an ADSU.
26. The decision on whether or not to signal that the user is withdrawing for reasons of
personal safety is that of the user. However, users (where they are not themselves the
71

BA team leader) should, where practicable and provided that this does not significantly
increase the hazard, first convey their intention to the BA team leader.
27. On receipt of a User Withdrawing for Reasons of Personal Safety signal, the ECO
should accept the signal but should only manually acknowledge it if it originates from
a "portable unit" logged-on to the ECU for which the ECO is responsible. If multiple
ECUs are in use at an incident and the signal originates from a "portable unit" which
is not logged-on to the ECU for which the ECO is responsible, the ECO should
immediately check with each of the other ECOs to confirm whether or not the signal
has been received by them. This should occur whether the signal originates from a
logged-on "portable unit" on another ECU, or whether the signal originates from a
"portable unit" at the incident which at the time is not logged-on to any ECU. If the
signal does originate from a portable unit deployed at the incident, but not logged on
to any ECU, then one ECU operator nominated by the Incident Commander must
manually acknowledge the signal by first manually logging-on the portable unit.
28. ECU operators should inform the Incident Commander of the receipt of reports that
one or more BA teams are withdrawing for reasons of personal safety. This information
will effect any risk assessment decision that the Incident Commander might make on
the deployment of personnel and BA teams and the need to consider either a selective
emergency evacuation or an incident-wide emergency evacuation.
Distress Alarm
29. In the event of distress to a BA wearer using a "portable unit" it will behave in a similar
manner to an ADSU and (automatically or manually) enter the distress mode and emit
the audible distress alarm. Additionally, the "portable unit" will transmit an alarm
message which will be received by all ECUs in radio range.
30. In a team comprising of wearers in which two or more have "portable units" only the
wearer(s) in distress should normally activate the alarm, allowing the ECU operator to
know how many wearers are in need of assistance. (Note: Where the user in distress
does not have a "portable unit" a member of the team with a "portable unit" should
initiate the alarm message).
31. On receipt of a distress alarm, the ECO should accept the alarm by acknowledging it
manually.
72

32. Emergency procedures are outlined on "Duties of Stage I ECO" and "Duties
of Stage II ECO"

Communications Failures
33. The most likely reason for a telemetry communications failure is because a "portable
unit" is temporarily out of range of the ECU. To minimise the likelihood of this,
distress signals and wearer withdrawing for reasons of personal safety signals are
received by any ECU in range.
34. For basic telemetry, there are no indications during use to the ECU operator or the user
that communications have been lost. However, if it does become clear that telemetry
has failed (other than temporarily due to range), the procedures to be followed are as
indicated in "Radio Communications using BA"with due regard being taken
of the additional safety function of telemetry and whether or not any other forms of
communications with BA teams are still functioning.
35. "Portable units" carry out an internal self-check of some elements of their transmitter
before attempting to log-on. In the event that this test indicates a communications fault,
the "portable unit will visually indicate this to the user. Where this self-check indicates
a communications fault (alone) the "portable unit" can continue to function as an
ADSU. Local procedures should determine whether it should be used at an incident as
an ADSU or whether it should be regarded as defective and not used.
36. "Portable units" that fail to log-on correctly should not be used.
Additional Duties of the Incident Commander in relation to basic telemetry
37. These duties are additional to those described in "Duties of Incident Commander" page
2-4:
a. To decide based on the risk assessment and the availability of equipment
whether or not to deploy telemetry, the number and location of ECUs and to
nominate ECU operators if required and available;
b. To decide whether or not selective evacuation is appropriate and to decide
which BA teams should be selectively evacuated;
c. To ensure that a decision to conduct an emergency evacuation of all personnel
at an incident is conveyed to all ECOs;
73

1.39
d. To ensure that appropriate action is taken to deal with receipts of distress alarm
signals that do not originate from the incident.
Additional duties of BA team leaders in relation to basic telemetry
38. These duties are additional to those described in "Duties of BA Team Leader "
a. Deciding on whether or not to withdraw the team in an emergency for reasons
of personal safety, and ensuring that the appropriate telemetry message is
transmitted and acknowledged;
b. Withdrawing the complete team in the event that an emergency selective
evacuation signal is received by any member of the team.
Additional duties of ECOs in relation to basic telemetry
39. These duties is additional to those described in "Duties of Stage I ECO" page 1-9 and
"Duties of Stage II ECO" page 1-15 and "At the Fire Station" page 2-13:
a. To set up and operate the ECU in a position nominated by the Incident
Commander;
b. To instruct the ECU operator (if provided) who will log-on the "portable units"
of BA wearers whose entry records the ECO controls;
c. Receiving and acknowledging distress alarm messages from logged-on
"portable units", to include ensuring that the emergency procedures in "Duties
of Stage I ECO" page 1-9 and "Duties of Stage II ECO" page 1-15 take place.
In the event that the message is received from an unknown "portable unit" to
initiate a liaison with other ECOs (if any) at the incident to identify the origin
and informing the Incident Commander accordingly. If necessary advising the
Incident Commander that the "portable unit" is not in use at the incident;
d. Initiating a selective emergency evacuation or an incident-wide emergency
evacuation on the instructions of the Incident Commander, repeating this as
necessary where receipt is not acknowledged and informing the Incident
Commander if, after repetition, any "portable units" which remain
unacknowledged (and still in the risk area according to BA entry records);
e. Logging-off "portable units" after BA team members have collected their
tallies.
74

f. Accepting the log-on attempts of "portable units" for which the ECO is
responsible and cancelling those for which the ECO is not (this includes
"requesting log-on in the event that BA teams are deployed in advance of
telemetry").
Duties of ECU operators in relation to basic telemetry
40. The duties of an ECU operator are:
a. To carry out the instructions of the ECO controlling the entry details of
personnel for whom the ECU operator is responsible to include any of the
duties listed in paragraph 40 above.
Telemetry Procedures - Contact Signals
Objective
Notes on Telemetry - Contact Signals
1. One additional function offered by suppliers causes each "portable unit" to
automatically and periodically transmit a data message to the ECU on which it is
logged-on. The ECU is programmed to receive and acknowledge these messages and
automatically update the time displayed for that "portable unit" entry. The frequency of
these updates is usually set by the supplier at 20 seconds.
2. The ECU is also programmed to detect when it has not received contact signals from
a "portable unit" within a programmed period and to indicate this to the ECU operator.
Such indications are automatically cancelled in the event that contact is subsequently
established.
3. Where the ECU display indicates no-contact, it is open to the ECO to initiate a
"requests data" message instead of waiting for the next programmed transmission from
the "portable unit" involved.Operational Deployment
4. The additional feature and the associated programmed transmission periods and nocontact
alarm periods will be programmed into equipment when it is supplied to the
user.
5. Users will not be able to make decisions whether to deploy this additional feature.
No-Contact display at ECU
75

6. The most likely reason for a no-contact indication is because the "portable unit" is
temporarily out of range of an ECU. However, if it does become clear that telemetry
has failed (other than temporarily due to range), the procedures to be followed are as
indicated in "Radio Communications using BA" page 4-14 with due regard being taken
of the additional safety function of telemetry and whether any other forms of
communications with BA teams are still functioning.
Additional Duty of the Incident Commander in relation to telemetry with
contact signals
7. This duty is additional to those described in "Basic Telemetry" page 1-39:
a. To ensure that appropriate action is taken in the event of being advised that
contact has been lost with a "portable unit".
Additional duties of ECO in relation to telemetry with contact signals
8. These duties are additional to those described in "Basic Telemetry" page 1-40:
a. To bring to the attention of the Incident Commander any instance of "nocontact"
with a "portable unit";
b. To attempt to contact the "portable unit" by using the "request data" function.

Telemetry Procedures - Cylinder Contents
Objective
Notes on Telemetry - Cylinder Contents
1. An additional function provided by suppliers involves the connection of additional
equipment to the "portable unit" and the breathing apparatus so that dynamic data
relating to the BA cylinder pressure are stored and transmitted automatically and
periodically to the ECU on which it is logged-on.
2. The ECU is programmed to receive this data and update the display for the "portable
unit" so that the remaining cylinder pressure when the last data transfer took place is
shown. The frequency of these updates is usually set by the supplier at 20 seconds.
3. The ECU may obtain the current cylinder pressure by initiating a "request data"
message instead of waiting for the next programmed transmission from the "portable
76

unit" involved.
Operational Deployment
4. This additional feature and the associated programmed transmission periods and nocontact
alarm periods will be programmed into the equipment when it is supplied to the
user. Additional hardware and connectors and modifications to the BA set will be
required to connect to the apparatus and to provide an electronic connection to the
"portable unit".
5. Users will not be able to decide whether to use it in relation to any or all deployments
of telemetry.Additional Duty of the Incident Commander in relation to telemetry with
cylinder contents indication
6. This duty is additional to those described in "Basic Telemetry" page 1-39 and
"Telemetry Contact Signals page 1-43:
a. To ensure that appropriate action is taken in the event of being advised that the
cylinder pressure of any BA wearer who is still in the risk area is less than 50
bar.
Additional Duties of ECOs in relation to telemetry with cylinder contents
indication
7. These duties are additional to those described in "Basic Telemetry" page 1-40 and
"Telemetry Contact Signals" page 1-43:
a. To monitor the displayed cylinder pressure of all "portable units" logged-on to
the ECU;
b. To bring to the attention of the Incident Commander any instance of where the
displayed cylinder contents are less than 50 bar.
c. To commit an emergency team in accordance with "Basic Telemetry" page 1-
38, if available, on the basis of a risk assessment by the Incident Commander
using data provided by the cylinder contents feature of telemetry

77

Introduction
Objective
To manage a safe and successful conclusion to an emergency incident.
Notes on Command Procedures
1. To bring any emergency incident to a successful conclusion effective command
procedures are pre-requisite. This is nowhere more apparent than at incidents involving
the use of breathing apparatus (BA), where standard procedures are essential
throughout the incident at all levels of command. BA wearers must be fully supported
by appropriate resources and they themselves must follow the standard procedures and
the instructions of the Incident Commander if risks to their health and safety are to be
minimised. The Incident Commander, Sector Commanders and the intermediate
control officers should all concentrate effort and resources to maintaining a high degree
of management over the BA operations and should ensure that the procedures adopted
comply with this guidance.
Notes on when to use BA
2. There is a danger of permanent damage to health if BA fails to be worn in an
irrespirable or toxic atmosphere. At any incident the Incident Commander is
responsible for ensuring that BA is worn whenever it is determined that its use will
facilitate operational activities. BA should be worn whenever discomfort and possible
injury to a firefighter's respiratory system can be avoided (such circumstances may
include car fires, skip fires, "damping down" or "turning over" after a fire). The
practice of firefighters rigging in safe air but not putting on their face masks until they
reach smoky atmospheres and then starting up their sets is extremely dangerous and
must not be permitted.
3. Particular care should be taken when a bridgehead is used (see "Bridgeheads page 1-
4). Only in the most exceptional circumstances should a firefighter who has already
inhaled smoke, oxygen deficient or toxic fumes subsequently rig in BA; once smoke
or toxic fumes are present in the lungs it takes appreciable time for them to be
completely cleared.

78

Section 2: Command Procedures
4. BA or air line equipment should only be deployed on the instruction of the Incident
Commander at an incident. BA or air line equipment must always be worn with an
Automatic Distress Signal Unit, a lamp and with a personal line, securely fastened to
the apparatus. (Gas-tight and chemical protection suits should be provided with a
facility for attaching personal line and ADSU.)
5. Where dual cylinder configurations are used for extended working, the following are
examples of some additional safety measures that may need to be considered:
a. Stage II procedures should be implemented where extended working in BA is
required;
b. Extended working should be implemented at incidents where planning has
identified a need;
c. Environmental conditions and the physiological burden being placed on the
wearers whilst wearing Breathing Apparatus (BA) for extended working should
be considered;
d. Where dual cylinder configurations are used; "light-weight" cylinders are
recommended; this will reduce the physiological stress on wearers;
e. Only trained wearers of dual cylinder configurations should operate extended
working;
f. Further operational procedures may need to be developed in addition to those
contained in this manual e.g. entry checks on cylinder valves;
g. Regular training should be given on all additional procedures adopted for
extended working.
6. When firefighters are hampered in reaching a fire because the route they have to follow
is smoke-logged the Incident Commander may decide to employ tactical ventilation
(see Fire Service Council's, Junior Officer Handbook, page 4-5). The objective of its
use should be identified before commencing operations and the technique to be
adopted will vary, depending on what is expected. Ventilation will improve visibility
and may negate or supplement the use of BA guidelines. Where there has been a build
up of hot gases and conditions for firefighters are very arduous, ventilation can also
produce a more tolerable environment and increase a firefighter's working duration
79

whilst wearing BA. Further information is given in the UK Fire Service Manual -
Volume 2, Fire Service Operations "Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation".
7. Prior to commencing tactical ventilation the Incident Commander should carry out a
risk assessment, have appropriate safety measures in place and be aware of the location
of all personnel within the risk area.
Duties of the Incident Commander (IC)
1. The Incident Commander (IC) will need to conduct an assessment of the developing
and potential risk of the incident before committing Breathing Apparatus (BA) crews.
The main duties are explained below. There are various specific references to the IC's
duties in this manual. All of the duties are applicable to a Sector Commander or other
officer to whom command of BA operations has been delegated or where BA wearers
are operating under the officer's command in the relevant sector.
General Considerations
2. The IC, depending upon the urgency and the developments of the situation faced may
need to make such assessments in stages (for example, where urgent rescues are
required these must take priority). However, at all times the need for life safety must
be considered uppermost. The IC should carry out all stages of the risk assessment
process as soon as is practical (see National Incident Command System). The risk
assessment process should be continuous throughout the incident to enable the IC to
review plans in line with any developing risk. Where practicable, and available, the risk
assessment process should be aided by information from Pre-incident Planning and
Fire Prevention knowledge or intelligence (see Fire Service Council's, Junior Officer
Handbook, page 5-5).
Hazard Identification
3. Some hazards will be relatively easy to identify, such as heat and smoke. Other hazards
will require further investigation. The IC must consider:
a. the nature of the incident;
b. the material involved (or likely to become involved);
c. the nature of the construction of the building; and
d. the importance of the building (or risk area) relative to the hazards to the lives
of those entering.
80

2.4
Risk Analysis
4. The urgent nature of some situations may require decisions about firefighter
deployment and tactics to be made immediately. However, where reasonable and
practicable, the Incident Commander should take the following into account when
reaching a decision about tactics to be deployed:
a. the need for rescues to be undertaken, and the likely number of people requiring
rescue or removing from the risk area;
b. the resources immediately available and how quickly other support might be
obtained;
c. the nature and extent of hazards;
d. the stability of the incident;
e. the location, number and suitability of the access points;
f. the risk to the public and adjacent properties;
g. the information available from people at the scene; and
h. the means of access to the risk area.
Risk Assessment
5. When reaching decisions on control of risk the Incident Commander should consider:
a. whether BA is required to deal with the incident and the appropriate level of BA
control;
b. the adoption of any other appropriate safety precautions required to be
implemented in conjunction with the use of BA for a specific risk (e.g.
chemical protective clothing);
c. the siting and number of Entry Control Points (ECPs);
2.5
d. deployment of BA teams, emergency and relief teams, and the need to ensure
they are as well briefed as possible on the task and the possible risks involved;
e. the use of BA guidelines;
f. the need for BA communications;
g. the implementation of the special procedures for BA wearer distress (see
"Incident Procedures" page 2-15);
81

h. the experience of BA crews available; and
i. the sufficiency of BA and associated equipment available to deal with the
incident and the need to request any additional assistance required.
6. Any of the duties of paragraph 5 above, with the exception of 5.a, may be delegated.
7. The responsibility of ECOs extends only to the control and management of the ECP to
the extent outlined in this guidance. The Incident Commander, depending upon the
likely extent of activity of BA wearers, should appoint officers to assist with the
management of firefighting and rescue activity at each ECP, taking account of the
sectorisation of the incident ground.
8. The Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (General Applications) Regulations, 1993
require that all accidents at work causing death or injury and dangerous occurrences
including the failure of Breathing Apparatus must be reported on approved forms to the
Health and Safety Authority. Where the Incident Commander determines that an
incident should be treated as one which requires investigation, the procedures set out
in the Fire Authority's Safety Statement should be followed.
Size, Composition and Conduct of Breathing Apparatus (BA)
teams
Objective
To provide an appropriate response to operational incidents.
Notes on BA teams
1. The Incident Commander will need to consider carefully the size and composition of
BA teams and must ensure that the team leader(s) is fully briefed on what is required
of the team. Effective leadership is required and the Incident Commander should
ensure, so far as is practical, that the team is led by an experienced BA wearer. For
more complex, difficult or dangerous incidents, team leaders should be drawn from
experienced officers whenever these are available. Where possible, BA teams should
be formed from crews from the same station and led by their own personnel.
2. The Incident Commander should increase the size of the team in relation to the range
and demands of the tasks to be carried out (see Fire Service Council's, Junior Officer
Handbook, page 4-5). The more difficult or complex tasks will sometimes benefit from
larger teams but too many BA wearers in a team can make communication between
82

team members difficult, can cause delays at the ECP and can generally slow down
operations. The size of a team should reflect the BA wearers' experience and
competence in anticipated tasks.
3. Teams of from two to four wearers will usually provide optimum effectiveness. In
normal circumstances to provide greater flexibility and to reduce the leadership span
of control the deployment of a team with two wearers and a second team with three
wearers is considered preferable to the deployment of a team with five wearers.
4. In normal circumstances, BA wearers who enter the incident as a team should remain
as part of the team for the whole time that they are in the risk area. Teams should only
divide in exceptional circumstances for specific tasks, with the prior instruction of the
team leader. Where practicable, the ECP should be informed of the decision to divide
a team. Anew team leader must be appointed for the newly seperated team. In reaching
a decision about whether to separate, consideration should be given to the estimated
time of whistle of all personnel, the nature of the tasks, the location of the tasks, the
complexity of the route(s) to the exit point and the location and ease of access of
emergency team(s) if available.
5. The cages of aerial appliances must not be used as a site for a BA ECP. Where it is
necessary for BA wearers to enter a building or structure at or above ground level by
use of ladders an ECP should be established at ground level adjacent to the ladder.
Duties of the Breathing Apparatus (BA) Team Leader
1. A member of the BA team should be designated as team leader and, where possible,
should be an experienced BA wearer.
2. The duties of the BA team leader are to:
a. ensure the team is fully briefed before entry into the risk area;
b. co-ordinate gauge checks and ensure that the team return to the Entry Control
Point (ECP) before any low pressure warning whistle activates, or if
appropriate, within limits previously agreed with the Incident Commander to
prevent undue exposure to difficult or strenuous conditions;
c. monitor the working conditions and be aware of potential physiological effects
that may have a negative effect on team members and working duration;
d. update the ECO if communications equipment is being used; and
83

e. inform the ECO, as soon as is practical, of any development of the operational
incident that is likely to be considered significant by the Incident Commander.
3. The BA team leader is responsible for the conduct of the team during the time that it is
within the risk area. The team leader will base decisions for action on:
a. the training and experience gained from previous incidents;
b. information received by communications from outside the risk area;
c. sensory perception inside the risk area (e.g. noise, temperature);
d. information from BA and associated equipment (e.g. gauges, whistles, thermal
imaging cameras); and
e. other team members.
4. A BA team leader's duties also extend to decisions about when to withdraw from the
risk area,
5. BA wearers are often at the forefront of firefighting activity. BA team leaders and BA
team members should therefore be alert to the potential for flashover and/or
backdraught. Advice on recognising the symptoms associated with these phenomena
and firefighting tactics to employ is given in UK Fire Service Manual, Volume 2,
Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation.
6. The duties and factors influencing decisions taken when leading an emergency team
are similar to those prescribed above
Withdrawal of Breathing Apparatus (BA) Teams
CANISTER

Contaminant Color Coding on Cartridge/Canister
Acid gases White
Hydrocyanic acid gas White with 1/2 inch green stripe completely around the
canister near the bottom.
84

Chlorine gas White with 1/2 inch yellow stripe completely around the
canister near the bottom.
Organic vapors Black
Ammonia gas Green
Acid gases and ammonia gas Green with 1/2 inch white stripe completely around the
Carbon monoxide BlueAcid gases & organic vapors Yellow
Hydrocyanic acid gas and
chloropicrin vapor Yellow with 1/2 inch blue stripe completely around the canister near the
bottom.
Acid gases, organic vapors, and
ammonia gases Brown
Radioactive materials, except
tritium & noble gases Purple (magenta)
Pesticides Organic vapor canister plus a particulate filter
Multi-Contaminant and CBRN agent Olive
Any particulates - P100 Purple
Any particulates - P95, P99, R95, R99, R100 Orang
Any particulates free of oil N95, N99, or N100 Teal
To ensure the safe and co-ordinated withdrawal of BA teams from the risk area.
Notes on Withdrawal
1. The decision about when to withdraw from a risk area is a very important one. The
central aim must be to ensure that all of the BA team members return to the Entry
Control Point (ECP) by the estimated time of operation of the low pressure warning
whistle, subject to circumstances which develop from the time of entry which
necessitate an early withdrawal. However, the timing of withdrawal from a risk area
must take into account:
a. unusual physiological or psychological stress or discomfort experienced from
rapid temperature increase;
b. the depth of penetration into the risk area when using BA guidelines;
c. a deteriorating situation.
Application of Withdrawal Procedures
85

2. The Incident Commander, ECOs and BA team leaders duties extend to ensuring that
BA wearers must not be exposed to an inappropriate level of risk. BA wearers are also
responsible for ensuring that team leaders are made aware of any relevant
developments that might lead to the need for an early withdrawal from the risk area.
3. BA team leaders must not rely solely on cylinder contents when reaching a decision
about when to withdraw their team but should take into account information received
from all sources. BA team leaders must withdraw their team, if any member:
a. has an uncontrolled loss of pressure;
b. appears to be unwell, confused or in discomfort (especially when exposed to
rapid temperature increase);
c. has a gauge which has become faulty or unreadable;
d. has been exposed to an irrespirable atmosphere due to a BA failure; or
e. has a low pressure warning whistle activating.
4. Team withdrawal should occur when:
a. the team leader, acting on personal initiative, experience, assessment or on the
advice of team members, decides that conditions in the risk area have
deteriorated to the extent that BA team members are exposed to an
inappropriate level of risk;
b. a team member reaches a pre-determined pressure gauge reading set by the
Incident Commander following an assessment of the physiological risk and
other relevant information;
c. the emergency evacuation signal sounds (e.g. an ACME Thunderer whistle).
5. In normal circumstances a team should not divide following entry to the risk area.
Therefore Incident Commanders should be aware that two teams each of two members
is generally considered preferable to a single team with four members. The two teams
provide greater flexibility in relation to withdrawal from the risk area. (See Size,
Composition and Conduct of Breathing Apparatus Teams page 2.7).
6. The Incident Commander should immediately be advised of any decision to withdraw
prematurely from a risk area.
General Duties and Procedures
To ensure competent and safe Breathing Apparatus (BA) operations.
86

Notes on General Duties and Procedures
1. Proficiency and safety go hand in hand and never more so than when BA is in use. To
ensure proficient and safe BA operations a number of standard procedures have been
adopted in this text. These provide for all BA wearers to carry out their duties in
accordance with national practice, and ensure that actions and reactions will be
common, effective, and speedily and safely carried out whenever firefighters are
working together whilst wearing BA.
2. Standard procedures commence at the fire station and continue throughout the incident.
At the Fire Station
Duties of the Officer-in-Charge (OIC)
1. The Officer-in-Charge (OIC) of the duty watch or retained station crew should:
a. nominate wearers and Entry Control Officers (ECOs) for each appliance
equipped with a BA Entry Control Board (ECB). In nominating BA wearers and
ECOs the OIC should take into account any other specific duties any crew
member may have at an operational incident;
b. ensure that all the appropriate tests of equipment required to be carried out by
station personnel are effected, and that the test and other records are accurately
maintained;
c. ensure that defective equipment is removed and that replacement equipment is
obtained as soon as possible;
d. ensure that BA and associated equipment is maintained in a clean, safe and
serviceable condition and is available for operational use;
e. ensure that the recommended continuation training in the wearing, use and the
control of BA and associated equipment is maintained for the personnel for
whom the OIC is responsible; and
f. ensure that personnel are aware of their obligation to inform the OIC of any
perceived deficiencies in the use of BA which should influence continuation
training requirements.
2. Personnel who are nominated as Stage I ECOs or Stage II ECOs (or to assist Stage II
ECOs) must be qualified BA wearers. Throughout a tour of duty an OIC will make
such changes as are necessary in the nomination of BA wearers and ECOs. OICs at
87

retained stations will nominate BA wearers and ECOs as soon as the crew members
and numbers are known.
Duties of BA wearers on nomination
3. A crew member nominated to wear BA will:
a. carry out the appropriate test for the apparatus (see "General Check" page 4-3)
and replace the cylinder on the apparatus with a fully charged cylinder if, when
tested, the pressure gauge indicates contents less than 85% of full capacity;
b. as soon as is practicable after completing the test described in "General Check"
record the test in the test record maintained for the apparatus (the
wearer should note that in the event of their being unable to record the test, they
must indicate verbally to the OIC that the set has been checked and is working
satisfactorily); and
c. report any defects in the apparatus to the OIC.
Duties of ECOs on nomination
4. An individual who is nominated as ECO will, as soon as practicable:
a. Examine the ECB (see "BA Entry Control Boards" "Rapid
Deployment Procedures"
b. Examine the BA tabard;
c. Ensure the availability of BA ancillary equipment such as guidelines, guideline
tallies, thermal imaging camera, evacuation whistle etc. ;
d. Synchronise the ECB clock with Control; and
e. Report to the OIC any defects or omissions.
Incident Procedures
1. In addition to the general command and control procedures set out in this manual, there
are a number of particular points to note in relation to health and safety at an incident
(see "General Duties and Procedures" .
Breathing Apparatus (BA) Wearer Procedures
2. In addition to the duties set out in "Duties of BA wearers at an Incident" page 1-20, BA
wearers should:
a. don and start up their BA in safe air, and check the set and facemask for security
of fit and that the main valve is fully opened;
88

b. check lamps and firefighting equipment by operation immediately before
entering the risk area and at intervals appropriate to the incident;
c. check communications equipment immediately before entering the risk area
and at regular intervals whilst in use;
d. check the pressure gauge before entry and agree the reading shown on the tally
with the Entry Control Officer (ECO) (unless "Rapid Deployment" procedures
are in use)
e. monitor the pressure gauge at regular intervals throughout the time in the risk
area (in addition, BA team leaders should check the gauges of all team
members at regular intervals);
f. as far as is reasonably practicable, comply with the instructions given by the
Incident Commander and the ECO and follow any instructions given by the
team leader;
g. withdraw from the risk area on the instructions of the BA team leader (see "
Withdrawal of BA Teams" page 2-10); and
h. collect entry control tallies from the ECO as the wearer exits from the risk area.
Note:Wearers should not present themselves to the ECO if the pressure gauge indicates
contents less than 80% of full capacity (other than for re-entry for a specific task).
Duration Tables
3. The following points about duration tables should be noted:
a. Duration tables (Appendix 1) are provided as a guide to the average amount of
air likely to be used by a firefighter at a standard incident. They serve as an
indication, which has proved to be effective over many years, of the time that
BA wearers can rely on the content of their cylinders to sustain life;
b. Particularly difficult and strenuous operations (e.g. great heat or difficult
access) are likely to result in reduced working times being available for the
wearers (see "Duties of Stage I ECO" page 1-9);
c. A number of definitions are used in relation to the duration of BA:
(i) Full Duration:
The period during which BA is expected to provide respiratory
protection from the moment the cylinder valve is opened until the
89

cylinder content is exhausted.
(ii) Working Duration:
The period during which BA is expected to provide respiratory
protection from the moment the cylinder valve is opened until the
moment at which the low pressure warning whistle starts to operate.
(iii) Safety Margin:
The period during which the low pressure warning whistle operates (see
"Emergency Procedures" page 2-18).
d. Brigades use various types and sizes of cylinders in conjunction with BA
equipment. Some of these are of similar appearance. Often different sizes of
cylinder will operate at identical pressures. These produce different air
capacities with correspondingly different working durations for BA wearers.
ECOs must give particular attention to this and ensure that the correct duration
tables are used.
Low Pressure Warning Whistle
4. The low pressure warning whistle is designed to operate when the remaining cylinder
contents provide only the safety margin.
5. If the procedures set out in this manual are correctly applied a BA team should have
withdrawn from the risk area in advance of a low pressure warning whistle being
activated.
6. In the event of a low warning whistle operating in the risk area, the wearer of the set
involved must immediately inform the BA team leader who must immediately
withdraw the BA team.
Hydraulic Platforms and Turntable Ladders (Aerial Appliances)
7. It is undesirable for aerial appliances to be operated by BA wearers (either from the
cage or from ground level). Where, in exceptional circumstances, it is necessary to
operate the aerial appliance whilst wearing BA it should be borne in mind that the
facemask visor can distort vision.
8. The cage of an aerial appliance is not to be used as the site of an Entry Control Point
(ECP).
Note: The duration of BA is severely limited after the whistle starts to sound.
90

Objective
To provide procedures to respond effectively and promptly to potential life threatening
situations.

Notes on Emergency Procedures
1. Advice on the provision of emergency teams is given in "Emergency Teams"
Guidance for BA wearers
2. BA wearers should indicate that they are in distress by operating the Automatic
Distress Signal Unit (ADSU). Such action should be taken if there is risk to life or of
severe injury to any BA wearers in the team, or if the team feels it cannot evacuate
safely from the incident by their own unaided efforts, or if they are unable to trace their
route to their exit point. In the unlikely event of a distress signal warning device failing
to operate, the warning device of another team member should be operated.
3. When a distress signal is heard the team leaders of BA teams who have sufficient
reserves of air are to direct their teams to investigate the source of the sound. Rendering
assistance to the wearer in distress is to take precedence over the work in hand but
regard must be given to keeping escape routes open and for rescues already being
carried out. Once sufficient help is available any hose lines temporarily abandoned
must be reinstated.
4. A number of devices exist which produce a similar sound to that of an ADSU. Many
of these devices, such as freezer alarms and single point smoke detectors may be
encountered at an incident. Such a sound must be investigated to ensure that it is not a
distress signal.
Summoning Assistance
5. If BA radio communications are not in use, BA wearers may gain the attention of other
team members or other BA teams by loud, slow and regular hand clapping. (Loud, slow
and regular clapping is not a distress signal).
2.19
Entrapped Procedure
6. The aim of the entrapped procedure is to allow a BA wearer to maximise the duration
91

of BA in the event of becoming trapped and being unable to withdraw from the risk
area.
7. No provision exists for conserving the air supply in open circuit BA other than by the
wearer moderating demand for air by using the least possible energy.
8. When a wearer of compressed air BA becomes aware that it is not possible to escape
the risk area, the following action should be taken:
a. Operate the ADSU;
b. Relax as much as is possible in the circumstances by assuming a reclining or
seated posture; and
c. Breathe calmly and gently.
9. The low cylinder pressure warning whistle will operate when the cylinder pressure has
fallen to a point where only the Safety Margin remains. (The air consumed by the
operation of the low cylinder pressure warning whistle is minimal.)
10. Wearers of closed circuit apparatus should follow any entrapped procedure
recommended by the manufacturer.
Note: Any supplementary supply function should not be operated. The cylinder
valve should not be adjusted, other than to check that it is fully open.

92

CONFINED SPACES

Notes on Confined Spaces
1. Legislative requirements in relation to safe working in confined spaces is contained in
"Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (Confined Spaces) Regulations, 2001 (S.I. No.218
of 2001)."
2. Advice on operational procedures for safe working in confined spaces is included in
the Fire Service Ancillary Safety Statement, which should be read in conjunction with
this guidance. In addition the Ancillary Safety Statement includes generic risk
assessments in the following related areas:
a. Rescues from sewers;
b. Rescues from silos;
c. Collapsed structures; and
d. Aircraft incidents.
3. It should be noted that EN 137 requires that Breathing Apparatus (BA) shall be
designed so that the wearer can remove it and, while still wearing the facepiece,
continue to breathe from the apparatus. Where necessary the manufacturer's advice
should be sought in relation to this procedure.
4. Additional information is contained in the Fire Service Councils, Junior Officer
Handbook:
a. Sewers, page 4-50.
b. Silos, page 4-51.
c. Collapsed trench or excavation, page 4-55.
5. The Incident Commander's Dynamic Risk Assessment should include:
a. the need for a rescue to be undertaken, its urgency and the number of casualties;
b. the resources immediately available and how quickly support may be obtained;
c. the nature and extent of the hazards and risks associated with the proposed plan
93

of action; and
d. the experience, knowledge and training of the breathing apparatus crews
available.
2.21
6. The use of harnesses and ropes should be considered for personnel operating in
confined spaces and other similar locations where vertical access is involved.
Harnesses should be compatible with Breathing Apparatus in use and manufacturers'
instructions should be obtained and adopted.
7. When a safety line and harness is used:
a. the free end must be secured to an immovable object outside the confined
space;
b. the harness and line must be adjusted and worn so that the wearer can be safely
drawn through any manhole or opening;
c. the line must be under the control of a competent person for the full duration of
the incident; and
d. each safety line should be identified e.g. by the use of a breathing apparatus
branch line tally and the number of the tally noted in the remarks column of the
ECB against the wearers name.
8. There should be not less than two persons outside the access point whilst personnel are
inside the confined space.
9. Personnel working in confined spaces should wear breathing apparatus as a matter of
routine on all occasions unless the atmosphere in the confined space has been declared
free from explosive and flammable risks before personnel and equipment are
committed and on a regular basis thereafter.
10. Stage II procedures must be implemented as soon as resources permit.
11. Where an explosion or flammable risk exists the use of intrinsically safe
communications and lighting is required.
12. Suitable provision should be made for the respiratory protection and safe recovery of
casualties. This must be in addition to the PPE provided to rescuers. Rescue personnel
must not in any circumstances remove their own equipment for such purposes whilst
94

Introduction
Objective
To ensure the effective use and maintenance of breathing apparatus (BA) and associated
equipment for life safety purposes
Notes on Equipment Procedures
1. From time to time it will be necessary to wear Breathing Apparatus (BA) in
conjunction with other equipment designed for specific tasks or which provides
additional wearer protection, necessarily these require particular procedures to be
followed and are detailed in this chapter.

Section 3: Equipment Procedures:

Air Line Equipment Procedure
Notes on Air Line Equipment
This section refers to the air line equipment referred to in "Air Line Equipment" page 4-13.
1. Air line equipment should be used only under the following circumstances:
a. With (full) compressed BA (for the purpose of extending the duration of
the apparatus)
In these circumstances the air line supply must be connected to the BA set and
95

the wearer should receive the air supply through the facemask of the apparatus.
The cylinder valve of the apparatus would normally remain closed and the
content of the cylinder held for use in an emergency; or
b. Without (full) compressed BA (for the purpose of carrying out work of an
extended duration)
Such work can only occur when personnel are working within sight of and are
in direct oral contact with (e.g. voice, radio) the Entry Control Officer (ECO).
In these circumstances each person connected to the air line must have
available for immediate use a set of escape BA conforming to the requirements
of the appropriate standard (e.g. EN 400 for compressed oxygen self-rescuers,
prEN 1146 for open circuit compressed air apparatus with a hood, or BS 4667
Parts 4 or 5). This requirement does not apply in respect of personnel
undertaking decontamination procedures in safe air.
2. Each air line face mask should be provided with a BA tally for use when BA is not
worn. When the air line is worn without BA the ECO will place the tally on the ECB
and will enter "AIR LINE" in the "Time of Whistle" section of the ECB. When BA is
worn in conjunction with an air line the tally of the apparatus should be used and
marked with the pressure of the cylinder fitted to the apparatus. The ECO will,
however not calculate the "Time of Whistle" but will enter "AIR LINE" in this section
of the ECB and "WITH BA" in the "Remarks" column.
3.2
3. Wearers of air line equipment should not be allowed to enter the risk area unless, at the
time of entry, cylinders filled to a pressure of not less than that required to provide a
minimum of 4500 litres of air are immediately available throughout the duration of the
use of air line equipment. Additionally, at least one filled cylinder suitable for
connection to the air line should be immediately available in addition to those actually
fitted to the equipment (whether in service or not). Empty cylinders should be replaced
immediately by full ones.
4. The air supply to wearers of air line equipment must be under the control of a
competent person suitably trained who will not have any other duties. This person is
responsible to the ECO for maintaining air supply to the wearers and ensuring that,
96

except for the cylinder in actual use, any remaining cylinders connected to the air line
supply equipment are full and that there is an adequate reserve of cylinders.
5. Where it is intended that a single air line should be used by two wearers the air line
should terminate in a "Y" piece connector. The connector may or may not be attached
to the harness of one of the wearers.
6. The termination of an air line hose (being used by one wearer) and of the second hose
of an air line (where the equipment is being used by two wearers) when worn in
conjunction with BA, should include a non-return valve(s) arranged to ensure that in
an emergency either wearer may open the cylinder valve of his BA (and ensure their
own air supply) before disconnecting the air line from their apparatus and withdrawing.
7. When two wearers are connected to an air line both wearers should be aware that they
should not disconnect themselves from the air line except in an emergency.
Additionally, where two wearers are using an air supply drawn from a single supply
hose they should be aware that during very strenuous work the air line might not
provide full positive pressure protection throughout the breathing cycle.
8. When air line equipment is worn without BA the air line hose should be secured to the
wearer and supported by the belt or harness.
9. No more than two wearers should be connected to a single air line.

Other Air Lines
10. Brigades may provide short lengths of air line, up to 10 metres in length, for specific
purposes. These may be used to augment the air supply to BA wearers during
decontamination procedures or for emergency rescue purposes and may, or may not,
have their own air supply.
11. The use of these air lines may only require connection for a short duration or in
exceptional circumstances but, as far as is practicable, the general procedures outlined
97

for the use of air line should be applied.
12. The use of any such equipment which involves two wearers sharing the air supply from
a single set of BA should be limited to emergency rescue purposes.
13. No air line equipment should be connected to BA unless the manufacturer of the
apparatus has indicated that the connection of the air line does not affect the
performance or safety of the apparatus.
Air Line Connectors to BA
14. Where BA is provided with an additional connector or connectors in the air supply
system to the wearer, any such connectors are not to be used for any purpose other than:
a. To provide an additional supply of air to the wearer of the apparatus; or
b. To supply air to another person through a face piece where this is necessary to
facilitate rescue from an emergency situation.

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

Objective
To provide additional protection to a Breathing Apparatus (BA) wearer in operational
circumstances involving the possibility of exposure to hazardous substances.
Notes on Chemical Protective Clothing
1. Additional information on incidents involving the use of Chemical Protective Clothing
is contained in the Fire Service Council's, Junior Officer Handbook:
a. Operational Procedures for Hazardous Material Incidents, page 4-21.
b. Agri-chemicals / Fertilisers, page 4-22.
c. Anhydrous Ammonia, page 4-25.
d. Asbestos, page 4-27.
e. Bio-hazards, page 4-29.
f. Radiation, page 4-37.
98

g. Aircraft, page 4-47.
2. Advice on operational procedures for safe working at incidents involving the use of
Chemical Protective Clothing is included in the Fire Service Ancillary Safety
Statement, which should be read in conjunction with this guidance. In addition the
Ancillary Safety Statement includes generic risk assessments in the following related
areas:
a. Fighting fires in Farms;
b. Fighting fires in Refuse;
c. Fighting fires on Road Networks;
d. Fighting fires on Rail Networks; and
e. Aircraft incidents.
3. There are some operational incidents where normal firefighter protective clothing
affords inadequate protection against hazardous substances. In circumstances requiring
the use of chemical protective clothing, BA must always be used. It should be noted
that:
3.5
a. There is potential for increased air consumption rates and heat stress whilst
wearing chemical protection suits, especially where physical activity or high
ambient temperatures are involved;
b. Exposure time in the risk area may need to be limited to 20 minutes. The Entry
Control Officer (ECO) will need to monitor the elapsed time; and
c. There may be implications for the level of BA control, the application of the
procedures, and communications. In particular the Incident Commander will
need to be aware of the potential early deployment of relief teams.
4. Whilst decontamination procedures are not considered within the full scope of this
guidance, the Incident Commander, liasing with ECOs will need to ensure sufficient air
is available to allow for decontamination following withdrawal from the risk area.

THERMAL IMAGING CAMERAS

99

Objectives
To aid the safe passage of firefighters and the location of casualties and fires.
Notes on the use of Thermal Imaging Cameras (TICs)
1. TICs are an aid to safe passage and rescue, but when in use recognised BA procedures
should continue to be applied. Firefighters should be trained in the use of TICs,
particularly when used in conjunction with BA. It is essential that a firefighter using a
TIC has an understanding of the images caused by temperature changes.
Procedures for use with Thermal Imaging Cameras (TICs)
2. On arrival at an incident, the Incident Commander will need to decide whether or not
to use a TIC. TICs are not intrinsically safe and as such should not be used in a
flammable atmosphere. The practicalities of using a TIC with communications
equipment, BA guidelines and firefighting equipment must be assessed, especially
when nominating team numbers, which should always be sufficient to include an
appropriate means of firefighting at incidents where fire is, or may become involved.
3. Following a decision to use a TIC the following procedures apply:
a. The BA Entry Control Officer (ECO) will record on the ECB that a TIC is in
use, the task being performed and its location;
b. The team leader should not be the TIC operator;
c. A methodical search pattern should be used (should the camera fail, egress
would otherwise be more difficult, especially if no other senses were used to
gain access to the risk area); and
d. The BA team leader should ensure that the team pauses at regular intervals to
allow the camera operator to scan the area. All relevant information should be
100

relayed to the BA ECO via the team leader.
4. Additional information on the use of Thermal Imaging Cameras is contained in the Fire
Service Council's, Junior Officer Handbook:
a. Fires in Buildings with Sandwich Panel Construction,
b. Large Building Fires
Introduction
Objective
To ensure the effective use and maintenance of Breathing Apparatus (BA) and associated
equipment for life safety purposes.
Notes on Equipment
1. BA is designed to support life. It is provided for life safety purposes. It is essential,
therefore, that the very highest standards of testing, maintenance and record keeping
should apply. Equal attention should be given to cleanliness and stowage of the
apparatus and its associated equipment. BA wearers of all ranks need to maintain a high
level of proficiency in the procedures for, and the use of, BA and the equipment
supplied to enhance its effectiveness and safety.
2. Additional information on testing and servicing is contained in the Fire Service
Council's, Junior Officer Handbook,
Section 4: Equipment Maintenance,
Testing & Description:

General Description, Tasks and Maintenance
Pre Entry Test
1. The "Pre Entry Test" of the apparatus should include:
a. donning the Breathing Apparatus (BA) in accordance with the manufacturer's
instruction or as stipulated by the Fire Authority;
b. activate the reset facility and open the cylinder valve fully and confirm the
cylinder content, which at the time of test should be not be less than 85% of full
capacity;
c. check the operation of the apparatus by twice inhaling and exhaling deeply, and
whilst holding the breath after the second inhalation, ensuring that no air flow
101

from the apparatus is audible;
d. the operation of any supplementary air flow facility;
e. ensuring the pneumatic integrity of all pressurised parts of the apparatus is
maintained, including the facemask whilst pressurised to the normal working
pressure (to the limits specified by the manufacturer);
f. ensuring the low pressure warning whistle operates at the correct pressure by
closing the cylinder valve and breathing;
g. ensuring the pressure gauge correctly returns to zero;
h. open cylinder valve fully and breathe normally; and
i. check that radio communications are operating effectively (if available).
General Checks
2. General Checks of the apparatus should include all "Pre Entry Tests"
listed in paragraph 1 above and the following:
a. The fastening of all finger-tight connections;
b. Thoroughly examining the apparatus, its fittings and any cylinders and covers
for damage or excess wear;
c. Examining the facemask for clear vision;
d. Completing the entries on the tally attached to the apparatus;
e. Ensuring the ADSU operates effectively;
f. Inspecting the lamp to be used with the apparatus and checking it by operation;
g. Examining the personal line to ensure that it is correctly packed in its pouch and
is correctly fitted to the harness of the apparatus;
h. Where the apparatus is stowed on an appliance, checking that it is correctly
secured to its bracket and that any fastening device is working correctly.
Monthly Test
3. This test should include:
a. A minimum wearing duration of 50 bars (itself preceded by the appropriate
tests described in paragraphs 1 and 2 above). This can be part of normal wear
at a drill or incident provided it is of at least the minimum duration stated
above, followed by:
(i) Removing the cylinder from the apparatus;
102

(ii) Examining the cylinder retaining strap(s) and fastening(s) for damage
or wear;
(iii) Examining the apparatus harness and its attachment points for signs of
damage, wear or deterioration due to the action of chemicals;
(iv) Examining the attachment points for the ADSU and personal line;
(v) Checking the security of all connection points in the air supply system;
(vi) Refitting the cylinder filled to at least 90% of the normal maximum
pressure; and
(vii) Carrying out the tests and actions described in paragraphs 1 and 2
above.
The apparatus must be tested when it has been worn at an operational incident
or otherwise and, on issue, and should include all the test items described in
paragraph 3.a. (i) to (vii) inclusive.
Testing - General
4. The tests of closed-circuit BA should, otherwise, be as specified by the
manufacturer.
5. The rubber and neoprene components of BA are liable to deteriorate from exposure to
aggressive chemicals, ozone and from ageing. Such components should frequently be
examined for signs of this deterioration and the advice of the manufacturers should be
sought on the maximum service life of such components in ideal conditions.
Replacement policies should reflect the advice provided by manufacturers.
6. Testing of BA should be carried out only by a competent person. Other than the
procedures set out in this document, BA maintenance invariably requires the use of
specialist equipment and should be carried out only by personnel who have received
the necessary training to a standard approved by the manufacturer of the apparatus.
7. Manufacturers may recommend that BA hoses designed to operate at pressure higher
than that of atmosphere should be periodically subjected to a test pressure 100% higher
than the normal working pressure. Such pressure testing shall be carried out
pneumatically or hydraulically but in either case suitable safeguards should be
employed to ensure that no person is put at risk in the event of failure of the hose under
test.
103

8. A test record must be permanently kept with each BA set (except when it is carried on
an operational appliance) detailing the:
a. date and time of each test carried out on the apparatus and its ancillary equipment and
the result;
b. type of test carried out and the reason for it;
c. name and signature of the person carrying out the test;
d. nature of any defects found; and
e. nature of any repairs or adjustments and the identity of any person carrying them out.
4.5
Breathing Apparatus (BA) Identification Tallies
1. Tallies for use with BA conform to a standard design which is shown in Appendix 3.
The dimensions of tallies can vary.
2. The standard design of a tally includes permanent markings which identify:
a. The name of the Brigade/service;
b. The name of the station to which the apparatus is allocated;
c. The type of apparatus (e.g. compressed air, oxygen) and the cylinder capacity
(in litres); and
d. The number of the apparatus and/or the station identification number allocated
to the apparatus.
3. The standard design of tally also includes permanent markings with spaces which
allow entries to be made with a suitable waterproof marker to record:
a. The name of the wearer of the apparatus;
b. The indicated cylinder pressure of the apparatus;
c. The "Time In", e.g. the time of handing the tally to the Entry Control Officer
(ECO) (see "Duties of Stage I ECO" page 1-9, "Duties of Stage II ECO" page
1-15 and "BA Main Control" page 1-17);
d. The radiation dosimeter readings at the time of entry into and leaving the risk
area.
4. BA identification tallies provided for use with air line facemasks when the air line is
not being used in conjunction with a BA set (see "Air Line Equipment" page 4-13)
should additionally be permanently marked "Air Line" in the space provided to record
104

cylinder pressure.
5. Procedures for recording information in the spaces provided on BA identification
tallies are described in "Duties of Stage I ECO" page 1-9 and "Duties of Stage II ECO"
page 1-15.
4.6
6. The standard dimensions of BA tallies are important as they permit a tally to be
inserted in any BA Entry Control Board (ECB) operated by any Fire Brigade.
7. BA tallies must conform to standard colours. (A rigid, self-coloured plastic tally in
white or bright yellow to permit suitable waterproof markings to show up well). The
permanent markings on the tally should be durable, indelible, black in colour and
conform to the layout in Appendix 3.
The standard colour coding for identification tallies is as follows:
8. The BA tally should be attached by means of a key ring to the key of the ADSU
provided with each BA and air line facemask.

COLOUR TYPE OF APPARATUS CYLINDER CAPACITY
White Closed-circuit oxygen Any
Yellow Open-circuit (compressed air) Any
Breathing Apparatus (BA) Entry Control Boards (ECBs)
Rapid Deployment
1. Rapid Deployment Procedures may be operated using existing ECBs with appropriate
timing devices. Alternatively, an ECB designed specifically for the purpose may be
used accommodating a timing device and two BA tallies (see "Rapid Deployment
Procedures" page 1-6). An example of a Rapid Deployment ECB is shown in Appendix
4. A Rapid Deployment ECB should comprise a timing device and positions for the
insertion of two BA tallies. When depressed by the insertion of the first tally, the
contact breaker automatically operates the timing device and the elapsed time is
indicated on the board. When both tallies are removed the elapsed time should stop and
remain visible until action is taken to reset the timing device. The Rapid Deployment
ECB may be made from materials used from other ECBs, and BA tallies are retained
in a similar manner. The design of the Rapid Deployment ECB should allow for the
105

introduction of full control procedures without the loss of information about elapsed
time.
Stage I and Stage I I
2. The ECB comprises of a perspex-covered board about 300mm in width and 850mm in
length. The upper section contains a set of tables or a calculator for calculating the
expected working duration of BA. It also incorporates a clock. The remainder of the
board has up to twelve divisions into which BA tallies can be inserted. Two divisions
are permanently marked and intended for the tallies of the emergency team.
Corresponding spaces permit entries under the headings:
a. "Time of Whistle"
b. "Location of Team"
c. "Remarks"
3. The upper portion of an ECB can include a "TACOL" or similar grid to assist the ECO
in consolidating information on casualties removed from the risk area. T (team), A
(number of adult casualties), C (number of child casualties), O (represents a clock face
/ time "out"), L (location).
4. A pouch may be attached to the board to house such items as the ECO's tabard, guide
line identification tallies, a suitable waterproof marker, sharpener, notebook, pen and
an evacuation whistle. A BA Entry Control Board (ECB) is illustrated at Appendix 5,
and a method of securing tallies in the board is illustrated at Appendix 6. Alternative
methods of securing tallies are acceptable. The board may be provided with a stand or
other means of support.
5. Clocks for use with BA ECBs may be digital or analogue in type and the former may
display times in a 12 or 24 hour mode. The performance and display characteristics of
some liquid crystal display digital clocks are adversely affected by extremes of
temperature and brigades should satisfy themselves of the satisfactory performance of
the clocks intended for this use.
6. Duration tables should cover all types of cylinders fitted to BA used in the Brigade.
Ideally the table should also include duration tables relating to the cylinders used by
surrounding Brigades. Duration tables for each cylinder type should be calculated
using the formulae described in Appendix 7. Duration tables should extend from the
106

normal maximum filled pressure of each cylinder and should show the remaining
duration for decreasing pressures. The background of each section of the duration
tables should be coloured to correspond to the colour of the BA tally. As an alternative
to the use of duration tables the ECB may be fitted with a mechanical calculator for the
same purpose.
7. The ECO should, as soon as possible after being nominated, examine the ECB of the
appliance to which they are attached. This should include that it is:
a. clean and with no previous entries displayed;
b. free from damage or signs of excessive wear;
c. provided with a suitable waterproof marker;
d. fitted with a clock which is functioning and indicating the correct time; and
e. stowed on the appropriate appliance.
BA Main Control
8. A board should be provided for the use of the BA Main Control Officer (MCO).
Examples of Main Control Boards (MCBs) are illustrated in Appendix 2.
BA Tabard
9. A yellow and black chequered tabard should be provided for the use of BA Entry
Control Officers (Stage I and Stage II) and for the use of BA Main Control Officers
10. It is recommended that the tabard be stowed on appliances with the ECB with which it
is intended to be used.
11. BA tabards should be examined for damage and excessive wear by the person
nominated as the ECO.
Breathing Apparatus (BA) Guidelines
1. A BA guideline is made from unpolished, usually plaited, rot resistant hemp or
nonthermoplastic
synthetic material. The guideline has a circumference of 19 to 25mm
(diameter 6 to 8mm) and is 60 metres in length (see illustration in Appendix 8). One
end of the guideline terminates in a spliced loop 150mm in length and the "pay-out"
end of the line is provided with a snap hook.
2. "Tabs" are fitted in pairs to the line at 2.5 metre intervals along the length of the line.
In each pair, one of the tabs (the tab nearer the pay-out end) is knotted and is 50mm in
107

length. (The second tab is 125mm in length and is unknotted). A container is provided
into which the line is stowed in random fashion. A further snap hook is provided inside
the container to which the loop of the guideline is attached before the remainder of the
line is stowed in the container. The container has a hole, normally in the lid, to permit
deployment of the guideline. The container is designed to be securely attached, by way
of quick release fastenings, to a BA wearer or the wearer's BA set.
3. All BA guidelines should be tested in accordance with the procedures described in
BA Guideline Tallies - General
4. Two separate sets of tallies should be provided: one to permit the identification of two
separate main BA guidelines and the other to permit identification of up to four branch
guidelines.
Main Guideline Tallies
5. Each set of main guideline tallies comprises two discs 75mm in diameter, each durably
marked on both sides by the identifying letters "A" or "B". Each tally has a fitting to
permit its attachment to the ring of the snap hook at the pay-out end of a main
guideline.
Branch Guideline Tallies
6. Each set of branch guideline tallies comprises four rectangular tallies, 100mm by
50mm. Each one is drilled by 15mm holes to identify the number of the tally (e.g. 1
hole for the number one tally). Each tally has a fitting to permit its attachment to the
ring of the snap hook at the end of a branch guideline.
7. Illustrations of both types of tally are at Appendix 10. BA guideline identification
tallies should be inspected monthly and after use.
BA Personal Line
8. The BA personal line is 6m long. The line is illustrated in Appendix 11. One end of the
line should be fastened to a "D" ring which is passed through a shaped slot in the rear
of the personal line pouch to permit this fastening. A snap hook (see Appendix 12) or
karibiner (see Appendix 13) is fastened to the other end of the personal line. A further
"D" ring is permanently fastened to the line 1.25m from the snap hook or karibiner at
the running end. In normal stowage the second "D" ring is secured to a short length of
strap by a clip. The strap is secured to the removable ring anchoring the standing end
108

of the personal line to the BA harness. This method of fastening permits the personal
line to be paid out in two separate lengths; a short length of 1.25m and, by releasing
the clip, the full 6m length of line.
9. The line is stowed in the pouch attached to the harness of the BA set. This is provided
with internal pockets, the smaller of which accommodates the 1.25m length of line and
the largest pocket houses the snap hook or karabiner. (The method of stowage is shown
in Appendix 14).
10. BA personal lines should be examined in accordance with the test procedure described
in Appendix 9 and as part of the general check of the BA to which it is attached to
ensure that it is correctly secured to the apparatus and correctly stowed in the pouch.
4.12
Air Line Equipment
1. The rubber and neoprene components of air line equipment are liable to deteriorate as
a result of exposure to aggressive chemicals, ozone, sunlight and from ageing. These
should be examined frequently for signs of this deterioration and the advice of the
manufacturers should be sought on the maximum service life of such components in
ideal conditions. Replacement policies should reflect this advice.
2. Testing of air line equipment should only be carried out by persons who are qualified
to wear the apparatus. Maintenance of air line equipment which involves more than the
routine maintenance which follows its wearing invariably requires the use of specialist
test equipment and should be carried out only by personnel who have received the
necessary training to a standard approved by the manufacturer of the equipment.
3. Manufacturers may recommend that BA hoses designed to operate at pressure higher
than that of atmosphere should be periodically subjected to a test pressure 100% higher
than the normal working pressure. Such pressure testing shall be carried out
pneumatically or hydraulically but in either case suitable safeguards should be
employed to ensure that no person is put at risk in the event of failure of the hose under
test.
4. Permanently kept with each set of air line equipment should be a test record detailing
the:
a. date and time of each test carried out on the air line and its ancillary equipment
109

and the result;
b. type of test carried out and the reason for it;
c. name of the person carrying out the test;
d. nature of any defects found in the apparatus; and
e. nature of any repairs or adjustments and the identity of any person carrying
them out.

Radio Communications
Using Breathing Apparatus (BA)
1. The use of radio communications equipment can assist BA operations under all entry
control procedures. It can be an aid to the effectiveness and safety of BA wearers.
Details in relation to radio channels for BA personnel, ECO's, Incident and Sector
Commanders are contained in the National Incident Command Manual.
2. Radio equipment utilised with BA should be suitable for the environment in which it
is to be used. Where this may involve exposure to a flammable or explosive
atmosphere the radio equipment and any BA interface used with it should be certified
as being safe for use in such conditions.
3. Users should be aware of the limited penetration of radio signals into buildings and
below-ground structures. In the event of a breakdown of radio communications, it must
be a question of judgement whether, in the circumstances, an emergency team should
be deployed.
4. Radio communications equipment should be tested, by operation, before it is
committed to the risk area and at regular intervals whilst in use.

Duration Tables
110

Appendix 1
FIRST ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 200 190 180 170 160
TIME IN MINUTES 48 45 42 39 36
2400
LITRES
RE ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 150 140 130 120 110 100
TIME IN MINUTES 33 30 27 24 21 18
RE ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 150 140 130 120 110 100
TIME IN MINUTES 30 27 24 21 18 16
FIRST ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 200 190 180 170 160
2250
LITRES
RE ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 150 140 130 120 110 100
TIME IN MINUTES 21 19 17 15 12 10
FIRST ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 200 190 180 170 160
1800
LITRES
RE ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 100
TIME IN MINUTES 11
FIRST ENTRY
PRESSURE IN BARS 132 120 110
111

TIME IN MINUTES 19 16 13
1240
LITRES

Breathing Apparatus Entry Control Board Stage I and Stage II

Appendix 5
Entry Control Point
Number:
(Name of Fire Authority)
Stage
B.A. Entry control Board
Clock Duration Tables and/or Dial Calculator
Identification
Time of
Whistle
Location of Team Remarks
Emergency Team
Emergency Team

Consumption of air formula
Open circuit apparatus
1. A table showing the remaining working duration of open circuit BA can be calculated
for any cylinder pressure by using the following formula:
P x C
D = -12
N x 40
Where:
D = the remaining working duration (in minutes)
P = the pressure in the cylinder (bar)
N = the maximum filled pressure of the cylinder (bar)
112

C = the capacity (in litres) of the cylinder when pressurised to N bar
The figure 40 used in the calculation represents the notional consumption rate used in
estimating the average consumption of an open circuit apparatus and approximates to
a wearer walking at a speed of 6 km/hour. The figure 12 represents the period allotted
to the Safety margin of the apparatus in minutes.
Closed circuit apparatus
2. A table showing the remaining duration of closed circuit BA can be calculated for any
cylinder size and for decreasing valuses of the cylinder pressure by uing the following
formula:
P x C
D = -15
N x F
Where:
D = the remaining working duration (in minutes)
P = the pressure in the cylinder (bar)
N = the maximum filled pressure of the cylinder (bar)
C = the capacity (in litres) of the cylinder when pressurised to N bar
F = the constant flow rate of the apparatus (in litres/minutes)
The figure 15 represents the period allotted to the Safety Margin of the apparatus in
minutes.
Appendix 7
BA Guidelines
Appendix 8
BA Guideline Test Procedure
Examination
1. Guidelines and personal lines used with breathing apparatus should be examined as
follows:
a. The whole length of the line should be examined about 300mm at a time and
should be turned to reveal all sides of the 300mm before passing on to the next;
b. Hawser-laid ropes should be slightly untwisted locally at intervals of not more
than 300mm to reveal the inner surface of the strands. The strands must be
113

returned to their original position afterwards; and
c. Attention should be given to the whippings, splices and fittings, such as
swivels, snap hooks etc. to ensure that they are free from defects.
Tests
2. One end of the line should be secured to an immovable object in such a way that the
line and any splices in it will be subjected to the test. Two firefighters spaced at
intervals of about 1.5 metres should take up positions at the free end of the line and
should successively apply a steady pull to the line until the line is subjected to the
combined pull of the two firefighters. The combined pull should be maintained for 20
seconds and then released by the firefighters in succession, from the rear. The line
should then be reversed and the test repeated. When lines terminate in an eye splice and
snap hook, the snap hook should be attached to the immovable object
]
SMALL GEAR AND LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION
The skills and techniques required for the complexities of rescue work can be
gained only through a sound program of training. Rescue personnel can best be
ready to handle any situation if they are proficient with their rescue tools.
Complete knowledge of tools and equipment allow rescuers to rapidly devise a
method for the rescue at hand. Basic rescue tools are carried on most fire
appliances are referred to as small gear.
Small gear is the term commonly used in fire service when referring to a
miscellany of tools and items of equipment which cannot be classified under any
other main heading, but are nevertheless essential to the fire fighters to
effectively execute their wide variety of tasks which they may be called upon to
114

perform. These tools can range from a small cold chisel to powered saws for
cutting metal or concrete.
CATEGORIES

Small gear can be classified into the following groups:

i. Cutting away tools - saws, shears, axes, chisel, knives.
ii. Breaking in tools - sledges, hammers, crowbars, and door
breakers.
iii. Turning over tools - spades, forks, shovels, ceiling hooks, pick
axes.
iv. Rescue gear - rail spreaders, jack, rams and air bags.
v. Transport tools - folding stretchers, slings, hoisting gear.
vi. Lighting equipment - torches, hand lamps, tripod mounted lamps,
search.
STOWAGE
115

Because of the difference in design of fire appliances, it is not practicable to
adopt to a standard stowage plan for small gear. However, it is essential for
each member of a crew to know, especially when working in the dark, exactly
where to find each item of equipment.
TYPES OF SMALL GEARS
Firefighters Axe
The firefighters axe is normally a part of every fire fighters personal gear,
together with axe pouch. These axes are also carried as spare on some fire
appliances as an alternate to issuing personal equipment. There are two (2)
types similar in design, except that one has an insulated rubber handle while the
other has a wooden handle. The insulation should not be exposed unnecessarily
to heat or allowed to come in contact with grease, oil, acid and turpentine. When
the insulation becomes soiled, it should be washed with soap and water and
dried.

CEILING HOOKS

This is of interest as being one of the few items of small gears which was
primarily developed for Fire Brigade use. Its relationship to a boat hook is
obvious, but in its present form is exclusively a Fire Brigade tool. It consists of a
pole from 2.1 to 2.4m long having at the top a steel point with a spur at right
angles with the point and the spur each being 100 mm long. The ceiling hook is
a general-purpose tool that is frequently used in turning over and pulling
operations and for any job which calls for long reach with a rigid piece of
equipment.

CROWBARS
116

Crowbars of various kinds form an essential part of Fire Brigade equipment. The
most common type consists of a steel bar approximately 1m in length of which
either one or both ends is/are sloped at an angle to provide leverage. One end is
usually claw-shaped for use with levering out nails, screws and other fittings
whilst the other end is chisel shaped. Crowbars are used to provide necessary
leverage to force open doors and windows which may impede fire fighting or
rescue operations.
Padlock Remover
This is used to facilitate the rapid removal of padlocks. However, when this
special tool is unavailable, wedging the hoop to the door with the hinge and
giving the body of the lock a sharp blow with a hammer, axe or other suitable tool
can easily force open many padlocks.
Persuader
This tool may be best described as having a cigar-shaped cold chisel to which a
steel handle is secured and is used for forcing padlocks which cannot be dealt
with by use of padlock removers, crowbars etc. The point of the chisel is blunt
since the function of the tool is not to cut but to break a padlock by the expanding
effect of the tapered chisel being forced in the loop of the hasp by blows of a

HEAVY HAMMER.

117

Cutters/Shears
Cutters of various types are carried on most appliances and are used for cutting
metal bolts and padlock hasps to facilitate entry into warehouses and other
premises which are protected by heavily bolted doors. They are also used in
circumstances where metal obstacles impede fire fighting or rescue operations.
The jaws are operated on a double fulcrum and sometimes have a semi-circular
slot in each blade to enable the tool to be used as a bolt cutter. The handles are
pivoted on ball joints so that when necessary, the head can be used at right
angles to the handles.
Spreaders
A variety of expanding tools are used for forcing apart iron bars such as railings,
usually to facilitate the release of trapped persons or animals. One type of rail
spreader consists of a nut threaded internally to receive v- shaped lugs with
threaded stems. A handle fits into a hole bored through the sides of the nut. The
v-shaped lugs are placed against the bars to be moved and when the nut is
rotated by means of the handle, the lugs are forced outwards, forcing the bars
apart.

RUBBER GLOVES

It is important that a firefighter, especially when handling potentially charged
electrical items, wear rubber gloves. Rubber mats and special rubber boots are
carried by some Fire Brigade appliances usually in conjunction with rubber
gloves to give an additional measure of protection against injury by electric
shock.

118

Asbestos Equipment
Asbestos as an aid to firefighting is largely confined to asbestos blankets which
are used for smothering purposes and in some instances, the production of
firefighting clothing. However, studies have shown that asbestos has
carcinogenic (cancer forming) properties which have caused a drastic reduction
in the use of asbestos in favour of synthetic materials such as Numex.
Lamps and Lighting Sets
A wide variety of lamps and equipment sets are used by Fire Brigades. The
choice of lamps and lighting equipment is a matter determined by local
requirements and preferences. Various patterns of conventional batteryoperated
hand lamps usually form part of each firefighters personal equipment
as well as being carried on Fire Appliances.
Searchlights and floodlights of various kinds are used by Fire Brigades to provide
sustained illumination at scenes of fires and other incidents. Searchlights are
designed to throw a concentrated beam of light which is used for such purposes
as illuminating a specific part of an incident. Floodlights however, are designed
to give illumination over a wide area.
Most Fire Appliances carry a swivel-mounted searchlight which operates from the
vehicle battery and is attached to a reel of flexible cable so that it can be
removed from the appliance when necessary and placed elsewhere (eg. tripod).
Large types of electric search lights and floodlights are usually carried on
emergency tenders where a suitable power supply is available in the form of a
built on or portable generator as well as fixed and / or portable reels or cable to
enable the lamp to be strategically sited at incidents.

119

POWERED TOOLS

Tools may be powered by pneumatics, hydraulics, electricity and some engines
that are driven by internal combustion are becoming increasingly popular within
the Fire Brigade. Examples of powered tools are saws, cutters and spreaders:
eg. jaws-of-life, jacks and rams, air bags, drills and chisels.
Hydraulic equipment is based on a simple concept: the transmission of forces
from one point to another through fluids. Most hydraulic machines use some sort
of incompressible fluid which is a fluid at its maximum density.
The name jaws-of-life is actually a brand of tools but the name is often used
when talking about other brands of rescue systems. Jaws-of-life refers to several
types of hydraulic tools such as spreaders, cutters and rams which are used to
pry open vehicles involved in accidents when a victim may be trapped.
Spreaders and cutters are probably the two pieces of equipment most people
think about when they hear about jaws-of-life. They are hydraulic cutters as well
as spreaders. The spreader is used to pull pieces of the structure apart or it can
be inserted into the side of the vehicle to tear a section out.
The cutter, as the name suggests, is used to cut through the material like a pair
of giant bold cutters. The mechanics of how these two devices work are similar
and some jaws-of-life equipment combine the cutter and spreader into one
machine.

120

TYPES OF POWERED TOOLS

Rams
The ram is the most basic type of hydraulic system. It is just a matter of using
hydraulic fluid to move a piston head inside a cylinder to extend and retract a
piston rod. The rams function is to push apart sections of the car (or other
structure). For instance, a rescue worker can place a ram on the door frame of a
vehicle and extend the piston to push the dash board up, creating enough space
to free crash victims.
Air Bags
Air bars are another type of extricating equipment which utilizes power imparted
by pneumatics. Pneumatics are tools that use the energy released by
compressed air for power eg. air chisel.
The main purpose of air bag is for lifting during extrication. It is also used to
protect casualties against sharp edges and hot surfaces.
When operating the air bag, particular interest must be placed on establishing a
solid point to push from/against.
Stack two bags with larger at the bottom and is inflated first. Ensure that the
operating pressure is between 95 145 lbs per square inch.
In the case of abnormalcy during extrication operation, the turning of the dead
mans switch which is found on the generator itself, should be deactivate the
generator.
Chisel
Chisels are helpful and versatile. However, if used improperly can be dangerous.
A chisel must be examined before use for defects. Pneumatic powered chisels
are very useful for rescue work. These chisels can be powered by breathing
121

apparatus air cylinder, a cascade system or a trucks air brake system. The air
chisel is especially effective for auto extrication, cutting through the top seat bolts
and door lock assemblies. It is excellent for cutting medium to heavy gauge
sheet metal and for popping rivets and bolts.

LADDERS

A portable ladder is primarily used for gaining access to areas above or below the ground, or
other levels that are not provided with permanent access. The potential for injury in a fall is
significant you should only consider using a portable ladder if other alternatives, such as
scaffolding or elevating work platforms, are not reasonably practicable.
There are limits to the safe use of ladders and they should not be used for working at heights of 6
metres or more. Work done with ladders should be restricted to light duty work thats performed
for short periods of time. For heights above six metres, ladders should only be used for access
purposes.
In your workplaces use regularly inspected and maintained industrial ladders that are designed to
comply with Australian Standards. They must have a clearly displayed load rating of at least
120kg. Do not use domestic ladders.

122

Ladder placement
Portable ladders must be supported at the base and positioned on a stable surface. Straight and
extension ladders should be secured at both the top and bottom to prevent movement. Avoid
using ladders in wet or windy conditions, unless control measures account for these conditions.
For soft, uneven or sloping surfaces, use a support under the ladder feet for levelling and stability
eg planks or a proprietary ladder-levelling device. Be aware of the ground-to-first-rung
distance to prevent tripping.

While on the ladder:
Dont climb or place your feet higher than the third rung from the top. This allows you to grasp
the ladder at waist height while working.
Work within easy arms reach of the ladder. Dont lean over the side of the ladder.
Maintain three points of contact at all times.
Have two feet and one hand, or one foot and two hands, on the ladder when climbing it.
Have two feet and one other point of contact with the ladder while working from it, such as one
hand or the upper torso leaning against the ladder.
Wear fully-enclosed, slip-resistant footwear.
Get off before moving the ladder. Dont walk while standing on it.
Face the ladder when climbing or working on it.
Do not work directly over other people. Barricade the area below if required.
Use only lightweight hand tools on a ladder and ensure that:
Use is light-duty work for short durations.
They can be used in their normal operating position.
Guarding and other safety features on the tools are operational.
123

They can be carried in a tool belt or tool bag, and are not supported from the ladder. Dont attach
tools to a ladder unless the ladder is designed for that purpose.
Your centre of gravity remains within the stiles.
For straight and extension ladders:
When working from ladders, they should be long enough to provide at least one metre of solid
support beyond the height of the task. Where this is not possible, consider using alternative
methods, such as a mobile scaffold or elevating work platform.
When using ladders for access, they should extend at least one metre above the level being
accessed, unless the structure provides adequate handholds.
For extension ladders, such as the rope-and-pulley type, ensure:
They are placed into position, unextended. Extend a few rungs at a time using the rope.
Latching hooks are engaged after each extension.
Good manual handling practices are applied. Two people may be required to raise and lower,
depending on the type of ladder, the location and weather conditions.
To apply adequate weight at the base when lowering to prevent it becoming uncontrollable.
For stepladders:
Position with the treads facing the work activity with spreader braces fully opened and locked.
See diagram 1 below.
For stepladders with working platforms:
Some stepladders have a working platform on which to stand and these should only be used
when the height of the work is compatible with the height of the platform. These platform
ladders should have guardrails around the working platform, which should be inspected for
damage prior to use, as they can be susceptible to damage in transport and storage. See diagram
2 below.

124

FOR MULTI-PURPOSE LADDERS

These are portable ladders that have one or more pairs of articulation joints enabling the ladder to
be configured for use relating to a variety of activities. Manufacturers instruction are required to
be followed when they are configured.
When these are being used as portable ladders they should be used in accordance with the advice
above that corresponds to the configuration in which they are being used ie either as straight or
stepladders

Maintenance
Ladders must be regularly inspected and maintained by a competent person as per
manufacturers specifications, and their designs must comply with Australian Standards.
Follow manufacturers recommendations for maintenance and inspections.
A competent person must inspect ladders before each use. Dont paint wooden ladders. Use a
transparent preservative to ensure that defects can be easily detected. If defects are detected on
any type of ladder, repair it as per the manufacturers instructions before further use or, if this is
not possible, destroy it to prevent further use.
Repair or destroy ladders that have:
Warped, splintered, cracked or bruised timber stiles and faults that are masked by paint.
Twisted, bent, kinked, crushed or cracked metal stiles, or damaged feet.
Missing, worn, damaged or loose rungs, steps, treads or top plates.
Missing, broken or loose tie rods or damaged step ladder stays.
Missing, broken or worn ropes, braces or brackets.

125

Checklist
Ensure that the ladder is:
An industrial ladder complying with the relevant part of AS/NZS 1892 series ie labelled as
rated for 120kg or more.
Appropriate for the task used for light-duty and short duration work only.
In good condition and not damaged.
Positioned on firm, level ground or that appropriate supports are provided eg ladder leveller,
plank, stabilisers.
The correct height to avoid reaching or stretching.
Not too close or too far from the support structure.
Secured (and has all locking devices secured).
Not supported by the rungs.
Used with three points of contact maintained.
Slip resistant at the base and on the rungs.
Non-conducting, if used near powerlines or a minimum of three metres from powerlines, if
metallic.
Only used if the area below is clear of people.
Not used on scaffolding, unless specifically designed for scaffold use.
Not used on elevating work platforms to get extra height.
Not used in wet or windy conditions, unless using work practices that are developed for such
conditions.
Not used near traffic areas, unless the working area is isolated.
Further information
The Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 requires that employers and those in control of
workplaces to take all necessary steps to ensure that safe systems of work are implemented,
maintained and supervised, and that persons undertaking such systems are provided with
adequate information and training to ensure their own safety.
Clause 56 of the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 provides more specific
obligations for preventing falls from heights.
126

The codes of practice Safe work on roofs: Part 1 commercial and industrial (catalogue no.
WC00304) and Safe work on roofs: Part 2 residential buildings (catalogue no. WC00308.1)
provide employers, self-employed people and workers with practical advice on preventing injury
to people engaged in work on roofs, including the use of ladders.

127

UNIT - III

128

Fire Prevention
Introduction
Each year, more than 4,000 Americans die in fires, more than 25,000 are injured in fires, and
more than 100 firefighters are killed while on duty. Eighty three percent of all civilian fire deaths
occurred in residences. Many of these fires could have been prevented. Cooking is the third
leading cause of fire deaths and the leading cause of injury among people ages 65 and older.
Direct loss due to fires is estimated at nearly $8.6 billion annually. Intentionally set structure
fires resulted in an estimated $664 million in property damage.
In order to protect yourself, it is important to understand the basic characteristics of fire.
Fire is FAST. In just two minutes, a fire can become life-threatening. In five minutes, a
residence can be engulfed in flames.
Fire is DARK. Fire produces gases that make you disoriented and drowsy. Instead of being
awakened by a fire, you may fall into a deeper sleep. Asphyxiation is the leading cause of fire
deaths, exceeding burns by a three- to- one ratio.
BEFORE A FIRE
The following are things you can do to protect yourself, your family, and your property in the
event of a fire:
SMOKE ALARMS AND CARBON MONOXIDE DETECTORS
Install smoke alarms. Properly working smoke alarms decrease your chances of dying in a fire
by half.
Place smoke alarms on every level of your residence, including the basement.
Install a working carbon monoxide detector in the common area of the bedrooms.
Test and clean smoke alarms once a month and replace batteries at least once a year. Replace
smoke alarms once every 10 years.
COOKING SAFETY
129

Never leave cooking unattended.
Always wear short or tight-fitting sleeves when you cook.
Keep towels, pot holders and curtains away from flames
Never use the range or oven to heat your home

ESCAPING THE FIRE
Have an escape plan. Review escape routes with your family. Make sure windows are not
nailed or painted shut.
Teach family members to stay low to the floor, where the air is safer, when escaping from a
fire.
In high-rise, never lock fire exits or doorways, halls or stairways. Never prop stairway or other
fire doors open
HEATING SOURCE
Place space heaters at least three feet away from flammable/combustible materials.
Use only the type of fuel designated for your space heater.
MATCHES/LIGHTERS AND SMOKING
Keep matches/lighters away from children.
Never smoke in bed or when drowsy or medicated.
If you must smoke, do it responsibly.
ELECTRICAL WIRING
Inspect extension cords for frayed or exposed wires or loose plugs
Make sure outlets have cover plates and no exposed wiring.
130

Make sure wiring does not run under rugs, over nails, or across high traffic areas.
Do not overload extension cords or outlets.
ASK THE FIRE DEPARTMENT TO INSPECT YOUR HOME FOR FIRE SAFETY AND
PREVENTION
DURING A FIRE
If your clothes catch on fire, you should:
Stop, drop, and roll until the fire is extinguished.
DO NOT PANIC
Do not assume someone else already called the fire department get out of the house then call
the Fire Department.
ESCAPE A FIRE
Check closed doors with the back of your hand to feel for heat before you open them.
If the door is hot do not open it. Find a second way out, such as a window. If you cannot escape
through a window, hang a white sheet outside the window to alert firefighters to your presence.
Stuff the cracks around the door with towels, rags, bedding or tape and cover vents to keep
smoke
out.
If there is a phone in the room where you are trapped, call the fire department again and tell
them
exactly where you are.
If the door is cold slowly open it and ensure that fire and/or smoke is not blocking your escape
131

route. If your escape route is blocked, shut the door and use another escape route. If clear, leave
immediately and close the door behind you. Be prepared to crawl.
AFTER A FIRE
Once you are out of the building, STAY OUT! Do not go back inside for any reason.
If you are with a burn victim or are a burn victim yourself call 911, cool and cover your burns
until emergency units arrive.
If you are a tenant contact the landlord.
Tell the fire department if you know of anyone trapped in the building.
Only enter when the fire department tells you it is safe to do so.
NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE NFPA
WHAT THE NFPA PROCESS CAN DO FOR YOU.
Who is NFPA?
Founded in 1896, NFPA grew out of that first meeting on sprinkler
standards. The Bylaws of the Association that were first established in 1896 embody the spirit of
the codes and standards development process. The mission of the international nonprofit NFPA,
established in 1896,
[1]
is to reduce the worldwide burden of fire and other hazards on the quality
of life by providing and advocating consensus codes and standards, research, training, and
education.NFPA membership totals more than 70,000 individuals around the world.
132

Codes and standards
NFPA is responsible for 380 codes and standards
[2]
that are designed to minimize the risk and
effects of fire by establishing criteria for building, processing, design, service, and installation in
the United States, as well as many other countries. Its more than 200 technical code- and
standard- development committees have over 6,000 volunteer seats. Volunteers vote on
proposals and revisions in a process that is accredited by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI).
Some of the most widely used codes are:
NFPA 1, Fire Code:
[3]
Provides requirements to establish a reasonable level of fire safety and
property protection in new and existing buildings.
NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code:
[4]
The safety benchmark for fuel gas installations.
NFPA 70, National Electric Code:
[5]
The world's most widely used
[citation needed]
and accepted
code for electrical installations.
NFPA 85: Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code:
[6]

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code:
[7]
Establishes minimum requirements for new and existing
buildings to protect building occupants from fire, smoke, and toxic fumes.
NFPA 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for
Emergency Response:
[8]
Defines the colloquial "fire diamond" used by emergency personnel
to quickly and easily identify the risks posed by hazardous materials.
Public safety education
Sponsoring a variety of life-saving campaigns and training programs, the NFPA devotes much of
its efforts to protecting lives and property through education. The organization provides many
resources for fire, electrical, and life-safety instructions.
133

Sparky the Fire Dog
The outreach programs of NFPA include:
The annual Fire Prevention Week in October, a national campaign for which NFPA has been
the official sponsor since 1922;
[9]

Remembering When, a program developed to address the leading causes of injuries and
death among older adults;
[10]

Risk Watch
[11]
and Learn Not to Burn,
[12]
programs developed to address the leading causes
of injuries and death among children;
A variety of programs that focus on high-risk outreach;
and the resources and activities associated with Sparky the Fire Dog, the official mascot of
NFPA.
Advocacy
NFPA oversees the operations of several advocacy campaigns dedicated to increasing fire safety
and awareness, including the Fire Sprinkler Initiative, Bringing Safety Home; Electric Vehicle
Safety Training Program; the Coalition for Fire-Safe Cigarettes; Firewise Communities/USA;
and the Alliance to Stop Consumer Fireworks.
Sparky the Fire Dog
NFPA's official mascot since 1951, Sparky hosts his own Web site
[13]
to provide materials for
others (mostly the fire service) to teach children about fire safety. Sparky has been featured in his
own series of television public service announcements.
134

Access to NFPA codes and standards
As part of its commitment to enhancing public safety through the adoption and enforcement of
key ANSI codes and standards, NFPA makes all of its codes and standards available for review
online by the public. The complete texts of standards documents are available on the NFPA Web
site, with restrictions, for viewing, but not printing, by citizens, interested manufacturers and
others with computer access.
[14]
NFPA codes and standards are widely adopted, because they are
developed using an open, consensus-based process. All NFPA codes and standards are developed
and periodically reviewed by approximately 7,000 volunteer committee members with a wide
range of professional expertise.
[15]

In 2013 NFPA with others filed suit against Public.Resource.Org for publishing the full texts of
various codes.
[16]
PRO claims that since these codes form part of US or state law they are not
eligible for copyright.
See also[edit]
NFPA Standards:
NFPA 70 National Electrical Code
NFPA 70B Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance
NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code
NFPA 704 Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for
Emergency Response (four-color hazard diamond)
NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations
NFPA 1001 Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1123 Code for Fireworks Display
NFPA 1670 Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue
Incidents
NFPA 1901 Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus

135

The scope includes, but is not limited to, the following:
(1) Inspection of permanent and temporary buildings, processes,equipment, systems, and other
fire and relatedlife safety situations
(2) Investigation of fires, explosions, hazardous materialsincidents, and other related
emergencyincidents
(3) Review of design and construction plans, drawings, andspecifications for life safety systems,
fire protection systems, access, water supplies, processes, and hazardous materials and other fire
and life safety issues
(4) Fire and life safety education offire brigades, employees, responsible parties, and the general
public
(5) Existing occupancies and conditions, the design and construction of new buildings,
remodeling of existing buildings, and additions to existing buildings
(6) Design, alteration, modification, construction, maintenance, and testing of fire protection
systems and equipment
(7)*Access requirements for fire department operations
(8) Hazards from outside fires in vegetation, trash, building debris, and other materials
(9) Regulation and control of special events including, but not limited to, assemblage of people,
exhibits, trade shows, amusement parks, haunted houses, outdoor events, and other similar
special temporary and permanent occupancies
(10) Interior finish, decorations, furnishings, and other combustibles that contribute to fire
spread, fire load, and smoke production
(11) Storage, use, processing, handling, and on-site transportation of flammable and combustible
gases, liquids, and solids
(12) Storage, use, processing, handling, and on-site transportation of hazardous materials
(13) Control of emergency operations and scenes
(14) Conditions affecting fire fighter safety
Frequency. Fire extinguishers shall be subjected to maintenance at intervals of not more than 1
year, at the time of hydrostatic test, or when specifically indicated by an inspection or electronic
notification. Fire extinguishers removed from service for maintenance or recharge shall be
replaced by a fire extinguisher suitable for the type of hazard being protected and shall be of at
least equal rating.
136

Maintenance and record keeping: Each fire extinguisher shall have a tag or label securely
attached that indicates the month and year the maintenance was performed and that identifies the
person performing the service. Recharging All rechargeable-type fire extinguishers shall be
recharged after any use or as indicated by an inspection or when performing maintenance.
Hydraulic testing: Hydrostatic testing shall be performed by persons trained in pressure testing
procedures and safeguards who have suitable testing equipment, facilities, and appropriate
servicing. A hydrostatic test shall always include both an internal and external visual
examination of the cylinder. Hydrostatic testing shall be conducted using water or some other
non compressible fluid as the test medium. Air or other gases shall not be used as the sole
medium for pressure testing. All air shall be vented prior to hydrostatic testing to prevent violent
and dangerous failure of the cylinder. If, at any time, a fire extinguisher shows evidence of dents,
mechanical injury, or corrosion to the extent as to indicate weakness, it shall be condemned or
hydrostatically retested subject to the provisions

(1) *Where repairs by soldering, welding, brazing, or use of patching compounds exist
(2) Where the cylinder threads are worn, corroded, broken, cracked, or nicked
(3) Where there is corrosion that has caused pitting, including pitting under a removable
nameplate or name band assembly
(4) Where the fire extinguisher has been burned in a fire
(5) Where a calcium chloride-type of extinguishing agent was used in a stainless steel fire
extinguisher
(6) Where the shell is of copper or brass construction joined by soft solder or rivets
(7) Where the depth of a dent exceeds of the greatest dimension of the dent if not in a weld, or
exceeds in. (0.6 cm) if the dent includes a weld
(8) Where any local or general corrosion, cuts, gouges, or dings have removed more than 10
percent of the minimum cylinder wall thickness

Nitrogen cylinders, argon cylinders, carbon dioxide cylinders, or cartridges used for inert gas
storage that are used as an expellant for wheeled fire extinguishers and carbon dioxide
extinguishers shall be hydrostatically tested every 5 years. Cylinders (except those charged with
carbon dioxide) complying with 49 CFR 173.34(e) 16 shall be permitted to be hydrostatically
137

tested every 10 years in lieu of the requirement Nitrogen cartridges, argon cartridges, and carbon
dioxide cartridges used as an expellant for hand portable fire extinguishers that have DOT or TC
markings shall be hydrostatically tested or replaced according to the requirements of DOT or TC.
Cartridges not exceeding 2 in. (5.1 cm) outside diameter and having a length less than 2 ft (0.61
m) shall be exempt from periodic hydrostatic retest. Cartridges with DOTstamp 3E shall be
exempt from periodic hydrostatic retest. Ahydrostatic test shall be performed on fire extinguisher
hose assemblies equipped with a shutoff nozzle at the end of the hose. The test interval shall be
the same as specified for the fire extinguisher on which the hose is installed. High-pressure and
low-pressure accessory hose (other than agent discharge hose) used on wheeled extinguishers
shall be hydrostatically tested. The test interval shall be the same as that specified for the fire
extinguisher agent cylinder on which the hose is installed.

All apparatus requiring rewinding or resetting to maintain normal operation shall be rewound or
reset as promptly as possible after each test and alarm. All test signals received shall be recorded
to indicate date, time, and type. Fire detection, alarm, and communications systems installed to
make use of an alternative allowed by this Code shall be considered required systems and shall
meet the provisions of this Code applicable to required systems All systems and components
shall be approved for the purpose for which they are installed.

INTERNATIONAL FIRE MARSHALS ASSOCIATION (IFMA)

138

Tariff advisory committee
The purpose of this manual is to provide a comprehensive reference guide for the reporting of
motor statistics to the Tariff Advisory Committee (TAC), national data repository for insurance.
The data submitted to TAC will be used to build an industry database for Motor Class of
Business with the following objectives:-
i) To compile Periodic Market Reports
ii) To undertake Rating and Risk Classification Studies
iii) To perform Statistical Analysis
iv) To establish benchmarks for the industry
v)To ensure smooth shift towards de-tariffed market
This manual aims to detail the relevant statistical fields to be captured and submitted by insurers.
Proper front-end capturing of insured and claim data is therefore critical to the accurate reporting
of data. The data dictionary attempts to create common standards, uniform understanding and
consistent interpretations of all data terms. The data fields to be submitted have been carefully
selected based on developments in more mature, liberalized markets so as to prepare insurers for
eventual de tariff scenario and possible removal of the tariff. It is therefore of critical importance
that insurers invest sufficient resources in the beginning to ensure that both your companys
database data submissions to TAC are both complete and accurate. It is also pertinent to note that
due to the dynamic nature of our business that the data fields listed in this manual are not
exhaustive. It is therefore recommended that companies adopt the data specifications enclosed
herein as a minimum standard, capturing additional data on insured and risks, which the insurer
feels may be important for their organization.

Frequency of Reporting
All data shall be submitted on a quarterly basis. The deadline for submission of data for a
particular quarter will be 21 days following the conclusion of the financial quarter i.e. 21st April,
21st July, 21st October & 21st January.
Media For Submission of Data
Statistical data may be submitted using the following media:-
i) CD
ii) E-mail (tariff@vsnl.com) - (only for file size less than 2MB)
139

Technical Specifications
The data will be uploaded onto a server using the Windows 2003 operating system. Companies
should therefore ensure that the data submitted is in a format that can be read by the above
system. The database software used to upload the data is SQL server and for statistical
analyses SPSS package is used.
Filename
The data files submitted must have the following file naming convention:-
Insurer Code _ FormNo_Period_Submission
Where;
Insurer code will be the code allotted to each insurer
Period = year i.e. 0405 for 2004-2005
Submission = 0 for Original submission, 1 for 1st revised submission etc.
E.g.
Insurer Code : 999 Form No = F12A : Period = 2004-05 Submission = Original
General Rules
I. Data should be submitted in text files only
II. All fields should be delimited by "double tilde" sign (~~)
III. File Name should indicate name of the insurer and period
IV. All amounts should be in actuals and rounded off to the nearest rupee.
V. Enter '0' in all blank 'numerical' fields and enter 'nil' in all blank 'text'fields..
VI. All date entries should be in dd/mm/yyyy format
VII. No Boolean entry should be left blank
VIII. Wherever TAC codes have been provided (in the Tariff or in the
Annexures), please use TAC codes only.
IX. Please ensure that data in respect of all offices of your company are in the above formats and
that the same set of codes / "Code Masters' are used in all your offices.
X. Where TAC codes have not been provided, please use your codes and append your "Code
Masters"
XI. Database Control Slip attached may be filled up and signed by the Authorised Signatory
XII. Give your remarks, if any, in the fields provided.
XIII. All applicable fields for each data record must be coded
140

XIV. Each risk must be coded separately. Therefore for Fleet policies, group policies, motor
trade risks or any other policies that insure more than one vehicle, Engine No & Chasis No of
each vehicle insured must be captured and submitted.
XV. All figures should be gross of any reinsurance premiums or recoveries, net of deductibles or
excess and net of agency commission.
XVI. A single reminder notice will be issued to those failing to submit data by the required
deadline. If data is still not submitted following the reminder, a show cause letter will be sent to
the CEO of the respective company.
XVII. Companies that anticipate temporary problems in data submissions due to system changes
or enhancement are required to notify TAC in advance and also make adequate provisions to
ensure that required data may be submitted following the enhancement.
XVIII. In the case of co-insurance business entire data will be submitted by Leading Insurer
only.
Data Reconciliation
Statistical Data
Statistical Data submitted to TAC must be reconciled with quarterly figures submitted to IRDA.
The following criteria will be used for reconciliation.
i) The sum of Num Net _TP_ Premium field and Num _Net _OD_Premium must be reconciled
to Gross Premiums Direct business (less return premiums) submitted to IRDA.
ii) The sum of Num_TP_Claims_paid & Num_OD_Claims_paid must be
reconciled to Gross Claims Paid Direct business of quarterly returns submitted to IRDA
iii) Total Outstanding Claims must be reconciled with Provision for Outstanding Claims Direct
Business (end of period).
iv) Where the data does not reconcile to a companys financials including coinsurance, a
reconciliation statement (see Appendix 2) must be submitted and certified by the Compliance
Officer of the company.
Minimum Acceptance Criteria
Statistical Data
The first minimum acceptance criteria is that data must be within +/- 5% of IRDA
figure i.e. 95% < | Data / IRDA |< 105%
The second acceptance criteria is that not more than 10% of total number of
141

records in quarterly submissions datasets are either
i) incorrectly coded; or
ii) have missing codes
Data with the following fields containing missing values will not be accepted:-
i) Policy Number
ii) Vehicle Registration Number
iii) Type of Claim
iv) Policy Inception Date
v) All numerical fields are blank
Data not meeting the minimum acceptance criteria will be required to resubmit
the complete dataset.
Control Slip
A control slip as specified in Appendix 1, must accompany each dataset
submitted. In addition for data that does not reconcile with financials submitted
to TAC (based on criteria in 2.3) a financial reconciliation must be submitted. All
control slips must be signed by the Nominated Compliance Officer of the
company. Where a financial reconciliation is submitted the control slip must also
be signed by the companys Accounts-In-Charge/Financial Advisor.
Aircraft fire fighting

GENERAL AIRCRAFT FIREFIGHTING AND SHORE BASE CRASH
142

Firefighting is a highly technical profession and firefighting, when associated with crashed
aircraft, is a highly specialized field. The prerequisites for assignment to this duty include
alertness, courage, dedication, agility, physical strength, and the ability to be an exacting team
worker.
The primary duty of the firefighter is saving life. Proficiency and expertise can be achieved with
frequent drills, training sessions, formal schooling, and practice. You must actually use all
equipment, extinguishing agents, and tools in order to learn their capabilities and limitations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Recognize the factors to consider when evaluating a crash situation; the methods for
extinguishing the fire; and the procedures for saving the crew, passengers, and aircraft.
2. Recognize aircraft firefighting and rescue vehicles typically used at shore stations.
3. Understand minimum response requirements to support fixed wing and rotary aircraft.
4. Identify personnel manning level requirement for various shore-based installation categories.
5. State the personal training requirements for an airport firefighter.
6. Identify rescue equipment that should be maintained at a shore station crash, fire, and rescue
organization.
7. Recognize various hazards associated with aircraft construction components, internal systems,
and armament.
8. Determine the appropriate response route for firefighting vehicles to respond to an aircraft fire.
9. Explain procedures for combatting fires.

AIRFIELD FIREFIGHTING AND RESCUE ORGANIZATION AND OPERATIONS

Fire Protection Organization
The two principal fire protection functions at aviation shore activities are aircraft rescue and
firefighting protection and structural fire protection. These services shall be organized and
consolidated in accordance with Office of the Chief of Naval Operations Instruction
(OPNAVINST) Shore Activities Fire Protection and Emergency Service Program
143

At Marine Corps air stations, aircraft rescue and firefighting protection and structural fire
protection are two separate, mutually supporting organizations. In accordance with Marine Corps
Order P11000.11(series), the aircraft rescue and firefighting branch is under the operational and
administrative control of the airfield operations officer; the structural fire department, however,
is part of the station facilities organization and under their administrative control. Marine Corps
structural fire departments are under the control of the station fire chief. When the structural fire
department is in support of the aircraft rescue and firefighting branch, it is then under the
operational control of the aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) Officer. The aircraft rescue and
firefighting branch and the structural fire department shall be cross trained and mutually
supporting.
The station fire chief and/or ARFF officer shall be responsible for the operational readiness,
performance, technical training, and management of their respective fire protection
organizations. The fire chief/ARFF officer or his designated representative shall have control and
direct supervision of all firefighting and rescue operations at the immediate scene of an aircraft
emergency and shall be so designated in writing. The air operations officer or, in his or her
absence, a designated assistant exercises overall control of the airfield other than at the
immediate scene of an accident.
The combined fire functions will require that civilian and military personnel assigned to the fire
protection organization be appropriately trained in both structural and aircraft fire and rescue
procedures. Civilian position descriptions will embrace all duties and responsibilities associated
with aircraft and structural firefighting. The position title is Firefighter in lieu of the titles
Firefighter, Structural or Firefighter, Airfield. ARFF is the approved global name for all U.S.
Navy and Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) fire protection functions at aviation shore activities.
Activity commanding officers should plan for critical incident stress debriefing of emergency
response personnel as required.
Minimum Response Requirements Categories 1 Through 6
Table 8-1 contains the minimum response requirements necessary to adequately perform the
aircraft crash, fire, and rescue functions predicated on the aircraft gross weight assigned at an
activity. For those activities that do not have aircraft assigned, minimum response shall be
determined by the type/gross weight of the aircraft normally supported. Minimum response
requirements categories for U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps airfields are assigned. For detailed
144

information on specific categories for individual Navy and Marine Corps airfields, refer to
Chapter 5 of the U.S. Navy Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Manual, NAVAIR 00-80R-14. The
Navy fire and emergency services program office shall review the established category at shore-
based navy activities every 3 years. This review shall include compliance with response time
requirements contained in Department of Defense Instruction, (DODI) 6055.06. The Marine
Corps activities shall be inspected at the discretion of the commanding general, the results of
which shall be evaluated every 3 years by the Inspector General of the Marine Corps.
At category 2 and 3 Navy main airfields that are approved for cross-staffing; in the event of a
structural fire or other significant simultaneous emergency, the minimum ARFF response
capability for continued flight operations shall be two ARFF vehicles and three firefighters. At
category 4, 5, and 6 main Navy airfields that are approved for cross-staffing; in the event of a
structural fire or other significant simultaneous emergency, the minimum ARFF response
capability for continued flight operations shall be three ARFF vehicles and six firefighters.

Minimum Response Requirements for Visiting Aircraft
Airfield category requirements for support of Department of Defense (DOD) and contractor
operated visiting aircraft not permanently assigned to an activity shall be based on the
appropriate category (1 through 6) whenever visiting aircraft utilize the activitys airfield with 5
or more aircraft on the ground 50 percent of the time, and/or approximately 200 landings,
takeoffs, or touch and go actions occur per month averaged over a 12-month period.

Minimum Response Requirements at Category 4 Airfields (USMC Only)
Mobile Water Supply Vehicle in Service
The response requirement for category 4 aircraft emergencies at Marine Corps activities shall
consist of major ARFF vehicles and a mobile water supply vehicle with a minimum combined
capacity of 7,000 gallons of water and a delivery rate of 2,500 gallons per minute (gpm).
Delivery rate may be based on both roof and bumper turrets. Category 4 aircraft emergencies
require all assigned manned crash equipment to respond. Selective P26 vehicle response to
aircraft emergencies that are not category 4 aircraft should be determined by the ARFF officer.
Permissible Level of Protection When 7230 Vehicles Are Out of Service
145

In emergency cases where the 7230 vehicles are placed out of service for maintenance/repair, the
minimum acceptable ARFF vehicle response at category 4 activities shall be five P-19 vehicles.
This provides a minimum capacity of 5,000 gallons of water and a minimum agent delivery rate
of 2,500 gpm for category 4 aircraft.
consist of major ARFF vehicles and a Mobile Water Supply vehicle with a minimum combined
capacity of 7,000 gallons of water and a delivery rate of 2,500 gpm. Delivery rate may be based
on both roof and bumper turrets.
Gross weight category Aircraft maximum gross takeoff
weight in pounds
Truck capacity/flow
Water (gallons) *Gallons per minute (gpm)
1 Up to 14,000 pounds **Twin Agent Unit
(TAU)
N/A
2 14,001 to 200,000
pounds
2,000 1,000
3 200,001 to 500,000
pounds
4,000 1,500
4 500,001 to 590,000
pounds
7,000 2,500
5 590,001 to 760,000
pounds
9,000 2,500
6 Above 760,001 pounds 12,000 2,500
Note
A minimum requirement for gross weight categories 2 and 3 above shall consist of a minimum of two major
ARFF vehicles and category 4, 5 and 6 shall consist of a minimum of three major ARFF vehicles.
* GPM delivery rate based on firefighting and rescue truck on board water/AFFF supply delivered by
NOTE
If major ARFF vehicles are out of service for a period of more than 96 hours such that the
activity is prevented from providing the minimum response requirements, the activity shall
notify the regional and Commander, Navy Installations Command (CNIC) fire and emergency
146

services office, and the product line management office (PLMO) via the appropriate chain of
command. Temporary use of structural response vehicles with aqueous film forming
foam (AFFF) capability may be used to meet minimum airfield fire flow requirements under this
condition, and the commanding officer concerned should curtail or reduce flight operations.
Marine Corps activities shall notify Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps (HQMC) (APX-34A) via
the appropriate chain of command. This requirement does not apply to Outlying Fields (OLFs)
where a TAU is the only assigned vehicle

Permissible Level of Protection When 7230 Vehicles Are Out of Service
In emergency cases where the 7230 vehicles are placed out of service for maintenance/repair, the
minimum acceptable ARFF vehicle response at category 4 activities shall be five P-19 vehicles.
This provides a minimum capacity of 5,000 gallons of water and a minimum agent delivery rate
of 2,500 gpm for category 4 aircraft.

consist of major ARFF vehicles and a Mobile Water Supply vehicle with a minimum combined
capacity of 7,000 gallons of water and a delivery rate of 2,500 gpm. Delivery rate may be based
147

on bot Category 4 aircraft emergencies require all assigned manned crash equipment to respond.
Selective P26 vehicle response to aircraft emergencies that are not category 4 aircraft should be
determined by the ARFF officer. h roof and bumper turrets.
NOTE
This reduced capability constitutes an acceptable risk for an interim period while priority efforts
are undertaken to return the 7230 vehicle to service. If 7230 vehicles are out of service for a
period of more than 96 hours, the commanding officer should consider reducing flight operations
for category 4 aircraf
Requests
Navy requests for airfield category changes shall be initiated and fully justified at the installation
command level. These change requests shall be forwarded to the regional fire chief for
coordination before sending to Commander, Navy Installations Command (CNIC) fire and
emergency services Office for technical review and approval. CNIC will forward the appropriate
changes to PMA-251 for update.
Marine Corps activity requests shall be fully justified and forwarded to the Commandant,
headquarters Marine Corps (Code APX-34A) via the appropriate chain of command.
Requests for airfield category changes shall include the following information:
pported

ion

Additional pertinent factors to support category upgrade/downgrade should be addressed.
Major Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Vehicles
148

For purposes of this chapter, a major aircraft firefighting vehicle is defined as: a firefighting
vehicle designed and manufactured specifically for aircraft firefighting that has a water tank
(with minimum capacity of 1,000 gallons), a foam concentrate tank, a foam proportioning
system, a vehicle mounted turret assembly, and a pre-connected hand line. The type and quantity
of aircraft firefighting and rescue vehicles assigned will vary with the operational status of the air
activities. The minimum response is predicated on the gross weight of the aircraft
assigned/supported at the activity. Additional equipment over and above the minimum response
should be provided to allow for repair and maintenance or for exceptionally hazardous or intense
flight operations. For a full list of specifications refer to National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) 414.
Support Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Vehicles

Support aircraft firefighting and rescue vehicles include the following (when authorized):

Auxiliary Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting Vehicles
Small lightweight vehicles, multi-drive type, equipped with assorted power and hand-operated
forcible entry tools and field lighting equipment. A high mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle
(HMMWV) series of vehicle should be used as the auxiliary vehicle loaded with rescue
equipment, and serve as the rescue vehicle. A vehicle-mounted (Code 7102) TAU with the above
equipment meets this requirement for all non-fleet Marine force (FMF) fire departments.
Mobile Water Supply Vehicle
Mobile water supply vehicles are used to resupply primary firefighting and rescue vehicles
(major or combined agent vehicles) with liquid agents for extended periods of operation.
Mobile water supply vehicles should be used for water resupply of major ARFF vehicles:

149

due to travel time and distance (by major ARFF vehicles) from water source to incident site.

Ambulance
An ambulance is a properly equipped vehicle for casualty transport in accordance with current
directives.

U.S. Navy Airfield Salvage Crane Requirements

U.S. Navy shore-based installations should consider using facilities engineering command (FEC)
cranes or contracting out the crash cranes capability, if required, when an on-site crash crane is
not available. Installations shall identify a process for the FEC crane (or memorandum of
understanding (MOU) for contract crane) to ensure the crane shall arrive at the crash site within a
specific time after being requested.
Salvage Crane/Support Equipment Requirements
The requirement for heavy lift crane support to clear runways and/or assist in salvage operations
shall be coordinated by the ARFF organization. Installations should consider using facilities
maintenance department cranes or contracting out the crane capability, if required, when an on-
150

site heavy lift crane is not available. Installations shall identify a process for coordinating the
facilities crane (or MOU for contract crane) to ensure the crane shall arrive at the crash site
within a specific time after being requested.
Personnel Requirements and Organization
Sufficient personnel shall be assigned to perform necessary fire, rescue, support, and
administrative functions. Physical conditioning, capability, and agility should be considered
when assigning personnel to fire and rescue duties.
-duty requirement for major aircraft firefighting and rescue vehicles necessary to
meet the minimum response for U.S. Navy activities (main airfields) is three personnel.
Minimum staffing for protecting CAT-1 airfield are two personnel. U.S. Marine Corps activity
minimum on-duty requirement is four personnel. The fire chief/fire emergency officer may direct
the response of additional vehicles, if available, and distribute on-duty personnel among the
responding vehicles to achieve maximum effectiveness.

When authorized by CNIC, Navy ARFF vehicles (major units or TAUs) may be cross-staffed
from structural or EMS apparatus, when assigned to the same station. NAVAIR PMA 251 will
be notified as cross staffing is approved.
ry landing field (ALF) locations, the minimum on-duty fire and
emergency service (F&ES) staffing requirements are: for CAT-1 OLF/ALF locations/operations,
minimum (total) on-duty staffing is two firefighters; for CAT-2 OLF/ALF locations/operations
(without structural mission), minimum (total) on-duty staffing is three firefighters; for CAT-2
OLF/ALF locations/operations (with structural mission), minimum (total) on-duty staffing is six
firefighters. The fire chief/fire emergency officer may direct the response of additional vehicles
and personnel, if available, and distribute on-duty personnel among the responding vehicles to
achieve maximum effectiveness.

o Rescue vehicle - 2 persons
o Mobile water supply- 2 persons
o Fire suppression system (FSS) - 2 persons

151

The type commander may increase the minimum manning as appropriate for each firefighting
and rescue vehicle if the primary mission of the aviation facility involves extra-hazardous flight
operations.

o Aircraft maintenance personnel
o Public works transportation division
o Locally designated crane operators
o Security personnel
o Photographic personnel
o Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) personnel
o Medical personnel

o Mishap board members (aviation safety officer)
o Such other personnel as the commanding officer may designate

If additional duties are required, additional personnel shall be assigned.
of seven crash, fire, and rescue personnel to support flight line fire protection when aircraft are
present at that activity; however, local conditions may dictate an increase in these minimum
manning criteria. During closed field operations, ARFF should maintain at least the minimum
personnel required to man the assigned category of airfield.

Extra-Hazardous Flight Operations
Extra-hazardous flight operations are those which by reason of training, intensity, or number of
aircraft involved increase the potential for an aircraft mishap. Examples of extra-hazardous flight
operations are: any portion of the progressive phases of flight training where instructors are not
immediately available to the student; field carrier landings; combined squadron or air wing
operations; aircraft with hospital litter cases aboard; extremely hazardous cargo flights; aircraft
involved in research, development, test, and evaluation; and remotely controlled aircraft flight
operations. Determination of whether an activity is conducting extra-hazardous flight operations
152

is the responsibility of the commanding officer or officer in charge. Station commanding
officers, operation officers, flight test directors, commanding officers of tenant commands, and
fire chiefs should maintain close coordination in order that the ARFF organization can properly
prepare for such operations. Such preparations may include, but are not limited to, stationing a
major ARFF vehicle at the site of the extra-hazardous operations in order to respond to an
unannounced emergency within 1 minute.
Alert Requirements
Immediate Response Alert (IRA)
The purpose of the IRA is to provide immediate response to observed, unanticipated emergencies
and to control such fires until the standby alert can effect rescue and fire extinguishment. This
alert shall be strategically located on the airfield in order to observe all takeoffs and landings and
to respond immediately to an emergency. Immediate response alert shall consist of a major
ARFF vehicle manned to provide initial fire control capabilities or a TAU at CAT-1 main
airfields. The immediate response alert position is required for those activities with an assigned
airfield category. IRA is not required at shore-based fire departments where the DOD ARFF
aggregate response time requirements are met from the airfield fire station, in accordance with
DODI 6055.06. IRA is required for airfields when ARFF travel time cannot be met from the
airfield fire station. When IRA is not required at shore installations, the installation commanding
officer (ICO) may direct IRA to be manned and equipped based on local risk assessment.
The minimum required staffing for all types of major aircraft firefighting vehicles performing
immediate response alert is two firefighters with the exception of ARFF vehicles that require
additional personnel to operate.
NOTE
ediate response alert is manned at the above level, the additional crewman
assigned shall respond with the standby alert.
-based installation fire departments, when the Navy fire vehicle with bumper
mounted nozzle is used, two persons may be utilized as the immediate response alert crew for
CAT-1 airfields. The commanding officer of the air facility may increase the manning of
immediate response alert to the minimum onboard manning. No one person shall perform IRA
duty for more than a total of 8 hours in any one 24-hour period.
NOTE
153

Any facility defined above, conducting medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) and/or hazardous
operations as determined by the activity fire chief/ARFF officer shall revert to standby protection
as outlined in Table 8-2.
Standby Alert
At all times during flight operations, a standby alert shall be maintained. Such an alert shall
consist of the remaining complement of manned major aircraft firefighting and rescue vehicles to
meet minimum response requirements of the airfield category. This alert shall be maintained to
permit arrival at midpoint of the farthest runway supported within 5 minutes aggregate response
time. Upon notification of an anticipated or impending emergency landing, the standby alert
shall assume the condition of readiness of immediate response alert at predetermined strategic
positions on the airfield, so that a major ARFF unit can arrive to any point on the runway within
1 minute travel time.

Aggregate Response Time (ART)
Total of dispatch time, turnout time, and travel time (defined below). The time elapsed from the
receipt of the emergency alarm to when the units arrive on the scene.
the point of receipt of the emergency alarm at the public safety answering
point to the point where sufficient information is known to the dispatcher and applicable units
are notified of the emergency.
the time beginning when units are notified of the emergency to the beginning
point of travel time.
the time that begins when units are en route to the emergency incident and ends
when units arrive at the scene.

Backup Standby Alert (Other Than OLF/ALF)
During flight operations, a backup standby alert consisting of other medical/ambulance
personnel, EOD personnel, security personnel, and the structural fire companies shall be
maintained in a condition of readiness that will permit prompt response from normal working
areas to a standby alert position. Upon notification of an emergency, these forces will assume the
condition of readiness of the standby alert and await instructions from the senior fire officer at
154

the scene of the emergency. Firefighter/emergency medical technician (EMT) personnel assigned
to the backup standby alert vehicles fulfill the requirement for medical personnel.
Heliport Fire Protection
The following paragraphs set the minimum crash, fire, and rescue requirements at heliports not
assigned an airfield category:
A defined area, at either ground level or elevated on a structure, designed for the
routine basing and operation of vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft.
A VTOL facility that provides a designated landing area for routine use, but does
not provide basing facilities such as fueling or maintenance.

Any area that can accommodate the landing and takeoff of a VTOL
aircraft but is not specifically designed for routine use.
155

NOTE
of the U.S. Navy Aircraft Firefighting and Rescue Manual, NAVAIR 00-80R-14.
landing area and shall meet the flow requirements outlined in Table 8-2. These requirements may
be met with structural fire apparatus.

Fire Protection Requirements
Helistops are facilities used only for landings and takeoffs and, therefore, are not required to
have manned crash, fire, and rescue equipment assigned on a permanent or temporary basis.
Each such facility should have a wheeled flight line fire extinguisher available for fire protection
for routine operations.
The decision to man the flight line wheeled fire extinguisher with a qualified military or civilian
firefighter on an as required basis rests with the commanding officer/officer in charge of the
facility operating the heliport.
The ARFF response requirements for heliports are described in Table 8-2.
Heliport ARFF aggregate response times shall be in accordance with DODI 6055.06 ARFF
travel times.
Table 8-2 Minimum Response
Requirements for Heliports Not Assigned an
Airfield Category Gross weight classes
Required water AFFF supply/application
rate in (gallons/gpm)
Small
UH-1
AH-1
TH-57
150/60
Medium
H-3
H-46
H-60
AV-8
500/250
156

Large
H-53
F-35
V-22
750/500
SHIP FIRE FIGHTING

Fire is a phenomenon with which everyone is familiar. We use it daily to heat our homes and
cook our meals. When harnessed, the power and energy from fire serves us well; however, when
it is uncontrolled, a fire can quickly consume and destroy whatever lies in its path. While we are
all familiar with fire, few of us are aware of its nature and complex processes. This Section
examines the phenomena and various mechanisms at work within a fire and is intended to
provide a better understanding of the requirements in fire-fighting scenarios.
Scope
The scope of this document is limited to the review of ABS requirements considered during the
technical plan review of active fire-fighting systems onboard ABS-classed vessels. Passive fire
protection arrangements, such as structural fire protection, as well as fire detection systems, are
outside the scope of this document. Fire-fighting systems of offshore facilities and installations
are also outside the scope of this document.
The review of fire-fighting systems for the International Maritime Organizations (IMOs)
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) requirements is also not within
the scope of this document. However, in many cases, the ABS Rules for fire-fighting systems
either incorporate or directly reference IMO SOLAS fire-fighting system requirements.
157

Accordingly, within the discussions of the ABS requirements for various fire-fighting systems,
related interpretations of the associated SOLAS requirements, as developed by the
International Association of Classification Societies (IACS), are identified. These IACS
interpretations are called Unified Interpretations (UI). As an IACS member, ABS is obligated to
apply these UIs as appropriate interpretations of the SOLAS requirements, unless directed
otherwise by the Flag Administration. Interpretations provided in the UIs should be considered
when conducting technical plan reviews.
General Principles of the Fire Main System
The fire main is a system consisting of sea inlet(s), suction piping, fire pumps and a distributed
piping system supplying fire hydrants, hoses and nozzles located throughout the vessel. Its
purpose is to provide a readily available source of water to any point throughout the vessel which
can be used to combat a fire and is considered the backbone of the fire fighting systems onboard
a vessel. Through the fire main system, the firefighter is provided with a reliable and versatile
system capable of providing a number of different methods with which to engage a fire. Water
can be supplied as a straight stream for combating deep seated fires, as a spray for combating
combustible liquid fires where cooling and minimum agitation is desired or as a means to protect
personnel where cooling is the primary effect desired
.
2 Extinguishing Capabilities of Water
Water primarily extinguishes a fire by the removal of heat (see 1/5.3). It absorbs heat more
effectively than any other commonly used extinguishing agent due to its good thermal
conductivity and its high latent heat of vaporization. It is most effective when it absorbs enough
heat to raise its temperature to 100C (212F). At that temperature, water absorbs additional heat
as it goes through the transition from a liquid to a vapor (i.e., steam).
In the process of heating the water from normal temperatures, up through its conversion into
steam, water absorbs approximately 2.6 kilo-joules of heat per gram (1117 BTU/lb) of water,
which is a much higher heat absorption value than any other agent. This absorption of heat
reduces the temperature of the burning vapors and also reduces the amount of vapor being
generated by the cooling of the fuel surface. With adequate cooling, there is insufficient heat to
maintain the self-supporting combustion process and the fire goes out.
158

Water also has an important secondary effect. When it turns to steam, it expands about 1600
times in volume at atmospheric pressure. As a result, one cubic meter (cubic foot) of water can
generate up to 1600 cubic meters (cubic feet) of steam vapor. This great cloud of steam
surrounds the fire, displacing the air that supplies oxygen for the combustion process. Thus,
water provides a smothering action as well as cooling.

3 Moving Water to the Fire
The purpose of the fire main system is simply to move the water to the locations needed at
sufficient capacity and pressure so that it can be used as an effective extinguishing medium. At
sea, the supply of water is limitless. However, moving the water is another matter. The amount
of water that can be moved to a shipboard fire depends on the number and capacity of the fire
pumps installed and the design of the fire main piping system. Even when water is available in
huge quantities, it still must be used economically and wisely. If it is not, its weight can affect
the equilibrium of the vessel. This is especially true if large amounts of water are introduced into,
and remain at, high points in the vessel. The weight of the water raises the center of gravity of
the vessel and can impair the vessels stability.
Even water that is not confined, but can run to lower portions of the vessel, may affect the
buoyancy of the vessel. Vessels have capsized and sunk because excessive amounts of water
were used during fire-fighting efforts. Each 1 m3 (35 ft3) of water weighs approximately one
tonne (0.98 ton).
Aboard a vessel, water is moved to a fire in two ways:
i) Via the fire main system, through hose lines that are manipulated by the vessels personnel
ii) Through piping systems that supply fixed manual or automatic sprinkler or spray systems

159

Both are reliable methods for bringing water to bear on a fire, provided the pumps, piping and all
components of the system are properly designed and maintained. The first method of
distribution, the fire main system, is discussed in this Section. Water sprinkler and water spray
systems will be discussed in Section 5.
The fire main system is a vital part of the various fire-fighting systems installed onboard vessels.
Since the hose and the nozzle complete the job of moving the water to the fire, it is equally
important to understand the effects of the various operations of a hose line and the nozzles.

Straight Streams
The straight stream, sometimes called the solid stream, is a valuable form of water for fire-
fighting. The straight stream is formed by a nozzle that is specially designed for that purpose.
The nozzle from which the water is thrown is tapered to increase both the velocity of the water at
the discharge and the reach.
Efficiency of Straight Streams
The distance that a straight stream travels before breaking up or dropping is called its reach.
Reach is important when it is difficult to approach close to a fire. Actually, despite its name, a
straight stream is not really straight. Like any projectile, it has two forces acting upon it. The
velocity imparted by the nozzle gives it reach, either horizontally or at an upward angle,
depending on how the nozzleman aims the nozzle. The other force, gravity, tends to pull the
stream down where it encounters the deck. Accordingly, the stream is an arch. The maximum
horizontal reach is then attained with the nozzle held at an upward angle of 35 to 40 degrees
from the deck. Section 3, Tables 1 and 2 provide information about the throw capability of
individual nozzle sizes at various pressures/directions.
Probably less than 10% of the water from a straight stream actually absorbs heat from the fire.
This is because only a small portion of the water surface actually comes in contact with the fire,
and only water that contacts the fire can absorb heat. The rest runs off, sometimes over the side;
but more often the runoff becomes free-surface water and is a problem for the vessel.
Using Straight Streams
A straight stream should be directed into the seat of the fire. This is important since for
maximum cooling, the water must contact the material that is actually burning. A solid stream
160

that is aimed at the flames is ineffective. In fact, the main use of solid streams is to break up the
burning material and penetrate to the seat of a Class A fire.
It is often difficult to hit the seat of a fire, even with the reach of a solid stream. Aboard a vessel,
bulkheads with small openings can keep firefighters from getting into proper position to aim the
stream into the fire. In some instances, there may be an obstruction between the fire and the
nozzleman. In these cases, frequently the stream can be bounced off a bulkhead or the overhead
to get around the obstacle. This method can also be used to break a solid stream into a spray-type
stream, which will absorb more heat. It is useful in cooling an extremely hot passageway that is
keeping firefighters from advancing toward the fire.
The following are the basic characteristics of a straight stream:
Can be aimed accurately
Has good reach
Must hit seat of fire to cool effectively
Run-off of water may be excessive
Generates very little steam
Fog Streams
The fog (or spray) nozzle breaks the water stream into small droplets. These droplets have a
much larger total surface area than a solid stream. Thus, a given volume of water in fog form will
absorb much more heat than the same volume of water in a straight stream due to the larger
exposed surface area.
The greater heat absorption of fog streams is important. Less water needs to be applied to
remove the same amount of heat from a fire. In addition, more of the fog stream turns into steam
when it hits the fire. Consequently, there is less runoff, less free-surface water and less of a
stability problem for the vessel. The cloud of steam surrounding the fire displaces the air that
supplies oxygen for the combustion process. Thus, the fog stream helps to provide a smothering
action as well as cooling.
The following are the basic characteristics of a fog stream:
Difficult to aim
Limited reach
Excellent cooling abilities
161

Generates steam
Has small amount of run-off
Pushes smoke and fire
Does not have to hit seat of fire to be effective

There are basically two different types of fog steams that are used onboard a vessel: the high
velocity fog stream and the low velocity fog stream. Both can be used very effectively in
combating a fire but serve different functions, as discussed below.
High-velocity Fog Streams
High velocity fog streams are created by a specially designed hose nozzle. In addition to the
direct cooling of the flame, the high velocity fog stream can be used effectively to reduce heat in
compartments, cabins and cargo spaces. High velocity fog streams can also he used to move air
in passageways and to drive heat and smoke away from advancing firefighters.
Low-velocity Fog Streams
Low velocity fog is obtained by using a special applicator along with a combination nozzle.
Applicators are tubes or pipes that are angled at 60 or 90 at the water outlet end. They are
stowed for use with the low velocity head already in place on the pipe. Some heads are shaped
somewhat like a pineapple, with tiny holes angled to cause minute streams to bounce off one
another and create a mist. Some heads resemble a cage with a fluted arrow inside. The point of
the arrow faces the opening in the applicator tubing. Water strikes the fluted arrow and then
bounces in all directions, creating a fine mist.
Low velocity fog is effective in combating Class B fires in spaces where entry is difficult or
impossible. Applicators can be poked into areas that cannot be reached with other types of
nozzles. They are also used to provide a heat shield for firefighters advancing with foam or high-
velocity fog. Low-velocity fog can be used to extinguish small tank fires, especially where the
mist from the applicator can cover the entire surface of the tank. However, other extinguishing
agents, such as foam and carbon dioxide, are usually more effective.
SOLAS (2000 Amendments) Footnote to II-2/10.5.5 concerning water fog applicators
A water fog applicator might consist of a metal L-shaped pipe, the long limb being about 2 m in
length capable of being fitted to a fire hose and the short limb being about 250 mm in length,
fitted with a fixed water fog nozzle or capable of being fitted with a water spray nozzle.
162

Limitations of Fog Streams
Fog streams do not have the accuracy or reach of straight streams. While they can be effectively
used on the surface of a deep-seated fire, they are not as effective as solid streams in breaking
through and reaching the heart of the fire.
Combination Nozzle Operation
The combination or dual purpose nozzle typically has a handle which is perpendicular to the
plane of the nozzle and will produce either a straight stream or high velocity fog, depending on
the position of its handle. Combination nozzles are available for use with 3.8 cm (11/2") and 6.4
cm (21/2") hoses. Reducers can be used to attach a 3.8 cm (11/2") nozzle to a 6.4 cm (21/2")
hose. A straight stream is obtained by pulling the handle all the way back to the operator. A fog
stream is obtained by pulling the handle back half way. The nozzle is shut down, from any open
position by pushing the handle forward as far as it will go.
In addition, combination nozzles typically have the means to attach a low velocity applicator.
Conclusion
Straight stream and fog streams can be very effective against Class A fires as they have the
ability to penetrate the fire and cool the fuel surface. Fog streams can be used on Class A fires
to cool the flame and surrounding environment, but can also be effectively against Class B
fires.
163

4 ABS Requirements for Fire Main Systems
The following information is provided as general guidance on the ABS requirements for fire
main systems as required by the Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels (SVR) and Rules
for Building and Classing Steel Vessels Under 90 meters (295 feet) in Length [SVR(L<90m)].
However, reference should always be made to the Rules applicable to the specific vessel
concerned for the complete set of requirements.
Main Fire Pumps
Number Required
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.1, each vessel is to be provided with at least two main fire
pumps. For vessels 1000 gross tons and above, each main fire pump is to be independently
power-driven. The phrase independently power driven should be understood to require that the
driving power for each pump is not supplied from the vessels propulsion unit and also that the
driving mechanism for each pump is independent of the other pump(s) driving mechanisms.
Arrangements
Unless an emergency fire pump is provided, the locations, as well as the arrangements, for
access, power supplies, fuel supplies, sea suctions, suction and discharge piping and supporting
environmental services (lighting, ventilation, etc.) for the two main fire pumps must be arranged
so that a fire in a space containing any one of the main fire pumps will not render both pumps
inoperable, as specified in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.4. The following identifies the minimum requirements
for access arrangements; separation and services supplying the two main fire pumps, as specified
in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.4.
(a) General Arrangement and Common Boundaries.
The pumps are to be in separate rooms, completely isolated and independent from one another.
It is usually necessary to confirm the arrangements to identify common entrances, passages and
structural isolation of common boundaries. Only one common boundary is permitted between the
spaces containing the two main fire pumps and this single common boundary must be a class A-
0 boundary or higher, as specified in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.4. Multiple common boundaries are not
permitted.
(b) Access.
No direct access should be permitted between the spaces unless this is determined to be
impracticable. Where so determined to be impracticable, SVR 4-7-3/1.5.4 indicates that a
164

direct access may be considered. However, arrangements must comply with one of the
arrangements specified in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3vii), which are outlined in the following:
i) An arrangement where the access is by means of an airlock. One of the doors of the machinery
spaces is to be of A-60 class standard and the other is to be of steel, both reasonably gastight,
self-closing and without any hold-back arrangements, or
ii) An access through a watertight door. This door is to be capable of being operated from a
space remote from the machinery space of category A and the spaces containing the fire
pumps. The remote control must also be located at a point that is unlikely to be cut off in the
event of fire in those spaces and for unattended propulsion machinery space operation, the door
is to be remotely operable from the fire-fighting station (see SVR 4-9-6/21.3). As the door is a
watertight door, controls from either side of the bulkhead are also required, in accordance with
SVR 3-2-9/9.1.
iii) Where direct access is provided in accordance with the arrangements specified in i) or ii)
above, a second means of access must be provided to the spaces containing the main fire pumps.
The second means of access to each space must be totally independent of the space containing
the other fire pump.
4.1.2(c) Power Supplies. Power supplies for the two main fire pumps must be totally
independent. If electrical, the review needs to confirm that the power is supplied from different
sources (typically, one must be from the emergency generator), with the feeder cables being
separated in all ways as far as practicable. Routing of the electric supply cable through the space
containing the other fire pump or through high fire risk areas (category A machinery spaces)
would not be acceptable. If diesel-driven, then arrangements for starting, fuel supply, air and
exhaust piping, etc., are to be completely independent. Similarly, hydraulically-driven pumps are
to have independent power units and controls without interconnections.
165

(d) Water Supply. The sea chest, suction piping and discharge piping arrangements to the fire
main, as well as the pump and valve controls, must be arranged so as to be totally independent
from the other pump and are not to be located in or enter into the space containing the other
pump, in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.4.
The sea chest and suction pipe for one of the main fire pumps (or the emergency fire pump),
which is located outside of the machinery space, may be located in the machinery space provided
the conditions outlined in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3vi) are satisfied.
It should be noted that if the suction or discharge piping is permitted to be within a category A
machinery space, the piping is to be all welded except for flange connections to the sea inlet
valve.
(e) Environmental Systems.
The arrangements of environmental systems (e.g., lighting, ventilation, etc.) are to be
completely independent for both pump locations. If the information available on hand is not
sufficient to verify these arrangements, a comment should be made relative to the drawing and
the installation verified by the attending Surveyor. Pump Type, Relief, etc.
(a) Suitability.
It is important to know certain details regarding the pumps (NPSH requirements, discharge
characteristics, type of pump, etc.) being proposed for installation in order to verify the pumps
suitability for fire main service. Part of determining the suitability of the pumps involves the
recognition that fire pumps must operate over a wide range of flow rates, from minimal a flow
rate while supplying a single nozzle to full flow. With this wide range of operating flow rates,
the resulting pressures developed by the pump must stay within an appropriate and safe range.
Some pumps may be capable of providing the high flow rate at the minimum required pressure,
but may develop excessive pressures when delivering only the flow for a single nozzle. Such
excessive pressures can make handling the hose very difficult, and can actually present a danger
if the pressure is too high and the hose gets loose. This issue is specifically addressed in SVR 4-
7-3/1.7.3, which indicates that the maximum pressure at any hydrant is not to exceed that at
which effective control of a fire hose can be demonstrated. The pump characteristics play an
important part in establishing compliance with this requirement.
Other pumps may be able to provide suitable pressures at minimum flow rates but be unable to
maintain the required pressures specified in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 when delivering at the required full
166

capacity flow rates. As a result of the need to supply a wide capacity range over a relatively
narrow pressure band, centrifugal pumps with flat or very shallow head/capacity curves are
usually proposed. Such pumps are capable of supplying minimal flow rates (i.e., approaching
shut-off head) without creating excessive and dangerous pressures, yet are also capable of
providing large flow rates while maintaining the required pressures at the most remote nozzles.
Appropriate details verifying the suitability of the pumps should be requested and verified.
(b) Relief Valves. In addition to the concern associated with the possibility of danger in having
excessive pressure for hose handling, many pumps are also capable of exceeding the maximum
working pressures of the piping system components at shut-off pressures. Accordingly, SVR 4-7-
3/1.5.6 requires relief valves to be provided in conjunction with all fire pumps if the pumps are
capable of developing a pressure exceeding the design pressure of the water service pipes,
hydrants and hoses. These relief valves are to be so placed and adjusted as to prevent excessive
pressure in any part of the fire main system.
(c) ABS Certification. In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.1 and item 4 of SVR 4-1-1/Table 6,
fire pumps are to be provided with ABS certificates. The certificates must be available for
presentation to the attending Surveyor.
(d) Multiple Service Applications.
As noted in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.2, the pumps are not required to be dedicated for fire services only.
They may be utilized for other purposes and designated accordingly (e.g., fire and ballast, fire
and bilge, general service pump, etc.). However, at least one pump is to be available for fire use
at all times. In addition, fire pumps should not be connected to systems normally used for
transfer of oil. The Rules do permit occasional, short-term oil duties for the pump. However, if
so designated, there must be suitable positive changeover arrangements (e.g., elbow and blank
flange) and a notice to assure the pumps connection to fire main after such use.
167

Because of pumps designation and use for other than fire services and the need for ready
capability of the fire water supply, the pumps should have simple and reliable means to switch
them to fire services. The most common arrangement is to manifold valves at the pumps. In
addition, there may be certain arrangements where the fire pumps also serve other fire-fighting
services (e.g., sprinkler system, etc.) which must be immediately available. In such cases,
isolation arrangements, such as swing elbows and blank flanges, would not be suitable.
Main Fire Pump Capacities
(a) Total Pump Capacity
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.3.1, the combined output of the main fire pumps is to be
sufficient to deliver for fire-fighting purposes a quantity of water not less than four-thirds of the
quantity required to be handled by each independent bilge pump as calculated in accordance with
SVR 4-6-4/5.3.2. However, the total required capacity of the fire pumps need not exceed 180
m3/hr (792 gpm), insofar as classification requirements are concerned. In order to verify this
requirement, the required independent bilge pump capacity must be established. Then the
combined capacity of the fire pumps, while delivering at the pressure necessary to meet the
requirements of SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 at the most remote hydrants (i.e., pressure drops associated
with flowing through the main must be considered), must not be less than four-thirds of that
value.
(b) Individual Pump Capacity. In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.3.2, each of the main fire
pumps is required to have a capacity of not less than the greater of:
i) 80% of the total required capacity divided by the number of required fire pumps,
ii) 25 m3/hr (110 gpm), or
iii) The capacity required to deliver at least the two jets of water.
SVR 4-7-3/1.3.2 indicates that these fire pumps are to be capable of supplying the fire main
system under the required conditions, which should be understood to be those pressures specified
in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2.
SVR 4-7-3/1.3.2 actually identifies two interrelated requirements: flow rate at a required
pressure. Therefore, when evaluating the individual fire pump capacity, the review should
establish that each fire pump is capable of delivering the largest of the above required flow rates
through the most hydraulically remote hydrants while maintaining the pressures specified in
168

SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 at the nozzles. In the case of the third requirement, the largest size nozzles to be
used should be taken into considered.
In a few instances more than two pumps might be designated for fire services. The Rules leave
this situation to special consideration. For example, provision of two smaller capacity pumps
arranged together to make up the capacity of one of the required pumps will satisfy the intent of
the Rules, provided they are arranged with common suction/discharge valves, power supply,
start/stop controls, etc., and are interconnected in such a way as to perform the functions of the
required pump.
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.3.2, each pump for fire extinguishing which is installed in
addition to the required number of pumps should have a capacity of at least 25 m3/h (110 gpm)
and should be capable of delivering at least the two jets of water required in SVR 4-7-3/1.9.
Ready Availability of Water Supply
It should be noted that SVR 4-7-3/1.5.5 requires that cargo vessels be provided with the means to
ensure the ready availability of water supply for spaces intended for centralized or unattended
operation.

Connections to Fire Main from Another Engine Room Pump
The Rules also require that in addition to the main and emergency fire pumps, on a cargo vessel
where other pumps (such as general service, bilge and ballast, etc.) are fitted in a machinery
space, arrangements are to be made to ensure that at least one of these pumps, having the
capacity and pressure required by SVR 4-7-3/1.3.2 and 4-7-3/1.7.2, is capable of providing water
to the fire main.
169

Emergency Fire Pump
If the arrangements for the two main fire pumps are such that a fire in one space can put both
main fire pumps out of service, an emergency fire pump is required to be provided, as per SVR
4-7-3/1.5.3. The emergency fire pump is required to be a fixed independently-driven pump and
the requirements for the pump and its location are identified in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3. These
requirements are summarized below:
Arrangement (Independent Systems)
As per SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3, the emergency fire pump system, including the power source, fuel oil
supply, electric cables, etc., as well as the lighting and ventilation for the emergency fire pump
space are to be independent of the main fire pumps, so that a fire in any one compartment will
not render both the main and emergency fire pumps inoperable. These items are to be verified
during plan review whenever possible.
If the fire pump is electrically-driven, the power is to be supplied from the emergency generator
and the feeder cable routed outside of high fire risk areas (category A machinery spaces). In
addition, the electrical power and control cables for the emergency fire pump and valves are to
also be widely separated from any electrical and control cables associated with the main fire
pumps.
Capacity
In association with the requirements specified in the initial paragraph of SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3, as well
as SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3i), the capacity of the pump is not to be less than 40% of the total capacity of
the fire pumps required per SVR 4-7-3/1.3.1, and in any case, not less than the following:
i) For cargo vessels of 2000 gross tonnage and upward: 25 m3/h (110 gpm), and
ii) For cargo vessels less than 2000 gross tonnage: 15 m3/h (66 gpm).
Where applicable, the emergency fire pump is also to be capable of simultaneously supplying the
amount of water needed for any fixed fire-extinguishing system protecting the space containing
the main fire pump.
The emergency fire pump must also be suitable for the service and be provided with adequate
protection against overpressurization (see 3/4.1.3).
Pressure
Per SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3ii), when the pump is delivering the quantity of water discussed above, the
pressure at any hydrant is to be not less than the minimum pressures given in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2.
170

Verification of compliance with this requirement must be based upon considering the worst-case
situation. See 3/4.1.4(b) of these Guidance Notes for a discussion regarding verification of the
combined pressure/capacity requirement.
Starting Arrangements
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3iii), any diesel-driven power source for the pump is to be
capable of being readily started in its cold condition down to a temperature of 0C (32F) by
hand (manual) cranking. If this is impracticable, or if lower temperatures are likely to be
encountered, heating arrangements are to be provided so that ready starting will be assured. If
hand (manual) starting is impracticable, other means of starting may be considered. These means
are to be such as to enable the diesel-driven power source to be started at least six (6) times
within a period of 30 minutes and at least twice within the first 10 minutes. Diesel engines
exceeding 15 kW (20 hp) are to be equipped with an approved auxiliary starting device (e.g.,
starting battery, independent hydraulic starting system or independent starting air system).
Also, any internal-combustion engine driving an emergency fire pump is to be capable of being
readily started in its cold condition down to a temperature of 0C (32F). If this is impracticable,
or if lower temperatures are likely to be encountered, heating arrangements are to be provided for
ready starting of generator sets.
171

Fuel Supply In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3iv), any service fuel tank is to contain
sufficient fuel to enable the pump to run on full load for at least three hours and sufficient
reserves of fuel are to be available outside the main machinery space to enable the pump to be
run on full load for an additional 15 hours.
Suction The total suction head and net positive suction head of the pump are to be such that the
requirements of SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3i), 4-7-3/1.5.3ii) and 4-7-3/1.7.2 are obtained under all
conditions of list, trim, roll and pitch likely to be encountered in service, as per SVR 4-7-
3/1.5.3v). (This excludes the docking condition of the vessel.) In addition, the sea valve is to be
operable from a position near the pump.
Arrangement (Boundaries)
As per SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3vi), the space containing the emergency fire pump is not to be contiguous
to the boundaries of category A machinery spaces or those spaces containing main fire pumps.
Where this is not practicable, the common bulkhead between the two spaces is to be insulated to
a standard of structural fire protection equivalent to that required for a control station. The
common bulkhead is to be constructed to A-60 class standard and the insulation is to extend at
least 450 mm (18 in.) outside the area of the joint bulkheads and decks. The structural fire
protection arrangements of the compartment containing the emergency fire pump should also be
verified.
Supply and Delivery Piping
The emergency fire pump including seawater suction and delivery pipes is to be located outside
the compartment containing the main fire pumps. The sea chest with valve and main part of the
suction piping should be, in general, outside the machinery spaces containing the main fire
pumps. If this arrangement is impractical, the sea chest may be fitted in the machinery spaces
containing the main fire pump on the condition that the suction valve is remotely controlled from
a position near the pump in the same compartment and that the suction pipe is as short as
possible. Only short lengths of suction and discharge piping may penetrate the machinery spaces
if enclosed in a steel casing, as discussed in 3/4.1.2(d) of these Guidance Notes and in SVR 4-7-
3/1.5.3vi).
Access
Similar to the requirements discussed above for the access arrangements between the main fire
pumps, no direct access is to be permitted between the machinery space of category A and the
172

space containing the emergency fire pump and its source of power. This requirement assumes
that the main fire pumps will be located in a category A machinery space. Accordingly, in the
event that the main fire pumps are not located in a category A machinery space, it should be
noted that direct access between the space containing the emergency fire pump and the main fire
pump(s) also would be unacceptable. However, like the arrangements for main fire pumps,
where this is unavoidable, the Rules do permit the following arrangements to be considered, in
accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3vii):
i) Via Airlock. An arrangement where access is provided by means of an airlock may be
considered. For such an arrangement one of the doors of the machinery spaces is to be of A-60
class standard and the other is to be of steel, both reasonably gastight, self-closing and without
any hold back arrangements.
ii) Via Watertight Door. An access through a watertight door may also be considered. This door
is to be capable of being operated from a space remote from the machinery space of category A
and the space containing the emergency fire pump and is to be unlikely to be cut off in the event
of fire in those spaces.
iii) Via Second Means of Access. Where direct access is provided in accordance with the
arrangements specified in i) or ii) above, a second means of access must be provided to the
spaces containing the emergency fire pumps. The second means of access must be totally
independent of the space containing the main fire pumps.

173

Related ABS Interpretation/Instruction
Note: Where an emergency fire pump room (EFPR) is accessible from the steering-gear room
(SGR), and access to the SGR is from a machinery space of category A or a space containing the
main fire pumps, the arrangement will be acceptable based on the following conditions.
a) An ABS Technical Office is to be satisfied with the shipyards or designers technical
explanation that the EFPR arrangement described above is unavoidable (i.e., impracticable for
the EFPR to be located elsewhere).
b) The requirements of SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3vii) are to be satisfied.
c) A-60 insulation with 450 mm overlap is to be provided to contiguous boundaries between
EFPR and machinery spaces of category A or those spaces containing main fire pumps.
d) Where the second protected means of access required per SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3vii) is provided
from EFPR to directly outside of the SGR (i.e., via an escape trunk), then A-0 insulation is
acceptable between SGR and machinery spaces of category A or those spaces containing main
fire pumps. However, the protected escape trunk is to be at least A-60.
Where the second means of escape is provided from the EFPR to SGR and then from SGR to
outside of SGR, the above A-0 insulation is to be replaced by A-60 insulation.
e) EFPR ventilation may be common with SGR, provided SGR ventilation is completely separate
and independent from the ventilation for the machinery spaces of category A or those spaces
containing main fire pumps.
Related IACS Unified Interpretation
UI SC 114 re. SOLAS Chapter II-2, Regulation 4.3.3.2.9, (SOLAS 2000 II-2/10.2.2.3.2.1)
When a single access to the emergency fire pump room is through another space adjoining a
machinery space of category A or the spaces containing the main fire pumps, class A-60
boundary is required between that other space and the machinery space of category A or the
spaces containing the main fire pumps.
Ventilation
Ventilation arrangements to the space containing the independent source of power for the
emergency fire pump are to be such as to preclude, as far as practicable, the possibility of smoke
from a machinery space fire entering or being drawn into that space. The space is to be well
ventilated and power for mechanical ventilation is to be supplied from the emergency source of
174

power, in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3viii). This should be verified by plan review or the
attending Surveyor requested to verify the compliance.
Priming
SVR 4-7-3/1.5.3i) requires that the emergency fire pump is to be of the self-priming type and the
same should be confirmed at the plan review.
ABS Certification
The requirement for ABS certification of fire pumps, as discussed in 3/4.1.3(c) is also applicable
to emergency fire pumps.
Fire Main Sizing and System Pressures
The ability of the fire main system to provide adequate quantities of water through a sufficient
number of fire hoses at the necessary pressures is critical to the effectiveness and usefulness of
system. Accordingly, SVR 4-7-3/1.7.1 and 4-7-3/1.7.2 specify the following:
Quote:

Fire main diameter
The diameter of the fire main and water service pipes is to be sufficient for the effective
distribution of the maximum required discharge from two fire pumps operating simultaneously.
However, the diameter need only be sufficient for the discharge of 140 m3/hour (616 gpm).
175

Fire main pressure
With the two pumps simultaneously delivering through nozzles specified in 4-7-3/1.15, the
quantity of water specified in 4-7-3/1.7.1, through any adjacent hydrants, the following minimum
pressures are to be maintained at all hydrants:
i) vessels of 6,000 gross tonnage and upwards: 0.27 N/mm2 (40 psi)
ii) vessels of 1,000 gross tonnage and upwards, but under 6,000 gross tonnage: 0.25 N/mm2 (37
psi)
Unquote
In examining the requirements of SVR 4-7-3/1.7, there are a number of interrelated issues
involved with these requirements, including:
i) Total required flow rate for the fire main system
ii) Pressure drops associated with the fire main distribution system
iii) Particular hydrants being considered
iv) Sizes of the hose nozzles used
v) Performance characteristics of the pumps
Each of these issues impacts the ability of the system to perform as required, and the
interrelationship of these items needs to be well understood when evaluating the system.
4.3.1 Required Quantity of Water Discharged
The first item is the total required amount of water that the system must be capable of
discharging from the fire main. A certain amount of clarification is needed. First, the requirement
in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 references the quantity of water identified in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.1. Next, the
quantity of water identified in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.1 is the maximum required discharge from two
fire pumps operating simultaneously.
Defining the term maximum required discharge from two fire pumps operating simultaneously
should be considered as the greater of the following:
i) The total required capacity of the combined fire main pumps calculated in accordance with
SVR 4-7-3/1.3.1 [see 3/4.1.4(a) of these Guidance Notes to determine this amount]; or
ii) The combined capacities of the individual fire pumps where each individual fire pump
capacity is determined in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.3.2 [see 3/4.1.4(b) of these Guidance
Notes to determine this amount].
176

However, SVR 4-7-3/1.7.1 does place a limit on the capacity required by indicating that the
diameter of the fire main and distribution system need only be sufficient for the discharge of 140
m3/hour (616 gpm), similar to the provisions of SOLAS. Accordingly, the required amount of
water that the system must be capable of continuously discharging is the lesser of the maximum
required discharge from two fire pumps operating simultaneously or 140 m3/hour (616 gpm).
However, it should be noted that there are certain Flag Administrations that do not recognize the
upper limit specified in SOLAS.
Fire Main Diameter/Pressure Drop
In association with other items, the pressure drop within the fire main when discharging the
quantity of water discussed above is dependent upon the diameter, length, etc., of the fire main
distribution piping, size and length of the hoses, nozzle sizes and elevation of hydrants. The
requirements for the sizing of the fire main distribution piping are provided in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.1,
which specifies, The diameter of the fire main and water service pipes is to be sufficient for the
effective distribution of the maximum required discharge from two fire pumps operating
simultaneously. Accordingly, the fire main piping must be sized to effectively deliver the
maximum required discharge from two fire pumps operating simultaneously. does place a limit
on the capacity requirement by indicating that the diameter of the fire main and distribution
system need only be sufficient for a maximum discharge of 140 m3/hour (616 gpm).
177

Hydrants Involved
SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 indicates that the pressures stated therein must be maintained at all hydrants
when discharging the total quantity of water through adjacent hydrants. To ensure that the
minimum pressure will be available at all hydrants, the review must consider the worst case
scenario. This would be at that hydrant which is the most hydraulically remote from the pumps.
The most hydraulically remote hydrant is that hydrant in the system which would result in the
largest pressure drop for the system when discharging the total required flow rate through the
adjacent nozzles. In considering this requirement, one needs to recognize that the most
hydraulically remote hydrant may be the hydrant located the farthest distance from the pump.
However, it could also be the hydrant located highest on the superstructure or it may be a hydrant
located at the end of a poorly sized branch line. It is a function of the pressure drop (at the
required flow rate) in the piping to that hydrant which of course is a function of the distance,
height and sizing of the fire main system leading to that hydrant. During the review of the fire
main system, one should verify that with the total required quantity of water flowing through the
nozzles of hoses attached to adjacent hydrants, the minimum specified pressure is maintained at
all hydrants, including the most hydraulically remote hydrant.
Hose Nozzles
As indicated in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2, the quantity of water involved must be discharged through hose
nozzles that are sized in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.15. This is important to note, since the
size of the nozzles to be used will impact the pressure drop through the system. A larger nozzle
orifice will have a smaller pressure drop than a small nozzle when trying to flow the same
amount of water. This requirement is also important in establishing that the discharge of the
water through the adjacent hydrants must be through hoses which are attached to the hydrants
being used to discharge the required flow rate. Thus, any calculations must to take into account
resistance of fire hoses with attached nozzles.
Pump Performance
The heart of the system is clearly the fire pump. Accordingly, the performance characteristics of
the fire pumps at the required flow rates will be one of the major factors in the ability of the fire
main system to provide the required minimum pressures. At least basic details of the type of
pump and copies of the pump curves are necessary to verify compliance with SVR 4-7-3/1.7.1
and
178

Conclusion
Typically, calculations are required to verify compliance with SVR 4-7-3/1.7.1 and 4-7-3/1.7.2.
The calculations should establish that the fire main system, which includes the pumps, fire main
distribution piping, hoses and nozzles, are properly selected and sized in order to supply the
required total flow rate to the most hydraulically remote hydrants while maintaining the required
pressure at every hydrant. The review of the calculations should ensure that the designer truly
understands the requirements and also allows the Engineer to identify any problem areas before
the system is built. However, even if verified by calculations, the ability of the system to meet
the requirements of SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 should also be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the
attending Surveyor.
Fire Hose Reaction
SVR 4-7-3/1.7.3 indicates that the maximum pressure at any hydrant is not to exceed that at
which the effective control of a fire hose can be demonstrated. Accordingly, the maximum
pressure at any hydrant is to be limited to a pressure for which effective control of the fire hose
can be maintained. The following provides a method for estimating the reaction forces from a
discharging hose. Typically, forces from the nozzle with pitot tube pressures up to 6.9 bar (100
psi) would not be considered to produce excessive reactions.
179

Acceleration of water discharged from the smooth bore nozzle creates a reaction force:
F = 1.57 D2 p lbf
F = 0.157 D2 p N
where
F = reaction force, N (lb)
D = orifice diameter, mm (in.)
p = Pitot pressure, bar (psig)
The maximum pressure at any hydrant and the associated reaction forces should be investigated
during the review of the calculations under all operating scenarios. This may require additional
calculations since during the calculations discussed in 3/4.3 of these Guidance Notes are based
upon full flow calculations at the most remote hydrants. However, the maximum hydrant
discharge pressure will typically exist with a single nozzle discharging at the hydrant
hydraulically closest to the pumps.
Isolation Valves and Routing Arrangements
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.11.3, isolating valves are to be fitted in the fire main risers
leading from those fire pumps located within Category A machinery spaces, as well as in any
fire main branch piping which is routed back into Category A machinery spaces. Because of
the uncertain conditions/intensity of fire in such spaces, the presumption is that the space is
inaccessible, equipment inoperable and the main is left open-ended (e.g., damage, maintenance,
etc.). As a result, water supply from the fire pump or pumps will not be able to build up the
required pressure at hydrants and, further, such conditions will result in uncontrolled flooding of
the space unless accessible isolation arrangements are available. Therefore, the Rules require
accessible (i.e., located outside of the category A machinery space) valves be fitted so that
damaged or open sections of the fire main piping located within the category A machinery
spaces can be isolated to eliminate the pressure loss in the system.
In considering the fire main system design, particular attention should be paid to the way the fire
main branches are routed. SVR 4-7-3/1.11.3 requires that the fire main and branches are to be so
arranged that when the isolating valves are shut, all the hydrants on the vessel, except those into
any particular category A machinery space, can be supplied with water by a fire pump not
located in this machinery space and through pipes which do not enter the isolated space. This
180

allows isolation of the piping within the space and use of the hydrants nearby to fight the fire.
Therefore, the isolation valves must be located:
i) Where the fire main risers leave the category A machinery spaces containing the fire pumps
ii) Upstream of the point where any fire main branch piping re-enters the space.
As a result, no branch downstream of the riser piping isolation valve(s) should re-enter the space
without an isolation valve, and no branch from the isolated space should project outside or into
an adjacent compartment without an isolation valve and second source of supply.
Fire Main Piping Components/Materials
All valves, fittings and piping are to comply with the applicable requirements of SVR Sections 4-
6-1 and 4-6-2. Accordingly, all valves and fittings are to be designed and constructed in
accordance with a recognized standard, be suitable for the intended pressures and comply with
all other requirements in SVR Section 4-6-2. A submitted drawing should include a complete
Bill of Materials that provides the material specifications, standards of construction, pressure
ratings and types of all valves and fittings, as well as the material specification, sizes and wall
thickness of the piping, in accordance with SVR 4-6-1/9.3. The drawing should also identify the
maximum system pressure and provide adequate information to identify the layout and
arrangement of the system(s).
181

In addition to the common requirements and limitations in SVR Sections 4-6-1 and 4-6-2, the
materials used in the system are not to be rendered ineffective by heat, unless the components are
adequately protected, in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.11.1. This requirement is important to
ensure that the fire main system will remain intact and functional even if one portion of the fire
main piping is actually within the immediate vicinity of the fire. In order to be considered not
readily rendered ineffective by heat, a component is to be certified as having passed an
acceptable recognized fire test or the material is to have a melting temperature higher than the
test temperature specified in an acceptable fire test. Insofar as classification requirements are
concerned, the fire test requirement may be waived, provided that shipyards/ manufacturers/
designers (as appropriate) document that all components used in fire mains have a solidus
melting temperature above the minimum temperature specified in an acceptable fire test. The
requirement for the fire main material not to be rendered ineffective by heat extends from the
pumps throughout the system to the fire station hydrant valves. The hoses and nozzles are not
required to meet the above criteria as it is assumed that the integrity of the system will be
maintained by the hydrant valve, but are required to be of approved non-perishable material, as
discussed below.
The integrity of the valves to maintain closure is also critical to avoid losses of fire main
pressure. For this reason, resiliently seated valves may be considered for use in fire main
systems, provided they are capable of passing an appropriate fire test acceptable to ABS and can
be effectively closed with the resilient seat damaged or destroyed such that leakage through the
closed valve is insignificant.
No hose connections, non-metallic expansion joints and similar provisions are allowed.
Frequently used rubber (cloth inserted) gaskets are also not permitted, as their destruction under
the fire could lead to the loss of pressure in the system.
For Regulatory compliance, criteria stipulated by Flag Administration must be satisfied and may
differ in criteria from that stated above.
Hydrant Locations and Fire Hoses/Nozzles
Hydrant Locations
SVR 4-7-3/1.9 requires that the number and position of the fire hydrants be such that at least two
jets of water not emanating from the same hydrant (one of which is to be from a single length of
hose) may reach any part of the vessel normally accessible to the passengers or crew while the
182

vessel is being navigated and any part of any cargo space when empty, any ro-ro cargo space or
any special category space (in which latter case the two jets are to reach any part of such space,
each from a single length of hose). Furthermore, such hydrants are to be positioned near the
accesses to the protected spaces.
SVR 4-7-2/5.3.2(a) also requires that at least two combination solid stream and water spray
nozzles and hoses sufficient in length to reach any part of the helicopter deck be provided at any
helicopter facilities, which would include landing as well as winching facilities.
In addition to the spacing to facilitate hose access, SVR 4-7-3/1.11.1 specifies that the piping and
hydrants are to be so placed that the fire hoses may be easily coupled to them. Also where deck
cargo is carried, hydrants are to be located such as to avoid damage during cargo operations, but
at the same time to remain easily accessible at all times.
Verification that the arrangements of the hydrants comply with the above requirements during
plan review can be very difficult as the actual structural arrangements, location of equipment,
etc., makes this approach much less reliable, and therefore, is typically included in those items to
be verified by the Surveyor. However, the layout and arrangement of the fire stations, as
provided in the drawing, in conjunction with the proposed hose lengths should be reviewed and
any areas of concern identified. For those areas which are questionable or where the details
provided on the drawings are insufficient to verify compliance, appropriate comments should be
made in order to the issue to the Surveyors attention.
183

Hydrant Valves
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.11.2, a valve is required to be fitted at a fire station to serve
each fire hose so that any fire hose may be removed while the fire pumps are at work. Normally,
each hydrant is fitted with an individual valve, but the drawing should be reviewed to verify such
compliance and the hose valve determined to be of a design and material which will not be
rendered ineffective by heat.
Fire Hoses
(a) Hose Approval. Fire hoses are required by SVR 4-7-3/1.13.1 to be of approved non-
perishable material. Documentation to verify the material as non-perishable must be via certified
to recognized standard by competent independent testing laboratory. In addition, fire hoses are to
be ABS certified, in accordance with item 4 of SVR 4-1-1/Table 6.
(b) Hose Length. Hoses are to be sufficient in length to project a jet of water to any of the
spaces in which they may be used, but they are to have a length of at least 10 m (33 ft), as per
SVR 4-7-3/1.13.1.
Fire hoses should not have a length greater than:
15 meters (49 feet) in machinery spaces
20 meters (66 feet) in other spaces and open decks
25 meters (82 feet) on open decks with a maximum breadth in excess of 30 meters (98 feet)
The limitation on the length of hose is due to difficulties in unfolding, kinking and handling of
hoses.
(c) Number of Hoses. The Rules do not specifically require a hose to be provided at each fire
hydrant location. The minimum number of hoses to be provided on vessels of 1,000 gross
tonnage and upwards is at least one for each 30 m (100 ft) length of the vessel and one spare, but
in no case less than five in all. Also, this number does not include any hoses required in any
engine or boiler room. The number of hoses in the machinery space(s) is not specified, but must
be in compliance with the relevant governmental authorities.
However, while the Rules do not require a hose to be provided at each fire hydrant location, does
indicate that unless one hose and nozzle is provided for each hydrant on the vessel, there is to be
complete interchangeability of the hose couplings and nozzles.
Vessels carrying dangerous goods should be provided with three (3) additional hoses and three
(3) additional nozzles, in accordance toNozzles
184

SVR 4-7-3/1.15.1 indicates that the standard nozzle sizes are to be 12 mm (0.5 in.), 16 mm
(0.625 in.) and 19 mm (0.75 in.) or as near thereto as possible. Larger diameter nozzles may be
permitted, provided the system can maintain the required pressures specified in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2.
For nozzles for accommodation and service spaces, SVR 4-7-3/1.15.2 indicates that a nozzle size
greater than 12 mm (0.5 in.) need not be used. For machinery spaces and exterior locations, SVR
4-7-3/1.15.3 indicates that the nozzle sizes are to be such as to obtain the maximum discharge
possible from two jets at the pressure mentioned in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 from the smallest pump,
provided that a nozzle size greater than 19 mm (0.75 in.) need not be used.
All nozzles are to be of a dual purpose type (i.e., combination spray/jet type) incorporating a
shut-off in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.15.4. In addition, SVR 4-7-3/1.15.4 indicates that all
nozzles are to be of an approved type (which implies approval by a competent authority) for the
intended service. Also, nozzles made of plastic material such as polycarbonate may be accepted
subject to review of their capability and serviceability as marine use fire hose nozzles.

185

Miscellaneous
SVR 4-7-3/1.13.1 also requires each hose to be provided with a nozzle and the necessary
couplings, and that the fire hoses together with any necessary fittings and tools are to be kept
ready for use in conspicuous positions near the water service hydrants or connections. Details of
the fire stations normally provide sufficient details to verify compliance with this requirement.
Cold Weather Protection
SVR 4-7-3/1.11.1 indicates that the arrangements of the fire main piping and hydrants are to be
such as to avoid the possibility of freezing. Accordingly, those sections of the fire main, which
may be subject to freezing temperatures, are required to be provided with adequate protection.
Examples of acceptable arrangements would be heat tracing, installation of isolation valves
inside the superstructure, provision of drain valves (for non-pressurized system), etc.
Alternative Requirements for Steel Vessels Under 90 Meters in Length and less than 1000
Gross Tons
The following identifies alternatives to certain requirements discussed Fire Pumps
The number of pumps required is still the same, i.e., two pumps. However, only one of the
pumps is required to be independently operable, as indicated in SVR 4-7-3/1.5.1.
Fire Main Pressure
For vessels of less than 1,000 gross tones, the minimum fire main pressure is to be sufficient to
produce two 12 m (40 ft) jet throws through any adjacent hydrants to any part of the vessel, per
(SVRL<90m) 4-5-2/5.1.4.
Additional Requirements for Oil and Fuel Oil Carriers
The following requirements are in addition to those discussed in 3/4.1 through 3/4.11:
On oil carriers and fuel oil carriers, SVR 4-7-3/1.5.7 requires additional isolation valves to be
fitted in the fire main at the poop front in a protected position and on the tank deck at intervals
not more than 40 m (131 ft) to isolate damaged sections of the fire main. These isolation valves
should be located immediately forward of any hydrant position which will allow the ability to
isolate a damaged portion of the main forward of a hydrant and still be able to use the closest
intact hydrants.
186

Additional Requirements for Passenger Vessels
Passenger vessels present a very unique risk insofar as fire hazards are concerned. Unlike the
situation of a cargo vessel where the crew are the only personnel onboard and are typically well-
trained, a passenger vessel will be carrying a large number of untrained, and sometimes less
mobile, people than the personnel normally found onboard. Accordingly, the risk of loss of life is
great, and therefore, passenger vessels are required to meet special, more demanding fire main
system requirements.
The fire pumps, fire mains, hydrants and hoses for passenger vessels are to be in accordance with
requirements specified in SVR Section 5C-7-6.
The following requirements are in addition to those discussed in 3/4.1 through 3/4.11 of these
Guidance Notes, SVR 4-7-3/1 and SVR Part 4, Chapter 9.
Fire Pumps
(a) Number of Fire Pumps. Vessels of 4,000 tons gross tonnage and over are to be provided with
at least three independently driven fire pumps and vessels of less than 4000 tons gross tonnage
are to be provided with at least two independently driven fire pumps in accordance with SVR
5C-7-6/5.1.2(a).
(b) Capacity of Fire Pumps. In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.2(b), the fire pumps required by
SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.2(a) are to be capable of delivering for fire-fighting purposes a quantity of water
not less than two thirds that required to be dealt with by the bilge pumps when employed for
bilge pumping at the appropriate pressure specified in SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.2(b). This should be
verified by ensuring that the combined discharge capacity of the proposed fire pumps is at least
two thirds of the combined capacities of the required bilge pump (3 or 4 bilge pumps, depending
on the criterion number).
(c) Arrangement of Fire Pumps and Power Sources. In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.2(c),
sea connections, fire pumps and their source of power are to be located aft of the collision
bulkhead and are to ensure that:
i) In vessels of 1,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards, a fire in any one compartment will not put
all the fire pumps out of action.
ii) In vessels of less than 1,000 tons gross tonnage, if a fire in any one compartment could put all
pumps out of action, an emergency fire pump complying with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.2(d) is to be
provided.
187

(d) Arrangement of Fire Water Supply. The arrangements for the ready availability of water
supply are to comply with the following, in accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.4.
i) In vessels of 1,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards, at least one effective jet of water is to be
immediately available from any hydrant in an interior location and so as to ensure the
continuation of the output of water by the automatic starting of a required fire pump;
ii) In vessels of less than 1,000 tons gross tonnage, an effective stream is to be readily available,
either by the automatic starting of at least one fire pump or by remote starting of at least one fire
pump from the navigation bridge;
iii) If fitted with periodically unattended machinery spaces, provisions for fixed water fire-
extinguishing arrangement for such spaces equivalent to those required for normally attended
machinery spaces are to be provided.
Fire Mains
(a) Size. In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.6, the diameter of the fire main and water service
pipes is to be sufficient for the effective distribution of the maximum required discharge from
two fire pumps operating simultaneously. If the fire pump capacities differ, the largest two
should be selected in determining compliance.

188

4.13.2(b) Pressure. In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.6(b), with the two pumps
simultaneously delivering through nozzles the quantity of water specified in SVR 5C-7-
6/5.1.6(a), through any adjacent hydrants, the following minimum pressures are to be maintained
at all hydrants:
i) 4,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards 4 bar (58 psi)
ii) Less than 4,000 tons gross tonnage 3 bar (44 psi)
However, the maximum pressure at any hydrant is not to exceed that at which the effective
control of a fire hose can be demonstrated.
See 3/4.3 of these Guidance Notes regarding the various issues involved in determining
compliance with this requirement.
Related IMO MSC Circ 847 Interpretation
SOLAS Reg. II-2/4.3.4.1 (SOLAS 2000 II-2/10.2.1.2.1.1), Automatic starting of fire pumps
and prevention of freezing in pipes
Special attention should be given to the design of the continuously pressurized pipelines for
prevention of freezing in pipes in vessels entering areas where low temperatures may exist.
Hydrants
In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.7(a), the number and position of hydrants are to be such that
at least two jets of water not emanating from the same hydrant (one of which is to be from a
single length of hose) may reach any part of the vessel normally accessible to the passengers or
crew while the vessel is being navigated, and any part of any cargo space when empty, any ro-ro
cargo space or any special category space (in which latter case the two jets will reach any part of
such space, each from a single length of hose). Furthermore, such hydrants are to be positioned
near the accesses to the protected spaces.
In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.7(b), for installations in the accommodation, service and
machinery spaces, the number and position of hydrants are to be such that the requirements of
SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.7(a) are to be complied with when all watertight doors and all doors in main
vertical zone bulkheads are closed.
In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.7(c), where access is provided to a machinery space of
Category A at a low level from an adjacent shaft tunnel, two hydrants are to be provided
external to, but near the entrance to, that machinery space. Where such access is provided from
other spaces, in one of those spaces, two hydrants are to be provided near the entrance to the
189

machinery space of Category A. Such provision need not be made where the tunnel or adjacent
spaces are not part of the escape route.
Fire Hoses
At interior locations in vessels carrying more than 36 passengers, the fire hoses are to be
connected to the hydrants at all times.
There is to be at least one fire hose for each hydrants required by SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.8(b), and these
hoses are to be used only for the purposes of extinguishing fires or testing the fire-extinguishing
apparatus at fire drills and surveys.
Vessels are to be provided with fire hoses the number of and diameter of which are to be to the
satisfaction of ABS.
Nozzles
In vessels carrying more than 36 passengers, each machinery space of Category A is to be
provided with at least two suitable water fog applicators.
Location/Arrangement of Water Pumps for Other Fire-Extinguishing Systems
In accordance with SVR 5C-7-6/5.1.11, pumps required for the provision of water for other
required fire-extinguishing systems, their sources of power and their controls are required to be
installed outside the space or spaces protected by such systems and are to be so arranged that a
fire in the space or spaces protected will not put any such system out action.

190

Additional/Alternative Requirements for Ro-Ro Vessels
Due to the hazards associated with carrying vehicles with fuel remaining in their tanks, as well as
the potential for additional amounts of combustibles in the vehicle construction and their cargo,
the Rules provide for certain requirements in addition to those covered by SVR 4-7-3/1, SVR
Part 4, Chapter 9 and those discussed in 3/4.1 through 3/4.11 of these Guidance Notes.
Locations of Hydrants
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.9, the number and position of the fire hydrants on any vessel are
to be such that at least two jets of water not emanating from the same hydrant (one of which is to
be from a single length of hose) may reach any part of the vessel. Normally for ro-ro vessels,
SVR 4-7-3/1.9 also requires that two jets of water, each from a single length of hose, are to be
capable of reaching any part of ro-ro cargo space. Plan review should verify that the hydrant
locations within the ro-ro spaces comply with this requirement.
Low Velocity Water Fog Applicators
In accordance with SVR 5C-10-4/3.3.4, each ro-ro cargo space intended for the carriage of motor
vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion is to be provided with at least three
water fog applicators. The plan review of the fire main system should confirm that the
appropriate number of water fog applicators is provided for each ro-ro space.
Additional/Alternative Requirements for Gas Carriers
Application
In accordance with SVR 5C-8-11/2.1, all vessels, irrespective of size, carrying products which
are subject to the requirements of SVR Section 5C-8-11 are to comply with the requirements of
regulations II-2/4 and II-2/7 of the 1983 SOLAS amendments. Basically, the requirements in
SOLAS Reg. II-2/4 have been incorporated into SVR 4-7-3/1.
Accordingly, the review of the fire main system should verify compliance with the requirements
of SVR 4-7-3/1, as discussed in 3/4.1 through 3/4.11 of these Guidance Notes, in association
with the additional or alternative requirements specified in SVR 5C-8-11/2 and outlined herein.
Fire Pump/Fire Main Sizing
When the fire pump and fire main are used as part of the water spray system as permitted by
SVR 5C-8-11/3.3, the required fire pump capacity and fire main and water service pipe diameter
should not be limited by the provisions of regulations II-2/4.2.1 and II-2/4.4.1 of the 1983
SOLAS amendments. Accordingly, where the fire pump and fire main are used as part of the
191

water spray system pressure, the calculations should be based upon both systems operating
simultaneously, each at their required maximum discharge capacity.
Pressure SVR 5C-8-11/2.1 specifies that the discharge pressure requirements of SOLAS II-
2/4.4.2 should be met at a pressure of at least 5.0 bar (72 psi) gauge. The discharge pressures
specified in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 are identical to those found in SOLAS II-2/4.4.2. Accordingly, the
values indicated in SVR 4-7-3/1.7.2 should be replaced with a pressure of at least 5.0 bar (72 psi)
gauge and the system pressure calculations reviewed accordingly.
Arrangements As required by SVR 5C-8-11/2.2, the arrangements are to be such that at least
two jets of water can reach any part of the deck in the cargo area and those portions of the cargo
containment system and tank covers above the deck. Further, the locations of the fire hydrants
are to satisfy the above requirement, as well as the requirements in Regulations II-2/4.5.1 (SVR
4-7-3/1.9) and II-2/4.8 (SVR 4-7-3/1.15), with a hose length not exceeding 33 m. The review
should seek to verify the same, but frequently the need for Surveyor verification of this item is
needed.

192

Isolation Valves
In accordance with SVR 5C-8-11/2.3, stop valves are required to be fitted in any crossover line
for the fire main. In addition, stop valves are also to be fitted in the fire main or mains at the
poop front and at intervals of not more than 40 m between hydrants on the deck in the cargo area
for the purpose of isolating damaged sections of the main. Plan review should verify the same.
Nozzles
All water nozzles provided for fire-fighting use are required by SVR 5C-8-11/2.4 to be of an
approved dual-purpose type capable of producing either a spray or a jet.
Piping Materials
All pipes, valves, nozzles and other fittings in the fire-fighting systems are required to be
resistant to corrosion by seawater (for which purpose galvanized pipe, for example, may be used)
and to the effect of fire. Refer to SVR 5C-8-11/2.4.
Remote Operations
Where the vessels engine-room is unattended, SVR 5C-8-11/2.5 requires that arrangements be
made to start and connect at least one fire pump to the fire main by remote control from the
navigation bridge or other control station outside the cargo area. Details regarding this
arrangement should be verified during plan review or a statement made requesting the Surveyor
to verify the same.
Steel Vessels Under 90 Meters (295 feet) in Length
Certain provisions are made for vessels less than 90 meters (295 feet) in length in consideration
of their unique services and arrangements. The requirements applicable to steel vessels under 90
meters in length and being classed for unrestricted service are discussed noted below. Vessels >
500 Gross Tons
The fire main system of vessels under 90 meters and over 500 gross tons which are to be classed
for unrestricted service are to comply with the requirements identified in SVR(L<90m) 4-5-1/3
and 4-5-2/1 through 4-5-2/7.
In general, the requirements for the fire main systems of vessels under 90 meters are very similar
to the requirements discussed above for vessels greater than 90 meters. Therefore, the discussion
provided in 3/4.1 through 3/4.10 of these Guidance Notes (for vessels greater than 90 meters) is
applicable, along with certain clarifications or modifications as provided below. For
193

convenience, Section 3, Table 4 below provides a cross-reference between the references in the
Under 90 Meter Rules and the sections above discussing each subject.
Fishing Vessels
The requirements for the classification of fishing vessels are outlined in SVR(L<90m) Section 5-
12-1. However, the Rules do not provide any specific requirements for the fire main system. In
spite of this, the attention of owners, designers and builders is directed to the regulations of
governmental and other authorities dealing with active fire protection for fishing vessels.
Where authorized by the Administration of a country signatory to the International Conference
on Safety of Fishing Vessels, 1977/1993 Protocol, and upon request of the Owners of an existing
vessel or a vessel under construction, ABS can review plans and survey the vessel for
compliance with the provisions of this Convention/Protocol and certify thereto in the manner
prescribed in the Convention/Protocol. In such cases, the IMO Torremolinos International
Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels, 1977, as modified by the Torremolinos Protocol of
1993 is to be consulted as follows:
Chapter V Fire Protection, Fire Detection, Fire Extinction and Fire Fighting
Part A General
Part B Fire safety measures in vessels of 60 meters (197 ft) in length and over
Part C Fire safety measures in vessels of 45 meters (148 ft) in length and over but less than 60
meters (197 ft) in length
Accommodation Barges
One effective jet of water must be immediately available from any hydrant in an interior location
and so as to ensure the continuation of the output of water by the automated starting of a required
fire pump. Two independently power-driven fire pumps are required, each arranged to draw
directly from the sea and discharge into a fixed fire main. However, where there are high suction
lifts, refer to 3/5.3.1 of the Guide for Building and Classing Accommodation Barges (hereafter
referred to as the Accommodation Barge Guide). One of the required pumps is to be dedicated
to fire-fighting duties at all times. Arrangement of the pumps, sea suctions and sources of power
are to be such as to ensure that a fire or casualty in any one space would not render both pumps
inoperable. Where shore supply of water is available for fire-fighting purposes, the requirements
for fire pumps may comply with A1/3.1 of the Accommodation Barge Guide.
194

Related ABS Interpretation/Instruction (I/I)
Note 1: For accommodation barges that are to be supplied with shore-side water for fire fighting
purposes, it is required that 2 sources of water be provided. As such, in applying A1/3.1 of the
Accommodation Barge Guide, an independently driven emergency fire pump of the capacity
specified in 4.7.2 of these Rules is to be provided regardless of the supplied shore-side pressure.
Note 2: An emergency fire pump, as required by A1/3.1 of the Accommodation Barge Guide,
can be replaced by dedicated shore side fire department facilities provided the alternative
arrangements listed below are complied with:
a) The fire department facilities are dedicated to the Naval base that the barge is located in, they
are no more than one and one-half (11/2) miles from the barge, and the response time of the fire
department (the time between the activation of the alarm and the arrival of the fire truck at the
location of the barge) is to be no more than five (5) minutes.
b) The fire truck is to have a pump capacity and the equipment necessary to meet the Guide
requirements of 3/5.3.1 at the most extreme locations of the barge.
c) The fire truck is to be capable of using sea water as an alternative water supply to the shore
hydrant connection.
d) The fire truck is to be capable of connecting directly to the barges fire main.
e) The fire hydrants on the pier are to be spaced no more than 15.25 meters (50 ft) apart and are
to have a dedicated water supply.
f) While the barge is moored to a pier it will be connected to the pier fire main, which will be
capable of continuously providing 6.2 bar (90 psi) water to the barge fire main.
g) Should the pier fire main water pressure drop below 6.2 bar (90 psi) while the barge is
manned, an alarm is to sound in the control station and the dedicated shore based fire department
is to be notified and put on stand-by status.
195

h) The shore side fire hydrants are to be fitted with bleeder valves to maintain the flow of water
in freezing conditions.
i) A non-return valve is to be fitted to prevent water pumped from the fire truck into the barge
fire main from flowing back into the shore water supply piping.
j) A clear description of the secondary fire fighting arrangements is to be posted in the control
station and included on the fire safety plan.
k) The subject barges are to be Classed Accommodation Barge - Restricted Service and the
Record entry is to include note 26, which states Certain systems and arrangements accepted at
the request of the U.S. Government.
Principles of Fixed Gas Fire-extinguishing Systems
Fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems typically suppress fires by reducing the available oxygen in
the atmosphere to a point where combustion can no longer take place or by interrupting the
chemical reaction necessary for the progression of the fire.
Advantages of fixed gas systems over water-based systems are that:
Damage to sensitive equipment can be avoided, especially in the case of electronic equipment.
Clean up time and equipment down time is substantially reduced.
Disadvantages are that:
Some gaseous agents are hazardous to personnel.
Cooling effect of gas systems is significantly less than water-based systems.
Unlike the unlimited supply of water for fire-fighting systems, the quantity of gas available is
limited to that carried in the cylinders protecting the space.
Due to the above disadvantages, it is essential that fixed gas fire-fighting systems be deployed as
quickly as possible to minimize heat buildup. Also, care should be taken to avoid the possibility
of a fire being restarted due to dissipation of the fire-extinguishing gas and the introduction of
fresh air from protected compartments being prematurely opened after a fire.
In new installations, the most common fixed gas extinguishing systems encountered are either
high/low pressure CO2 systems or those utilizing Halon alternatives.

196

CO2 Fire-extinguishing Systems
Agent Characteristics
CO2 is a compound of carbon and oxygen. At atmospheric pressures and temperatures, CO2 is a
colorless, odorless and electrically non-conductive gas. It is approximately 50% heavier than air.
CO2 provides a desirable (although very limited) cooling effect. The gas dissipates into the
atmosphere after its discharge and leaves no residue.
Because CO2 reduces the available oxygen in the atmosphere, it will not support life. A
concentration of 6% to 7% is considered the threshold level at which harmful effects become
noticeable in humans, at concentrations below 10%, most people lose consciousness within a
short time. Because of the hazard involved, particular care must be taken to ensure that all
personnel are evacuated from the protected space prior to discharging the system.
Effectiveness
CO2 gas is an effective agent for class A (wood, paper, etc.), class B (flammable liquids and
gases) and class C (electrical equipment) hazards as it displaces the oxygen necessary for
combustion. The CO2 concentration must be maintained for a sufficient period to allow the
maximum temperature to be reduced below the auto-ignition temperature of the burning
material. Reduction of oxygen content to 15% is sufficient to extinguish most fires. Developing a
CO2 concentration of 28.5% in the atmosphere will reduce the oxygen content to about 15%.
However, the concentrations required normally exceed this amount in order to allow for possible
escape of gas or infiltration of air, as well as to provide an adequate margin of safety.

197

Carbon dioxide cannot be used on Class D (reactive metals, metal hydrides and chemicals
containing their own oxygen supply) hazards, such as magnesium, potassium, sodium and
cellulose nitrate. These Class D fires can only be controlled by special extinguishing agents
and procedures.
CO2 System Applications
CO2 systems are total flooding systems and must displace sufficient amounts of air to reduce
the oxygen concentration to a level which will not support combustion.
Machinery Space Systems
As indicated above, fires in machinery spaces, cargo pump rooms and similar spaces are
generally Class B (flammable liquids) type fires. In this type of fire, ignition of flammable
sources can spread quickly, since such fires normally involve pool fires or jet or spray fires from
pressurized fuel or lube oil lines. Accordingly, the heat build-up is rapid. It is important to
introduce the required quantities of CO2 quickly in order to minimize the growth of the fire. This
prevents the build-up of heat from possibly causing failure of the structural integrity of the space,
making it impossible to maintain the CO2 concentration and also prevents heat updraft created
by the fire from carrying away the carbon dioxide, as well as allowing for quicker cool-down
periods.
Cargo Hold Systems
Fires in ordinary cargo holds normally involve class A combustibles and generally start with
some smoldering and production of large quantities of smoke. Only when sufficient heat is
developed to reach the flash-over or ignition temperature (temperature at which solid
combustibles give off sufficient gases to support continued rapid burning) will rapid burning
occur. Extinguishing a class A fire is difficult due to the thermal insulating properties of the
material. Typically, the hold is kept closed until the vessel reaches a port where the cargo is
removed from adjacent spaces not involved in the fire. The cargo hold involved in the fire is then
opened, with charged fire main nozzles at the ready and the cargo is unloaded, cooled with water
or broken open if necessary to extinguish any remaining fire.
ABS Requirements for Fixed Gas Extinguishing Systems
The following information is provided as general guidance regarding the ABS requirements for
fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems as required by the Rules for Building and Classing Steel
Vessels and Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels 90 Meters in Length. However,
198

reference should always be made to the Rules applicable to the specific vessel concerned for the
complete set of requirements.
General Requirements
Information to be Submitted
The drawings and details to be reviewed should include a systems diagrammatic arrangement,
calculations regarding quantity and discharge time of the gas and a complete bill of materials.
The bill of materials should include material specifications, sizes and wall thickness of the
piping; type of fittings (including material specifications), pressure ratings and standards of
construction for the piping components, along with manufacturers information regarding
specialized system components. Certain additional information normally required to be verified
on electrical and structural arrangements may also be provided.
Non-Permitted Extinguishing Medium
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/3.1.1, the use of a fire-extinguishing medium which gives off
toxic gases in such quantities as to endanger persons is not to be permitted. In addition, the new
installation of Halon fire-extinguishing systems is no longer permitted as a fire-extinguishing
medium, as specified in SVR 4-7-3/3.1.1 [and SOLAS (2000 Amendments) Ch. II-2/10.4.1.2],
due to the damage halogenated hydrocarbons inflict upon the ozone layer of the atmosphere.

199

System Components and Materials
Piping, joints and fittings are to comply with the requirements in SVR Sections 4-6-1 and 4-6-2
and be suitable for the systems pressure rating. Manifolds and associated piping from the
cylinders downstream and including the last valve (time delay) are to be suitable for the
cylinders maximum storage pressure.
(a) Materials. Materials are to be suitable for the intended service. Ordinary cast iron, steel pipe
ASTM A-120 and non-metallic pipes are not to be used. In addition, the components are not to
be rendered ineffective by heat, suggesting they be equivalent to steel. For example, aluminum
pipes or discharge nozzles are not allowed as their failure could eliminate the systems ability to
function.
(b) Non-metallic Flexible Hoses. Flexible hoses used at the cylinders are to comply with SVR 4-
6-2/5.7.1 and should be supplied by the system manufacturer.
(c) Certification of Piping Components. Piping system components are to be certified in
accordance with SVR 4-6-1/7 and the requirements outlined in SVR 4-1-1/Table 6, as
appropriate. The requirements in SVR 4-1-1/Table 4 should also be applied to specialized system
components, such as the control and release valves, cylinder heads, delay timers, nozzles, etc.,
and compliance verified during plan review.
(d) Minimum Pipe Wall Thickness. Piping used in fixed fire-extinguishing systems must comply
with minimum wall thickness requirements specified in SVR 4-7-3/Table 2. For piping from
storage containers to the distribution station, minimum wall thickness of the piping is given in
Column A of SVR 4-7-3/Table 2. Minimum wall thickness of the piping from the distribution
station to the nozzles is listed in column B of SVR 4-7-3/Table 2. The content and notes of
SVR 4-7-3/Table 2 are provided in Section 4, Table 1 of these Guidance Notes. Verification of
compliance with the minimum wall thickness requirements specified in Section 4, Table 1 should
be verified during plan review.
Additional Requirements for Fixed CO2 Gas Extinguishing Systems
Classification requirements specific to fixed CO2 fire-extinguishing systems are found in SVR 4-
7-3/3.3 and requirements for low pressure CO2 systems are contained in SVR 4-7-3/3.5.
Quantity of CO2 Required
(a) Cargo Spaces. SVR 4-7-2/7.1.1 requires the cargo spaces of dry cargo vessels 2,000 gross
tonnage and upwards to be protected by a fixed gas fire-extinguishing system (unless protected
200

by a fire-extinguishing system which gives equivalent protection). The only exceptions are those
cargo spaces addressed in SVR 4-7-2/7.1.2 and 4-7-2/7.1.3. SVR 4-7-2/7.1.1 further indicates
that the fixed gas system is to comply with the provisions of SVR 4-7-3/3.
For regular cargo spaces, SVR 4-7-3/3.3.1 requires that the quantity of carbon dioxide provided
is to be sufficient to give a minimum volume of free gas equal to 30% of the gross volume of the
largest cargo space so protected in the vessel. In ro-ro and cargo spaces (other than Special
Category spaces) intended for carriage of motor vehicles with fuel in their tanks and capable of
being sealed, the minimum required concentration is 45% of the gross volume of the space as
indicated in SVR 5C-10-4/3.3.1(a).
Gasketless hatch covers or hatch covers having narrow gaps between cover panels where the
ratio of the total gap area, in m2 (ft2), to the total volume of the cargo hold space, in m3 (ft3), is
less than 0.098 (0.03) are considered to be non-tight hatch covers. For non-tight hatch covers, the
amount of CO2 is to be increased an appropriate amount to compensate for the amount of CO2
that will be lost.

201

For dry cargo vessels of less than 2000 gt, the cargo spaces are exempted from the subject
system requirements. In addition, the cargo spaces of vessels constructed solely for carrying ore,
coal, grain, unseasoned timber, non-combustible cargoes or cargoes which constitute a low fire
risk (see 5C-3-7/3.3 or MSC/Circular 671 List of solid bulk cargoes which are non-combustible
or constitute a low fire risk or for which a fixed gas fire-extinguishing system is ineffective) may
be exempted, as indicated in SVR 4-7-2/7.1.3. However, such exemptions are only granted if the
vessel is fitted with steel hatch covers and effective means of closing all ventilators and other
openings leading to the cargo spaces.
It is also important to note that CO2 fire-extinguishing systems are not permitted to be installed
in Special Category spaces. Special Category spaces are defined as those enclosed spaces
above or below the bulkhead deck intended for the carriage of motor vehicles with fuel in their
tanks for their own propulsion, into and from which such vehicles can be driven and to which
passengers have access. The use of a CO2 system would endanger the lives of passengers who
may be inside the space and not understand the meaning of the alarms or the need to evacuate.
(b) Machinery Spaces. The requirements in SVR 4-7-3/3.3.2 specify that the quantity of carbon
dioxide gas for fire-extinguishing for machinery spaces is to be sufficient to give a minimum
volume of free gas equal to the larger of the following volumes, either:
i) 40% of the gross volume of the largest machinery space so protected, the volume to exclude
that part of the casing above the level at which the horizontal area of the casing is 40% or less of
the horizontal area of the of the space concerned taken midway between the tank top and the
lowest part of the casing; OR
ii) 35% of the gross volume of the largest machinery space protected, including the casing.
The above-mentioned percentages may be reduced to 35% and 30%, respectively, for cargo
vessels of less than 2,000 gross tonnage.
For the purpose of the above paragraph, the volume of free carbon dioxide shall be calculated at
0.56 m3/kg (9 lb/ft3), as indicated in SVR 4-7-3/3.3.3.
Method of Calculating Quantity
Quantity of CO2 to be provided can be calculated by the formula below:
W = (V/S)*(C/100)
where
W = weight of gas agent required, kg (lb)
202

V = volume of the protected space, m3 (ft3)
C = concentration of gas upon release into space (%), as specified below
S = specific volume of gas, m3/kg (ft3/lb); see Section 4, Table 2.
Additional Control Requirements for CO2 Systems
As the inadvertent release of CO2 would present a serious hazard to personnel, SVR 4-7-3/3.3.5
identifies additional requirements to prevent such a release of CO2 into spaces that are normally
manned. SVR 4-7-3/3.3.5 requires that for spaces normally manned, the controls complied with
the following and the same should be verified during plan review:
Release Arrangements
Two separate controls are to be provided for releasing CO2 into a protected space and to ensure
the activation of the alarm. One control is to be used to discharge the gas from its storage
containers. A second control is to be used to open the valve of the piping that conveys the gas
into the protected space.
The two controls are to be located inside a release box clearly identified for the particular space.
If the box containing the controls is locked, a key to the box is to be in a break-glass type
enclosure conspicuously located adjacent to the box.

203

Storage of CO2 Containers
The requirements for the storage of the extinguishing medium cylinders are found in SVR 4-7-
3/3.1.9 and discussed in 4/3.1.13 of these Guidance Notes.
Additional Requirements for Low Pressure CO2 Systems
Low pressure CO2 storage systems utilize refrigeration units to maintain the CO2 at
temperatures below normal atmospheric temperatures. By reducing the temperature of the CO2,
the storage pressure is also reduced substantially below the equilibrium pressure seen in at
atmospheric temperatures [approx. 57 vs. 21 bar (850 vs. 300 psi.)]. This reduction in the
pressure makes it feasible to design and construct much larger CO2 containers, and therefore,
provides the ability to store large volumes of CO2 in a single container.
The use of refrigerated CO2 as a fire-extinguishing medium will typically be in the pressure
range of 18 to 22 bar (260 to 320 psi) in the storage condition, and such systems are to be in
accordance with the requirements discussed above and found in SVR 4-7-3/3.1 and 4-7-3/3.3, as
well as the following additional requirements.
Plans and Data to be Submitted In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/3.5.1, the following plans and
data are to be submitted for review:
System schematic arrangement
CO2 capacity and flow calculations
System control and alarm arrangement
Arrangement of CO2 containers and refrigerating plant
Construction details of CO2 containers
Manufacturers specifications for compressor, condenser, receiver, evaporator, etc.
Piping diagram for refrigerating system
Electrical wiring diagrams
CO2 Containers
The following requirements apply to CO2 containers and are found in SVR 4-7-3/3.5.2. These
requirements should be verified during plan review.
(a) Capacity. The capacity of the CO2 containers is to be such as to provide sufficient vapor
space to allow for expansion of the liquid under the maximum expected storage temperature that
204

can be encountered without exceeding the relief valve setting. The amount of liquid under such
conditions is not to be in excess of 95% of the volume of the container.
(b) Design and Construction. CO2 containers are to be designed, constructed and tested in
accordance with the requirements of SVR Section 4-4-1 (see in particular 4-4-1/1.11.4).
(c) Instrumentation and Alarms. Each container is required to be fitted with the following
instruments and alarms at the storage location:
Pressure gauge
High pressure alarm set at not more than 22 bar (320 psi) and not within 5% of relief valve
setting
Low pressure alarm, set at not less than 18 bar (260 psi)
Level indicator, and low level alarm
A summary alarm for any of these alarm conditions is also to be given in the manned propulsion
machinery space or the centralized control station (see SVR 4-9-5/7 and 4-9-6/9), as appropriate.
In the case of unattended propulsion machinery space, an additional summary alarm is to be
given in the engineers accommodation area (see SVR 4-9-6/19).

205

(d) Relief Valves. Two relief valves are to be fitted on each container, such that either one but not
both can be shut off. The relief valves are to be set at not less than 22 bar (320 psi). The capacity
of each valve is to be capable of preventing a pressure rise, due to exposure to fire, in excess of
20% above the relief valve setting. The discharge from the relief valve is to be led to the open
air. (e) Insulation. The containers and piping which are always filled with liquid CO2 are to be
insulated so that the pressure will not exceed the relief valve setting when subjected to an
ambient temperature of 45C (113F) for a period of 24 hours after the refrigerating plant is out
of service. Where porous or fibrous insulation materials are used, they are to be protected by
impervious sheaths from deterioration by moisture.
Refrigerating Plant
The refrigeration plant is critical to the safe and proper operation of the system. If the
refrigeration plant would fail to operate, the temperature of the CO2 in the container would
gradually increase to atmospheric temperature. In the process, the safety or relief valves would
open to relieve the resulting increase in pressure. As the safety valves relieved the excessive
pressure, the majority of the CO2 would be lost and there would be no CO2 in the case of a fire.
Accordingly, the Rules identify specific requirements regarding the refrigeration plant in SVR 4-
7-3/3.5.3, as discussed below and the same should be verified during the review of the system.
(a) Duplication of Plant. The CO2 containers are to be served by two completely independent
and automated refrigerating units dedicated for this service, each comprising its own compressor
and prime mover, condenser, receiver, evaporator, etc. Provision is to be made for local manual
control of the refrigerating plant. Upon failure or stoppage of the unit in operation, the other unit
is to be put into operation automatically. This changeover is to be alarmed at the manned
propulsion machinery space or the centralized control station, as appropriate, and in the case of
unattended propulsion machinery space, at the engineers accommodation. See also SVR 4-7-(c).
Each refrigerating unit is to be supplied from the main switchboard by a separate feeder.
(b) Performance Criteria. Each refrigerating unit is to be capable of maintaining the liquefaction
of the required quantity of CO2 at the specified pressure, at a sea water temperature of 32C
(90F) and an ambient temperature of 45C (113F). See also insulation requirement in SVR 4-
7(e). (c) Cooling Water Supply. Where sea water is utilized for cooling, two sea water pumps are
to be provided, one of which is to be standby and may be a pump used for other services. Both
pumps are to be capable of drawing from at least two sea chests. Piping
206

The piping and piping components must be suitable for the combination of the pressures and low
temperatures to which they will be exposed and the same should be verified during plan review.
Also, the following additional requirements regarding the piping are found in SVR 4-7-3/3.5.4
and should be verified during plan review.
(a) General Piping Requirements. Pipes, fittings and pipe joints are to be designed, fabricated
and tested, and are to be of materials according to the piping classes determined in accordance
with in SVR 4-6-1/5.
(b) CO2 Distribution Piping. CO2 flow from storage containers to the discharge nozzle is to be
in liquid phase. The design pressure at the nozzle is not to be less than 10 bar (145 psi).
(c) Safety Relief Valve. Safety relief devices are to be provided in each section of pipe that may
be isolated by valves and in which there could be a build-up of pressure in excess of the design
pressure of any of the components.

207

CO2 Release Control
In addition to the requirements in SVR 4-7-3/3.1.6 and 4-7-3/3.3.5, the following requirements
as found in SVR 4-7-3/3.5.5 are to be complied with, as appropriate.
(a) Automatic Regulation of Gas. Where automatic means are provided to regulate the quantity
of CO2 discharged into the protected spaces, manual means of regulation are also to be provided.
(b) Emergency Control. If an emergency release control is provided, in addition to the normal
release control, it must not bypass the activation of alarm required by SVR 4-7-3/3.1.5. It may;
however, bypass the automatic gas regulator [see SVR 4-7-3/3.5.5(a)], provided that it is
possible at the emergency release control position to control the amount of gas to be released and
to close the master valve, or equivalent, after the designated amount is released.
(c) Multiple Spaces. If the system serves more than one space, the quantity of CO2 to be
discharged to each space is to be provided with means of control, e.g., automatic timer or
accurate level indicators located at the control positions.
(d) Instructions. Instructions for release control, as required by SVR 4-7-3/3.1.6, are to be posted
at each location where gas can be released. This is to include instructions for manual means of
regulating the amount of gas to be released into each of the protected spaces.
Additional Requirements for Vessels Receiving an ACCU Automation Notation
In addition to the system features as described above, vessels classed ACCU are required to have
means to control the following systems from the fire-fighting station, per SVR 4-9-6/21.3, and
should not depend upon power from inside the protected space:
Shutdown of ventilation fans serving the machinery space.
Shutdown of forced draft blowers of boilers, inert gas generators and incinerators, and of
auxiliary blowers of propulsion diesel engines.
Closing of propulsion machinery space skylights, openings in funnels, ventilator dampers and
other openings.
Closing of propulsion machinery space watertight and fire-resistant doors. Doors normally
closed and self-closing doors may be excluded.
Actuation of the fixed fire-extinguishing system for the propulsion machinery space.
While SVR 4-9-6/21.3 does provide other requirements for the remote control of various systems
or devices from the dedicated fire-fighting station, the above identify those that would
208

specifically impact the proper operation of a fixed gas fire-extinguishing system and should be
verified during the plan review.
Governmental Authorization
While the above outlines the requirements for fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems insofar as
ABS classification requirements are concerned, it is recognized that there may be Flag
Administration requirements which directly contradict the requirements specified in the Rules
and SOLAS, especially in the area of fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems. SVR 4-7-1/1 makes
provisions for such situations specifying that consideration may be given to the published
requirements of the governmental authority of the county in which the vessel is to be registered.
One example where alternative arrangements have been accepted in accordance with the
provisions of SVR 4-7-3/3.1.7 is on certain flagged vessels, the Administration specifically
accepts the installation of an automatic release. Such an arrangement would not normally be
accepted based upon ABS and SOLAS requirements but may be considered based upon
published Flag Administration requirements.
Steam Smothering Systems
As indicated in SVR 4-7-3/3.7, in general, the use of steam as a fire-extinguishing medium in
fixed fire-extinguishing systems is not permitted. In exceptional cases, the use of steam may be
permitted in restricted areas as an addition to the required fire-extinguishing medium providing
that the boiler or boilers available for supplying steam have an evaporation of at least 1.0 kg (2.2
lb) of steam per hour for each 0.75 m3 (27 ft3) of the gross volume of the largest space so
protected.

209

Halon Systems
While fixed fire-extinguishing systems utilizing Halon were very popular due to their ability to
support life while still extinguishing a fire, based upon the Montreal Protocol, the Rules no
longer permit the use of halogenated hydrocarbon systems for new installations, in accordance
with SVR 4-7-3/3.1.1. Accordingly, no discussion regarding these types of systems is provided
herein.
Requirements for Systems using Halon Alternatives
With the prohibition of Halon as a fire-extinguishing medium in association with the Montreal
Protocol and the resulting SOLAS Amendment in 1992 due to its detrimental impact on the
environment, a major void was created for extinguishing media that are not as dangerous to
personnel as CO2. Accordingly, there has been significant work in the development of Halon
alternatives and the development of international testing criteria to verify their effectiveness as
suitable extinguishing fires in shipboard applications.
Based upon significant work and testing conducted by a number of countries, including the U.S.
Coast Guard, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has established a minimum set of
criteria for the testing of extinguishing agents and the design of the systems. These criteria are
published in IMO Circulars 776 and 848.
For an extinguishing agent to be considered for Classification purposes, full compliance with
requirements specified in IMO Circulars 776 and 848 would be required. In addition, approval of
the medium by the Flag Administration would be required. ABSs acceptance of a Halon
alternative agent without prior approval of an appropriate Administration is not permitted. This is
to ensure that the environmental issues associated with the requirements in IMO Circulars 776
and 848 have been adequately addressed with the appropriate organization(s) of the
Administration.
It is important to note that the criteria in IMO Circulars 776 and 848 require not only the agent to
be tested and verified as an effective extinguishing medium, but also require the specific
discharge nozzles to be included in the test, since different nozzles will generate different flow
and distribution patterns. Accordingly, if a different nozzle is proposed to be used with a
particular agent, the fire tests specified in IMO Circulars 776 and 848 would need to be repeated.
Therefore, not only the particular extinguishing agent but also the hardware provided by the
particular manufacturers/distributors must be verified as having passed the IMO testing.
210

Once an extinguishing medium and the hardware associated with a particular
manufacturer/distributor have passed the fire testing requirements specified in IMO Circulars
776 and 848, and they have received approval by the cognizant Administration, the same can be
considered for Classification purposes. Upon receipt and review of documentation verifying
compliance with the above items, the actual system design can be reviewed for compliance with
the requirements identified in IMO Circulars 776 and 848. This would include verification of
compliance with all applicable system requirements identified in IMO Circulars 776 and 848, as
well as in SOLAS Reg. II-2/5.1 (FSS Code Chapter 5/2.1), except as modified by the Guidelines,
and NFPA 2001 Standard, which are referenced in IMO Circulars 776 and 848. Verification that
the piping components also comply with the applicable ABS requirements specified in SVR
Section 4-6-2 and 4-7-3/3 would also be required.
Currently there are several Halon alternatives that are on the market and some that have obtained
ABS Type Approval. The Kidde-Fenwal FM-200 Marine ECS Series Fire Suppression System
and the ANSUL Inergen system are now listed as the ABS Type Approved systems. See the
ABS website http://www.eagle.org/typeapproval/index.html for further details. The ABS Type
Approval listings will identify specific requirements applicable to the particular system.
Additional/Alternative Requirements for Special Locations
3.10.1 Oil Carrier Cargo Pump Rooms
Cargo pump rooms are a major source of fire risk onboard oil carriers due to the necessity to
operate equipment such as cargo pumps, etc., in an atmosphere where flammable vapors
frequently exist. Accordingly, cargo pump rooms are required to be provided with an approved
fixed fire-extinguishing system controlled from a readily accessible position outside of the pump
room in accordance with SVR 5C-1-7/29.1i). Where a CO2 system is provided to meet this
requirement, the system is to comply with the requirements outlined in SVR 4-7-3/3 and
discussed above, but special concerns exist due to the expected hazardous atmosphere within the
pump room. Therefore special precautions are required as discussed below.
211

(a) General. When carbon dioxide systems are released, the high pressure flow of carbon dioxide
can create ice particles which are subject to establishing a static charge as they flow through the
distribution piping. Since the pump room is a hazardous area with the potential of having a
flammable atmosphere, the discharge of a charged particle against the structure could create a
spark and introduces the potential for igniting the atmosphere. Accordingly, a notice is required
by SVR 5C-1-7/29.1i) to be exhibited at the controls stating that the system is only to be used for
fire-extinguishing and not for inerting purposes, due to the electrostatic ignition hazard. (b) Pre-
discharge Alarms. The audible alarms to warn of the release of the fire-extinguishing medium
into pump rooms as required by SVR 4-7-3/5.1.5 may be of the electric or pneumatic type.
However, special requirements as discussed below must be applied:
Electrically-operated Alarms. When electrically-operated alarms are used, the arrangements are
to be such that the electric actuating mechanism is located outside the space, and the alarms must
be certified as being safe for use in flammable cargo vapor/air mixtures, as indicated in SVR 5C-
1-7/29.1i). Even while the alarm actuating mechanism is located outside the protected space,
hazardous atmospheres exit on the open deck of oil carriers, and the review should ensure that
the device is suitable for the location installed.
CO2-operated Alarms. Owing to the possibility of the generation of static electricity in the
CO2 cloud, CO2-powered alarms should not be encouraged, as indicated in IACS UR F5.
However, SVR 5C-1-7/29.1i) does not specifically prohibit such alarms, and therefore, where the
CO2-powered alarms are utilized, special precautions regarding the testing of the alarms must be
exercised. Where periodic testing of CO2-operated alarms is required, SVR 5C-1-7/29.1i)
indicates that air and not CO2 must be used. Accordingly, where such alarm arrangements are
indicated on the drawing, a placard stating this requirement should be provided.
Air-operated Alarms. Air-operated alarms may also be used. However, the air supplied is to be
dry and clean, and the supply reservoir is to be fitted with a low pressure alarm. The air supply
may be taken from the starting air receivers. Any stop valve fitted in the air supply line is to be
locked or sealed in the open position. Any electrical components associated with the pneumatic
system are to be powered from the main and an emergency source of electrical power.
(c) Required Quantity of Fire-Extinguishing Medium. SVR 5C-1-7/29.3 indicates that where the
fire-extinguishing medium used in the cargo pump room system is also used in systems serving
212

other spaces, the quantity of medium provided or its delivery rate need not be more than the
maximum required for the largest compartment.
Gas Carrier Cargo Pump and Compressor Rooms
Similar to oil carrier pump rooms, gas carrier cargo compressor and pump rooms have
equipment which operates in atmospheres where flammable vapors frequently exist.
Accordingly, these spaces are required to be provided with an approved fixed CO2 fire-
extinguishing system controlled from a readily accessible position outside of the space, in
accordance with SVR 5C-8-11/5.1, and should comply with the requirements in SVR 4-7-3/3.
However, once again special concerns exist, since these spaces will typically have hazardous
atmospheres, and therefore, the following special precautions are applicable.
(a) General. As discussed in 4/3.10.1 of these Guidance Notes, when carbon dioxide systems are
released, the high pressure flow of carbon dioxide can create ice particles which are subject to
establishing a static charge and introduce the potential for igniting the atmosphere. Accordingly,
a notice is required by SVR 5C-8-11/5.1 to be exhibited at the controls stating that the system is
only to be used for fire-extinguishing and not for inerting purposes, due to the electrostatic
ignition hazard.
(b) Additional Quantity of Fire-Extinguishing Medium. In accordance with SVR 5C-8-11/5.1, the
amount of carbon dioxide gas carried should be sufficient to provide a quantity of free gas equal
to 45% of the gross volume of the cargo compressor and pump rooms.

213

(c) Pre-discharge Alarms
Electrically-operated Alarms. When electrically-operated alarms are used, the arrangements are
to be such that the electric actuating mechanism is located outside the space and the alarms must
be certified as being safe for use in flammable cargo vapor/air mixtures. Even while the alarm
actuating mechanism is located outside the protected space, hazardous atmospheres exit on the
open deck of gas carriers, and the review should ensure that the device it is suitable for the
location installed.
Pneumatically-operated Alarms. In accordance with SVR 5C-8-11/5.1.1(a), in those cases
where the periodic testing of such alarms is required, CO2-operated alarms should not be used,
due to the possibility of the generation of static electricity in the CO2 cloud. Air-operated alarms
may be used. However, the air supplied is to be dry and clean, and the supply reservoir is to be
fitted with a low pressure alarm. The air supply may be taken from the starting air receivers. Any
stop valve fitted in the air supply line is to be locked or sealed in the open position. Any
electrical components associated with the pneumatic system are to be powered from the main
and an emergency source of electrical power. Paint Locker and Flammable Liquid Lockers
Paint lockers and flammable liquid lockers are required to be protected by a fire-extinguishing
system and CO2 systems are frequently installed for this purpose. Where installed, the CO2
system is to comply with the requirements discussed above and is to provide sufficient CO2 to
supply a free volume of gas equivalent to at least 40 % of the gross volume of the space.
For more information about acceptable fire-extinguishing arrangements for paint and flammable
liquid lockers, see Section 9 of these Guidance Notes.
Fixed Water Fire-extinguishing Systems
1 General Principles of Fixed Water Fire-extinguishing Systems
Water is an ideal extinguishing medium for many shipboard applications. It is readily available,
has great heat absorbing capabilities and can be used on a variety of fires. There are several
mechanisms involved in the extinguishment of a fire with water. First, there is the cooling of the
flame temperature when water passes through the combustion zone and absorbs heat through
evaporation. Cooling of the flame temperature results in a reduction in the amount of radiant heat
released by the fire, and therefore, a reduction in the amount of heat radiated back to the fuel
surface. Secondly, there is the cooling effect of the fuel surface by the direct impingement of
water droplets on the surface. With a reduction of the radiant heat received at the fuel surface and
214

the additional cooling of the fuel surface by direct contact with the water droplets, there is a
reduction in the amount of combustible gases released. With sufficient cooling of the flame
temperature and/or the fuel, the rate of pyrolysis or vaporization of combustible vapors will be
reduced to a point which combustion will no longer be self-supporting. Water has the important
additional effect of when it evaporates it turns into steam. The steam, which is in the immediate
vicinity of the chemical reaction, displaces the air that supplies oxygen for the combustion
process and results in a smothering of the fire.
Fixed water extinguishing systems are normally considered to include water spray, water
sprinkler and water mist systems. These systems utilize fixed piping systems with distributed
arrays of nozzles located in the overhead, which are supplied from dedicated pump(s). However,
the particular fire hazards and safety concerns vary depending on the particular type of space
being protected. For example, in a machinery space, one would anticipate Class B
combustibles to be involved, while in an accommodation space, one would anticipate the
involvement of Class A combustibles. Even the degree of anticipated supervision has a role.
There are many locations in the accommodation spaces and service spaces that are not
continuously supervised (cabins, storage closets, etc.) and a small initial fire could easily go
unnoticed by shipboard personnel. There are also certain differences in the extinguishing
mechanisms at work for a water mist system as compared to those involved in a water spray or
water sprinkler system. Accordingly, the system designs, as well as the requirements, vary
depending upon the space to be protected and the type of system to be installed. The following
provides a brief discussion regarding the individual types of systems.
Water Spray System
Water spray systems are manually operated, open deluge type systems and are typically used
to protect open ro-ro spaces, Special Category spaces and cargo pump rooms. Water spray
systems are also permitted for use in protecting machinery spaces, but such arrangements are
seldom proposed due to the hazards involved and the availability of suitable alternatives. Like
other types of fixed water extinguishing systems, the water spray system consists of pump(s), a
fixed piping system and a distributed array of nozzles. However, the one distinctive
characteristic of a water spray system is that it utilizes open type nozzles. When this type of
system is activated, water will be discharged simultaneously through all of the branch nozzles,
215

which can result in very high water demand rates. Also, these systems are normally required to
be manually actuated, and therefore, personnel must initiate the discharge of the system.

216

Water Sprinkler Systems
Water sprinkler systems also utilize a distribution system consisting of fixed supply piping and
overhead nozzles. However, unlike water spray systems, water sprinkler systems are designed
for automatic activation. Since these systems are automatically actuated, the distribution system
must be pressurized at all times. To accommodate the automatic release, the sprinkler nozzles
used are of the closed type and fitted with individual heat sensitive links or bulbs that allow the
nozzle to open when the temperature of the air in the vicinity of a particular nozzle exceeds a
certain activation temperature. Since each individual nozzle has its own activation mechanism,
only those nozzles in the immediate vicinity of the fire will see temperatures sufficient for
activation and will open. Normally, the nozzles located directly above or next to the fire source,
as well as the nozzles around the outside perimeter of the fire base, will be opened. Those
nozzles located directly over or near the fire source serve to control the fire by wetting the flames
and fuel source, while the nozzles around the perimeter of the fire serve to pre-cool any
surrounding combustible materials. These systems are normally used to protect accommodation
spaces and service spaces.
Water Mist Systems
Water mist technology has been around for some time. However, only in recent years have
appropriate design and testing criteria been developed by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) for water mist systems in marine applications, permitting their consideration
as acceptable alternatives to the required water spray and sprinkler systems.
Water mist systems have pumping and distribution piping system arrangements similar to those
found with water spray and water sprinkler systems. However, the critical difference between
this type of system and either a water sprinkler or water spray system is in the size of the water
droplets discharged from the nozzles. The water droplets associated with a water mist system are
typically much finer than those discharged from either a water spray or water sprinkler nozzle.
For some water mist systems generating the smaller droplet sizes, the extinguishing medium
discharged is similar to a thick fog.
A number of different techniques are used to generate the smaller water mist droplets, including
impingement, pressure jet and twin fluid methods. The impingement method typically involves
directing the water onto a spiral or spinning device which breaks up the stream into small, well-
distributed droplets. The pressure jet method involves the acceleration and dispersion of small
217

water droplets through swirling chambers or high pressure discharges through very small
orifices. The twin fluid method atomizes the water by injecting the water jet and an atomizing
gas together in such a way as to shear the water droplets into smaller particles, creating a mist.
Depending upon the particular manufacturers design, water mist system pressures can range
from very low pressure, 3-5 bar (43-72 psi) to quite high pressures, 100-150 bar (1450-2175 psi).
The actual size of the water mist droplets created will vary depending upon the particular
technique used and the degree of nozzle refinement developed by the individual manufacturer. It
is important to note that the actual size of the water droplet will impact the degree to which the
various extinguishing mechanisms discussed in the first paragraph of this Section will be actively
involved. To explore this issue further, one must note that water spray and sprinkler systems
discharge relatively large water droplets. Due to the weight and/or inertia of these large
droplets, they fall into the flames. As these large droplets pass through the flame, a certain
amount of the droplet will evaporate. The evaporation absorbs heat from the flame, which results
in a cooling of the flame temperature. A certain amount of steam is also generated. However, due
to the large size, often a significant portion of the droplet will pass through the flame intact and
then contact the fuel surface. The cooling of the fuel surface by the water droplet plays a major
role in the control or extinguishment of the fire by a water spray or water sprinkler system.
In contrast to water spray or water sprinkler droplets, water mist droplets are typically much
smaller. The reduced size of the droplet can significantly impact the extinguishing mechanisms
at work. First, the smaller water mist droplets have minimal weight and their flow paths are more
strongly affected by the fire plume convection currents. As a result, the water mist droplets do
not typically pass through the flame due to their own weight and momentum, and in fact, may
actually have difficulty reaching the flame due to the plume convection currents. Typically, the
water mist droplets are actually carried into the fire with the air currents feeding the fire. These
air currents normally enter the flame at the lower levels of the plume and the water mist droplets
are pulled directly into the combustion zone with the air. This process provides a good
distribution of the mist droplets within the combustion zone of the fire so long as the droplets are
well entrained in the air currents feeding the fire.
218

The second impact on the extinguishing mechanisms is that since the water droplets are much
smaller, a much greater surface area per volume of water is presented to the fire. This facilitates
greater heat absorption and a higher evaporation rate for a particular volume of water. That is, for
the particular volume of water actually entering in the flame region, the smaller water mist
droplets will typically absorb more heat than the typical water spray or water sprinkler droplets
due to the increased amount of exposed surface area. This results in a greater degree of cooling
for the flame per unit volume of water, and therefore, a greater reduction in the amount of heat
radiated back to fuel surface. This increase in heat absorption also increases the amount of
evaporation and produces greater steam generation, and as a result, the smothering action of the
fire by steam is increased.
There are, however, certain negative impacts associated with the reduced size of the water mist
droplets. For spray and water sprinkler systems, the cooling of the fuel surface, especially in the
immediate vicinity of the base of the fire, can play a very important role in the control and
extinguishment of a fire. However, since the water mist droplets are not as large as the typical
water spray or water sprinkler droplets, fewer of the water mist droplets are able to pass through
the flame and impact the fuel surface within the base of the fire while still intact. Also, the lack
of weight or significant inertia of the water mist droplet makes it more difficult to ensure that
water droplets will follow a predictable path. Therefore, more of a total flooding effect is
needed for spaces being protected with water mist applications utilizing smaller size droplets.
Water mist systems have been proposed for use in machinery spaces, as well as in
accommodation and service spaces. In order to address such proposals, IMO developed fire test
criteria for establishing the equivalency of a particular water mist manufacturers system to the
water spray addressed in FSS Code Chapter 7 and the water sprinkler systems addressed in FSS
Code Chapter 8. IMO MSC/Circular 668, as amended by IMO Circular 728, provides the testing
criteria applicable to establish equivalence for use in machinery spaces and cargo pump rooms,
while IMO Resolution A800(19) provides the testing criteria applicable to establish equivalence
to a water mist system for use in accommodations and service spaces.
ABS Requirements for Fixed Water Spray, Water Sprinkler, and Water Mist Systems
The following information is provided as general guidance on the ABS requirements for water
spray, water sprinkler and water mist systems. However, reference should always be made to the
Rules applicable to the specific vessel concerned for the complete set of requirements.
219

General System Component Requirements
Pumps
Pumps associated with water sprinkler, water spray or water mist systems are considered to be
the same as fire pumps and are required to be ABS certified in accordance with SVR 4-6-1/7.3.
Sprinkler System Piping Components and Materials
System piping components are to comply with the general requirements and limitations in SVR
Sections 4-6-1 through 4-6-3. In addition, depending upon the pressure Class (refer to SVR 4-
6-1/Table 1) of the system, the components may also be required to be certified in accordance
with SVR 4-6-1/Table 2. A submitted drawing should include a complete Bill of Materials that
provides the material specifications, standards of construction, pressure ratings and types of all
valves and fittings, as well as the material specification, sizes and wall thickness of the piping, in
accordance with SVR 4-6-1/9.3. The drawing should also identify the maximum system pressure
and provide adequate information to identify the layout and arrangement of the system(s).
In addition to common requirements and limitations in SVR Sections 4-6-1 through 4-6-3, the
materials used in the system are not to be rendered ineffective by heat. In order to be considered
not readily rendered ineffective by heat, a component is to be certified as having passed an
acceptable recognized fire test, or the material is to have a melting temperature higher than the
test temperature specified in an acceptable fire test.

220

Resiliently seated valves may also be considered for use in a water spray, water sprinkler or
water mist system, provided that the proposed valves are capable of passing an appropriate fire
test acceptable to ABS and can be effectively closed with the resilient seat damaged or
destroyed, such that leakage through the closed valve is insignificant. However, rubber (cloth
inserted) gaskets are frequently proposed but are also not permitted, as their destruction under
the fire could lead to the loss of system pressure and integrity.
In addition, particular attention is to be exercised regarding the arrangements of sea suctions,
pumps suction and discharge outlets for compliance with SVR 4-6-2/9.13 and the arrangements
required at the fire-fighting station for fixed fire-extinguishing systems in the propulsion
machinery space by SVR 4-9-6/21.3ix).
For Regulatory compliance, criteria stipulated by the Flag Administration must be satisfied and
may differ from the criteria stated herein.
Nozzles
The nozzles are a very critical component of any fixed pressure water spray, water sprinkler or
water mist system and their proper operation are crucial to the systems ability to control and/or
extinguish a fire. Accordingly, the performance of nozzles should be verified through testing by
an appropriate laboratory, agency or other recognized entity (Administration, ABS, etc.) to a
suitable standard or procedure which is specifically designed to establish and verify the ability of
the nozzle design to consistently provide the discharge spray density, droplet size, coverage
pattern, etc., as advertised by the manufacturer.
In addition to the above, SVR 4-1-1/Table 4 also requires all fixed fire-extinguishing system
components, which would include spray, sprinkler or mist system nozzles, to be covered under
the ABS Certification Program. Accordingly, such nozzles must also meet the requirements
specified in the table for either an Individual Unit Certification or the ABS Type Approval
Program, as described in SVR Appendix 1-1-A3.
Fixed Water Spray Systems in Machinery Spaces
SVR 4-7-2/1.1.1iii) and 4-7-2/1.3i) recognize pressurized water spray systems as acceptable
fixed fire-extinguishing arrangements for use in machinery spaces. The requirements for fixed
water spray systems in machinery spaces are found in SVR 4-7-3/7 and are discussed below.
Nozzles
221

SVR 4-7-3/7.1 requires any required fixed pressure water-spraying fire-extinguishing system in
machinery spaces to be fitted with spraying nozzles of an approved type. As discussed above, the
approval of the nozzle by an appropriate laboratory or agency is very important in documenting
the nozzles performance and suitability for the intended service. Documentation verifying such
approvals should be available.
Coverage Rate
SVR 4-7-3/7.1.2 requires the number and arrangement of the water spray system nozzles to be
sufficient to provide an effective average distribution of water of at least 5 L/min/m2 (0.12
gpm/ft2) over the protected area. It also requires nozzles to be fitted above bilges, tank tops and
other areas over which oil fuel is liable to spread, as well as other specific fire hazards in
machinery spaces. In reviewing the arrangement of the nozzles for a particular application, the
spray density, recommended spacing and coverage pattern identified by the manufacturer for a
particular nozzle should be compared to the proposed layout and spacing. The review must
verify that the design will provide the required spray coverage rate to all portions of the protected
space, as well as verify nozzles are fitted above bilges, tank tops and other areas over which oil
fuel is liable to spread, as well as other specific fire hazards in machinery spaces.
It should be noted that FSS Code Chapter 7 also makes mention of the possible need to require
increased application rates where considered necessary by the Administration. Section 5 Fixed
Water Fire-extinguishing Systems
General Principals of Foam Extinguishing Systems
Extinguishing Effects of Foam
Firefighting foam is used to form a blanket on the surface of flaming liquids. The blanket
prevents flammable vapors from leaving the surface and prevents oxygen from reaching the fuel.
A fire cannot exist when the fuel and oxygen are separated, and therefore, a properly placed
foam blanket will smother the fire. In addition, the water in the foam also has a cooling effect,
which gives foam the ability to cool surrounding structure to help prevent flash back.
The ideal foam should flow freely enough to cover a surface rapidly, yet have adequate cohesive
properties to stick together sufficiently to establish and maintain a vapor tight blanket. In
addition, the solution must retain enough water to provide a long-lasting seal. Rapid loss of water
would cause the foam to dry out and break down (wither) from the high temperatures associated
222

with fire. The foam should also be light enough to float on flammable liquids, yet heavy enough
to resist winds.
Foam Characteristics
Foam must contain the right blend of physical characteristics to be effective:
Knockdown Speed and Flow. The ability of the foam blanket to spread across a fuel surface or
around obstacles and wreckage in order to achieve complete extinguishment is very important.
The foam must have good cohesion properties to maintain the blanket affect yet at the same time
not be so viscous to hinder the ability of the foam to flow over the area and form a self-
supporting blanket.
Heat Resistance. The foam must be able to resist the destructive effects of heat radiated from
any remaining fire from the liquids flammable vapor and any hot metal wreckage or other
objects in the area.
Fuel Resistance. An effective foam minimizes fuel pick-up so that the foam does not become
saturated and burn.

223

Vapor Suppression. The vapor-tight blanket is a critical function of a foams ability to
extinguish a fire. The foam produced must be capable of suppressing the flammable vapors to
break the fuel-oxygen-heat fire triangle and to minimize the risk of re-ignition.
Alcohol Resistance. Due to alcohols affinity to water and because a foam blanket is more than
90% water, foam blankets that are not alcohol-resistant will be destroyed if used on alcohol-
based cargoes.

Types of Foams
There are two basic types of foam, chemical and mechanical.
Chemical Foam
Chemical foam is formed by mixing together a solution of an alkali (usually sodium
bicarbonate), an acid (usually aluminum sulfate), water and a stabilizer. The stabilizer is added to
make the foam tenacious and long-lived. When these chemicals react, they form a foam or froth
of bubbles filled with carbon dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide in the bubbles has little or no
extinguishing value. Its only purpose is to inflate the bubbles. From 7 to 16 volumes of foam are
produced for each volume of water.
Premixed foam powders may also be stored in cans and introduced into the water during fire-
fighting operations. For this, a device called a foam hopper is used. Or, the two chemicals may
be premixed with water to form an aluminum sulfate solution and a sodium bicarbonate solution.
The solutions are then stored in separate tanks until the foam is needed. At that time, the
solutions are mixed to form the foam. Few chemical foam systems are still in use aboard vessels.
224

Mechanical (Air) Foam

Mechanical foam is produced by mixing a foam concentrate with water to produce a foam
solution. The bubbles are formed by the turbulent mixing of air and the foam solution. As the
name air foam implies that the bubbles are filled with air. Aside from the workmanship and
efficiency of the equipment, the degree of mixing determines the quality of the foam. The design
of the equipment determines the quantity of foam produced. There are several types of
mechanical foams, similar in nature, but each has its own special fire-fighting capabilities.
Types of mechanical foams include the following:
(a) Protein Foam. Protein foams were the first types of mechanical foam to be marketed
extensively and have been used since World War I.
These foams are usually produced by the hydrolysis of waste protein material, such as protein-
rich animal waste (i.e., hoofs and horns) and vegetable waste that is hydrolyzed (subjected to a
chemical reaction with water that produces a weak acid). In addition, stabilizing additives and
inhibitors, such as mineral salts, are added to prevent corrosion, resist bacterial decomposition, to
control viscosity and increase their resistance to withering from the heat of a fire.
At the time of a fire, the protein foam concentrates are mixed with fresh or seawater in 3% or 6%
solutions. The foam concentrate can produce foam with all types of water, except water that is
contaminated with oil. When antifreeze is added, foam can be produced in subfreezing
temperatures down to -23.3C (-10F).
225

(b) Fluoroprotein Foam (FP). Fluoroprotein foams are formed by the addition of special
fluorochemical surfactants with protein foam (fluorinated compound bonded to the protein). This
enhances the properties of protein foam by increasing foam fluidity (ease to flow) and improves
the properties of regular protein foam by providing faster knockdown and excellent fuel
tolerance. Fluoroprotein foam works well with dry chemical agents, and when the water is mixed
with antifreeze, it produces foam in sub-freezing temperatures.
(c) Film Forming Fluoroprotein Foam (FFFP). FFFPs are a combination of fluorochemical
surfactants with protein foam. They are designed to combine the burnback resistance of a
fluoroprotein foam with an increased knockdown power. These foams also release a film on the
surface of the hydrocarbon.

226

227

(d) Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF). AFFFs are a combination of fluorochemical
surfactants and synthetic foaming agents that create a unique characteristic an aqueous film.
This film is a thin layer of foam solution with unique surface energy characteristics that spreads
rapidly across the surface of a hydrocarbon fuel causing dramatic fire knockdown.
The aqueous film is produced by the action of the fluorochemical surfactant reducing the surface
tension of the foam solution to a point where the solution can actually be supported on the
surface of the hydrocarbon.
AFFFs are more effective on hydrocarbons (fuels) with higher surface tensions, such as
kerosene, diesel oil and jet fuels, and less effective on fuels with lower surface tensions, such as
hexane and high octane gasolines.
AFFFs may drain foam solution (the water and foam concentrate mixture) rapidly from the
foam bubble to produce optimum film formation for rapid fire extinguishment. To achieve these
qualities, long term sealability and burnback resistance are sacrificed.
(e) Alcohol Resistant-Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AR-AFFF). Alcohol resistant foams are
produced from a combination of synthetic stabilizers, foaming agents, fluorochemicals and
alcohol resistant membrane forming additives.
Polar solvents and water miscible fuels, such as alcohols, are destructive to non-alcohol resistant
type foams. Alcohol aggressively mixes with the water in the foam and destroys the foam
blanket and its fire-fighting properties.
Alcohol resistant foams act as a conventional AFFF on hydrocarbon fuels, forming an aqueous
film on the surface of the hydrocarbon fuel. When used on alcohol type fuels, the membrane
forming additives form a tough polymeric (sometimes called mucoloid) membrane which
separates the foam from the alcohol and prevents the destruction of the foam blanket.
While some concentrates are designed for use on alcohol-type fuels at 6% and hydrocarbon fuels
at 3%, todays newer formulations are designed to be used at 3% on both fuel groups. These
newer formulations provide more cost effective protection of alcohol-type fuels, using half the
amount of concentrate as a 3%/6% agent. The use of a 3 3 AR-AFFF also simplifies setting the
proportioning percentage at an incident, since it is always 3%.
Overall, AR-AFFFs are the most versatile type of foam available today, offering good burnback
resistance, knockdown and high fuel tolerance on both hydrocarbon and alcohol fuel fires.
228

2.3.2(f) Synthetic Foam. Synthetic detergent-base foam is made up of alkyl sulfonates. This form
has less burnback resistance than protein formulas, but may be used with all dry chemicals. It
foams more readily than the proteins and requires less water. This is important where the water
supply is limited.
2.3.3 Low Expansion Foams
Low expansion foams are considered to be those foams with an expansion ratio of 12:1 when
mixed with air. That is one volume if foam concentrate will create 12 volumes of foam. Low
expansion foams are effective in controlling and extinguishing most flammable liquid (Class
B) fires. Foams typically used on tanker deck foam systems are of the low expansion foam
type.
Mid Low Expansion Foams
Mid expansion foams refer to those foams with an expansion ratio of between about 20:1 to
100:1. Few applications of mid expansion foams are found in shipboard applications.
High-Expansion Foams
High-expansion foams are those that expand in ratios of over 100:1. Most systems produce
expansion ratios of from 400:1 to 1000:1. Unlike conventional foam, which provides a blanket a
few inches over the burning surface, high-expansion foam is truly three dimensional; it is
measured in length, width, height, and cubic feet.

229

High-expansion foam is designed for fires in confined spaces. Heavier than air but lighter than
oil or water, it will flow down openings and fill compartments, spaces and crevices, replacing air
in these spaces. In this manner, it deprives the fire of oxygen. Because of its water content, it
absorbs heat from the fire and cools the burning material. When the high-expansion foam has
absorbed sufficient heat to turn its water content to steam at 100C (212F), it has absorbed as
much heat as possible, and then the steam continues to replace oxygen and thus combat the fire.
Limitations on the Use of Foam
Foams are effective extinguishing agents when used properly. However, they do have some
limitations, including the following:
i) Because they are aqueous (water) solutions, foams are electrically conductive and should not
be used on live electrical equipment.
ii) Like water, foams should not be used on combustible-metal fires.
iii) Many types of foam must not be used with dry chemical extinguishing agents. AFFF is an
exception to this rule and may be used in a joint attack with dry chemical.
iv) Foams are not suitable for fires involving gases and cryogenic (extremely low temperature)
liquids.
v) If foam is placed on burning liquids (like asphalts) whose temperatures exceed 100C (212F),
the water content of the foam may cause frothing, spattering or slopover. Slopover is different
from boilover, although the terms are frequently confused. Boilover occurs when the heat from a
fire in a tank travels down to the bottom of the tank and causes water that is already there to boil
and push part of the tanks contents over the side. Certain oils with a high water content, such as
crude oil, have a notorious reputation for boilover. Slop-over occurs when foam, introduced into
a tank of hot oil [surface temperature over 100C (212F)] sheds its water content due to the high
heat. The water forms an emulsion of steam, air and the foam itself. The forming of the emulsion
is accompanied by a corresponding increase in volume. Since tanks are three dimensional, the
only place for the emulsion to go is over the sides of open tanks or into the vents of enclosed
tanks.
vi) Sufficient foam must be on hand to ensure that the entire surface of burning material can be
covered. In addition, there should be enough foam to replace foam that is burned off and to seal
breaks in the foam surface.

230

Advantages of Foam
In spite of its limitations, foam is quite effective in combating Class B and some Class A
fires and has the following advantages:
i) Foam is a very effective smothering agent, and it provides cooling as a secondary effect.
ii) Foam sets up a vapor barrier that prevents flammable vapors from rising. The surface of an
exposed tank can be covered with foam to protect it from a fire in a neighboring tank.
iii) Foam is of some use on Class A fires because of its water content. AFFF is especially
effective, as are certain types of wet-water foam. Wet-water foam is made from detergents, and
its water content quickly runs out and seeps into the burning material. It is not usually found
aboard vessels; a more likely use is in protecting bulk storage in piers or warehouses.
iv) Foam is effective in blanketing oil spills. However, if the oil is running, an attempt should be
made to shut down a valve, if such action would stop the flow. If that is impossible, the flow
should be dammed. Foam should be applied on the upstream side of the dam (to extinguish the
fire) and on the downstream side (to place a protective cover over any oil that has seeped
through).
v) Foam is the most effective extinguishing agent for fires involving large tanks of flammable
liquids.
vi) Foam can be made with fresh water or seawater, and hard or soft water.
vii) Foam does not break down readily, and it extinguishes fire progressively when applied at an
adequate rate.
viii) Foam stays in place, covers and absorbs heat from materials that could cause re-ignition.

231

ix) Foam uses water economically.
x) Foam concentrates are not heavy, and foam systems do not take up much space.
Basic Guidelines for Foam
Storage
If manufacturer recommendations are followed, then protein or synthetic foam concentrates
should be ready for active service even after many years of storage.
Water Temperature and Contaminants
Foams in general are more stable when generated with lower temperature water. Although all
foam liquids will work with water in excess of 37.7C (100F), the typical concentrate works
best with water in the temperature range between 1.7C and 26.7C (35F and 80F). Either fresh
or sea water may be used. Water containing known foam contaminants, such as detergents, oil
residues, or certain corrosion inhibitors, may adversely affect foam quality.
Combustible Products in Air
It is desirable to take clean air into the foam nozzle at all times, although the effect of
contaminated air on foam quality is minor with low expansion foams.
Water Pressures
Nozzle pressures should be held between 3.4 bar and 13.8 bar (50 and 200 psi). If a proportioner
is used, proportioner pressure should not exceed 13.8 bar (200 psi). Foam quality deteriorates at
higher pressures. Range falls off at lower pressures.
Non-ignited Spills
Where flammable liquids have spilled, fires can be prevented by prompt coverage of the spill
with a foam blanket. Additional foam may be necessary from time to time, to maintain the
blanket for extended periods until the spill has been cleaned up.
Electrical Fires
Foam should be considered nearly the same as water when used on electrical fires, and is
therefore not generally recommended for use on electrical fires. However, if the supply of
current to the electrical circuits can be interrupted or broken, then foam can be used to extinguish
such fires.
Vaporized Liquids
Foam is not recommended for use on materials that may be stored as liquids, but are normally
vapor at ambient conditions, such as propane, butadiene and vinylchloride. Fire-fighting foam is
232

not recommended for use on materials that react with water, such as magnesium, titanium,
potassium, lithium, calcium, zirconium, sodium and zinc.
Foam System Equipment
As mentioned above, finished foam is a combination of foam concentrate, water and air. When
these components are brought together in proper proportions and thoroughly mixed, foam is
produced. The following is a discussion of the typical types of equipment used in the production
of foam.
Proportioning Devices
All foam proportioners are designed to introduce the proper percentage of foam concentrate into
the water stream. There are several varieties of proportioning systems available to the fire service
today. The choices range from the more commonly-used and economical in-line eductors to
Around-the-Pump systems to the sophisticated and more expensive Balanced Pressure systems.
(a) Eductors. Eductors are the most common form of proportioning equipment. They are
used for dedicated foam discharges and around-the-pump systems.

233

Eductors work on the Venturi principle. Water is introduced, under pressure, at the inlet of the
eductor. The eductor reduces the orifice available for the water to pass through, so it must speed
up to get through. This creates a pressure drop that, in turn, puts suction on the pick-up tube. As
the foam concentrate is pulled up the tube, it passes through a metering valve that allows the
correct percentage to be introduced into the water stream. In most cases, the metering valve can
be adjusted to select a 1, 3, or 6% foam solution.
Eductors are extremely reliable and simple pieces of equipment. However, they do have certain
limitations.
Educator GPM Flow Rate Restrictions. All eductors have liters per minute (gallons per minute)
solution flow rating. Typically, 227, 360, 473, 946 L/min (60, 95, 125, 250 gpm) models are
available. The eductor must be matched with a nozzle that has the same flow rating. Eductor/
Nozzle mismatches are the most common cause of fire service proportioning problems.
Mismatches can result in a weak solution or a complete shut-down of foam concentrate pick-up.
Inlet Pressure Requirements. Eductors establish their pressure drop at a fairly high energy cost.
The loss between the inlet and outlet pressure of an eductor can be 40% or more. In order to
accommodate this loss and still provide adequate nozzle pressure, relatively high eductor inlet
pressures are necessary. Most manufacturers recommend inlet pressures at the eductor in the
range of 12.4-13.8 bar (180-200 psi).
Most eductors will continue to pick up at lower inlet pressures. However, at these lower
pressures, the solution flow drops. Under these conditions, it becomes impossible to accurately
know the concentration of the foam solution being delivered to the fire.
Back Pressure Restrictions. Too much back pressure on an eductor can shut down foam
concentrate pick up. Therefore:
The nozzle and eductor must be matched.
The nozzle must be fully opened or fully closed. It cannot be in-between.
Prevent kinks in the hose line between nozzle and eductor.
The nozzle should not be elevated above the eductor.
The hose lay cannot exceed manufacturers recommendation.
Following these simple rules helps to eliminate excessive back pressure on the eductor.
234

Eductors Must be Kept Clean. Eductors must be thoroughly cleaned after each use. Failure to
clean an eductor can result in clogging and blockage due to hardening foam concentrate residue.
If this occurs, the eductor will not function properly, if at all.
When eductors are properly understood and maintained, they can accurately and reliably
proportion foam at relatively low cost.
(b) Around-the-Pump Systems. Another method of proportioning is the Around-the-Pump type
system. In this case, an eductor is installed on the discharge side of the water pump. As before,
water flow causes a vacuum that picks up and introduces the foam concentrate into the pump
suction. An adjustable metering valve controls the flow of the foam concentrate.
Around-the-pump systems offer several advantages when compared to an in-line eductor:
Variable Flow Rate. The discharge rate can be adjusted for the specific application. The rate is
infinitely variable up to the maximum flow of the unit.
Variable Pressure. The system operates at any pressure above 8.6 bar (125 psi). The pump
operation is the same with foam or water.
No Back Pressure Restrictions. The unit is not affected by hose length or elevation loss.
No Nozzle Restrictions. The unit operates with any size or type of nozzle.

235

However, Around-the-Pump systems have their own limitations:
Pump inlet pressure is limited to 0.7 bar (10 psi) to prevent a back pressure condition that will
shut the system down.
There is no choice of simultaneous flow of foam solution and plain water.
An operator must continually calculate, set and monitor the foam proportioning metering valve
to correspond with the volume [L/min (gpm)] being flowed.
Clean-up time can be long since ALL discharges must be flushed, whether or not they were
opened during the operation.
(c) Balanced Pressure Foam Proportioners. Balanced pressure systems are extremely versatile
and accurate. Most often these systems are associated with fixed systems and specialized mobile
equipment. Their design and operation are complex.
The principle of operation is based on the use of a modified venturi proportioner commonly
called a ratio controller. As water passes through a jet at the inlet of the ratio controller, it creates
a reduced pressure area between the jet and a downstream section called a throat or receiver.
This reduction in pressure causes foam concentrate to flow through a metering orifice and into
the reduced pressure area.
As the water flow through the ratio controller jet increases, so does the level of pressure
reduction, thereby affecting a corresponding pressure drop across the foam liquid metering
orifice. This corresponding pressure drop results in a foam liquid flow which is proportionate to
the water flow through the ratio controller. As both the water and foam liquid flow into a
common reduced pressure area, it is necessary only to maintain identical water and foam liquid
pressures at the inlets of the ratio controller.
Pressure sensing lines lead from the foam liquid and water lines upstream of the ratio controller
water and foam inlets to the diaphragm valve. This valve automatically adjusts the foam liquid
pressure to correspond to the water pressure. A duplex gauge monitors balancing of foam liquid
and water pressures on a single gauge.
For manual operation, the diaphragm valve is not required. The pressure of the foam liquid is
adjusted to correspond to the water pressure by means of a manually operated valve in the foam
liquid bypass piping.
236

The pressure loss across the proportioner is approximately 1.7-2.1 bar (25-30 psi) at maximum
flow, depending on the ratio controller size selected. The minimum flow for which this device
will proportion correctly is approximately 15% of the maximum flow for which it is designed.
Balanced proportioning allows for a wide range of flows and pressures without manual
adjustments, while placing no limitations on inlet pressure during foam operation.
Foam Nozzles
For the most effective and economical use, the foam solution must be properly expanded.
Standard fog nozzles generally do not provide optimum expansion, and therefore, do not provide
for the best, most cost effective application of the foam supply. In the case of Polar Solvent fuels,
these standard fog nozzles may not deliver a foam quality that is able to extinguish the fire.
Foam nozzles are specifically designed to air aspirate (expand) the foam solution and form
finished foam. There are three main types of foam nozzles.
(a) Low Expansion. Low expansion nozzles expand foam solution up to 12:1, i.e., for every 3.8
liters (1 gallon) of foam solution that enters the base of the nozzle, approximately 45.6 liters (12
gallons) of finished foam is produced. These nozzles draw air at the base of the nozzle, the air
and the solution mix travel up the foam tube (this is called residence time) and the properly-
expanded foam exits the nozzle.
(b) Medium Expansion. Medium expansion nozzles can have expansion characteristics as high as
100:1, although expansions of 50:1 are more common. They operate in much the same way as
low expansion nozzles. However, the diameter of the nozzle is much larger.
(c) High Expansion. High expansion foam nozzles can expand foam in excess of 100:1, when
high expansion foam concentrates are used.
237

The foam monitors or turrets are permanently-installed foam discharge units capable of being
aimed and projecting large quantities of foam substantial distances. They normally are mounted
on a rotating base that allows the projection of foam in a 360-degree circle around the monitor
platform. The angle of throw from the horizon can also be adjusted to facilitate flexibility in
directing the foam to the fire. The foam solution is supplied to the monitor through a hard-piped
foam main system that incorporates an expansion nozzle to aspirate the foam.
Applicators
Foam applicators are portable foam discharge devices supplied with foam solution through a
hose from the hard-piped foam main. The applicators provide the flexibility to apply foam
directly to specific locations or in a manner that the monitors may not be effective.
Valves and Piping
The foam solution is distributed from the proportioning device to the monitors or applicators
through a system of pipes and valves. The piping system must be adequately designed to match
the flow rates of the equipment, and a thorough understanding of the system control valves is
critical for quick and effective operation of the system. A diagram of the piping system and
control valves is typically posted in the foam supply room and identifies which valves are to be
opened in the event the system must be activated. The diagram normally explains thoroughly and
clearly all the steps necessary to put the system into operation. Color coding of the valves is also
frequently used and aids in identification (e.g., all valves that are to be opened when a fire alarm
is received might be painted some distinctive color). Each valve is also normally labeled as to its
function, which helps in operating, restoring and maintaining the system.
Foam Concentrate Storage
The foam-concentrate is stored in tanks ready to supply the proportioning system. The
concentrate tank should be kept filled with liquid halfway into the expansion dome to ensure
238

prolonged storage life of the concentrate. The tank should be kept closed to the atmosphere,
except for the pressure-vacuum vent. When a tank is partially empty, there is a larger liquid
surface area to interact with air. This allows excessive evaporation and condensation, which
degrade the foam concentrate and permit corrosion of the tank shell.
Foam Fire Fighting Application Techniques
Bounce-off Technique
When foam nozzles are used, particular care should be taken to apply the foam as gently as
possible. For straight stream use, the foam should be bounced or banked off of a wall or other
obstruction when available.
Bank-in Technique
Foam can also be rolled onto the fuel surface by hitting the ground in front of the spill, and
allowing the foam to pile up in front of the spill. The velocity of the stream will roll the foam
onto the fuel.
Rain-down Technique
The foam nozzle is directed almost straight up and the foam stream is allowed to reach its
maximum height and break into small droplets. The nozzle operator must adjust the altitude of
the nozzle so the fallout pattern matches that of the spill area. This technique can provide a very
fast and effective knockdown. However, if the fuel has had a significant preburn and a thermal
column has developed, or if the weather is severe (high winds), the Raindown method may not
be practical or effective.

239

Never Plunge
Plunging the stream directly into the fire can splash the fuel causing the fire to spread. If a foam
blanket exists, plunging can break the existing blanket allowing vapors to escape. This usually
results in spreading the fire, reignition or flare ups. Usually, the fire will lessen in intensity or
self-extinguish once the plunging stream is removed.
If the foam nozzle is equipped with a spray stream attachment, it should be used to provide the
gentlest application possible and reduce the mixing of foam and fuel. Only as a last resort should
a straight stream be directed into the center of a pool or spill. Under this condition, the efficiency
of the foam will be 1/3 or less than when applied by the recommended methods.
Conventional AFFFs may be used effectively with standard water spray nozzles under some
conditions although a very unstable foam with relatively poor reignition resistance is formed
from such devices.
Do not use water streams in such a way as to physically disrupt a foam blanket. Water streams
may be used for cooling adjacent areas or as a fine spray to reduce flame radiant heat. However,
do not direct water streams where a foam blanket has been or is being applied.
3 ABS Requirements for Foam Extinguishing Systems
The following information is provided as general guidance regarding the ABS requirements for
foam fire-extinguishing systems. However, reference should always be made to the Rules
applicable to the specific vessel concerned for the complete set of requirements.
General Requirements Applicable to All Foam Systems
Design and Certification of Piping Components
All valves, fittings and piping are to comply with the applicable requirements of SVR Sections 4-
6-1 and 4-6-2. Accordingly, all valves and fittings are to be designed and constructed in
accordance with a recognized standard, be suitable for the intended pressures and comply with
all other requirements in SVR Section 4-6-2. These components are also to be certified in
accordance with SVR 4-6-1/7 and of SVR 4-1-1/Table 6, as applicable.
Pipe and Pipe Joints
The design of the pipe and pipe joints is to comply with the requirements in SVR 4-6-2/5.
Accordingly, compliance with the wall thickness requirements for the piping specified in SVR 4-
6-2/5.1, as well as compliance of the type and design of the pipe joints with SVR 4-6-2/5.3 and
SVR 4-6-2/5.5, should be verified during plan review.
240

Materials
In addition to the common requirements and limitations in SVR Section 4-6-1 and 4-6-2, the
materials used in the system should not to be rendered ineffective by heat. This requirement is
important to ensure that the foam system will remain intact and functional even if a portion of
the foam system piping is actually within the immediate vicinity of the fire. In order to be
considered not readily rendered ineffective by heat, a component is to be certified as having
passed an acceptable recognized fire test or the material is to have a melting temperature higher
than the test temperature specified in an acceptable fire test.
Accordingly, the review should verify that the materials of the valves, fittings and pipe, as well
as the method of joining sections of pipe, will not be rendered ineffective by heat.
3.1.4 Pumps
The pumps associated with the foam system are obviously critical to the satisfactory operation of
the system, and therefore, should be tested in the presence of a Surveyor, in accordance with
SVR 4-6-1/7.

241

Pressure Vessels
In some designs, the concentrate storage tank utilizes a bladder and is subjected to pump pressure
to facilitate the discharge of the concentrate in water stream. Where such designs are used, the
tank is to be considered a pressure vessel and is to comply with the requirements of SVR Section
4-4-1, as applicable.
System Component Certification
In accordance with of SVR 4-1-1/Table 4, fixed fire-extinguishing system components are to be
certified. Accordingly, components such as foam system eductors, proportioners, monitors,
nozzles, etc., are to comply with the certification requirements specified in SVR 4-1-1/Table 4
and details verified accordingly.
Additional Requirements for Oil Carrier Deck Foam Systems
Application
SVR 5C-1-7/23.1 requires oil carriers of 20,000 tonnes deadweight and upward to be fitted with
protection of the cargo rank deck area and cargo tanks by a deck foam system and requires those
vessels of less than 20,000 tonnes deadweight to be fitted with a deck foam system or equivalent.
Accordingly almost all oil carriers are required to be fitted with a deck foam system
Related I ACS Unified I nterpretation
UI SC131 re. SOLAS Chapter I I -2, Regulation 55.2 (SOLAS (2000 Amendments) I I -2/1.6.2)
(Last Paragraph)
Liquid cargoes with a flashpoint above 60C other than oil products or liquid cargoes subject to
the Chemical Codes requirements are considered to constitute a low fire risk not requiring the
protection of a foam extinguishing system.
The system requirements for the deck foam system are found in SVR 5C-1-7/27. The following
is an outline of the requirements specified in SVR 5C-1-7/27.
General
In accordance with SVR 5C-1-7/27.1, the deck foam system is to be capable of discharging foam
at the required rates to the entire cargo tank deck area, as well as into any cargo tank that is open
due to a rupture in the deck. This system will normally consist of fixed monitors, as well as
required hand line applicators.
Controls
242

SVR 5C-1-7/27.1 requires that the deck foam system is to be capable of simple and rapid
operation. This requires that the controls and arrangements for the system be designed so that it
can be brought into operation quickly and would preclude complicated interconnections with
non-firefighting systems.
SVR 5C-1-7/27.1 also requires that the main control station for the system be located outside the
cargo area, adjacent to the accommodation spaces and readily accessible and operable in the
event of fire in the area being protected by the foam system. This Paragraph is considered to
require the control arrangements (controls for the motors, valves, pumps, etc., required to operate
the system) to be in the location described above. The deck foam system concentrate tank,
proportioner unit, etc., are also normally installed in the above location but are not specifically
mandated to be located at the control station, and therefore, may be in the engine room. The
pump(s) supplying water are normally located down in the engine room, but the controls for the
pumps, as well as all portions of the foam system not located within the space containing the
foam system control station, should be operable from the foam system control station.
Related I ACS Unified I nterpretation
UI SC150 re. SOLAS Chapter I I -2, Regulation 61.2, (FSS Code Chapter 14/3)
The major equipment such as the foam concentrate tank and the pumps may be located in the
engine room. The controls of the system are to be located in accordance with

243

Application Rate/System Flow Calculations
The minimum flow rate for the deck foam system for a typical oil carrier is determined by the
criteria identified in SVR 5C-1-7/27.3. This Paragraph identifies three different sets of criteria,
and the minimum capacity of the system is not to be less than the largest of the coverage rates
identified. These different sets of criteria are discussed in the following:
i) SVR 5C-1-7/27.3i) requires a system flow rate of not less than 0.6 L/min/m2 (0.015 gpm/ft2)
based upon the total cargo tank deck area. The cargo tank deck area is further defined as the
maximum breadth of the vessel multiplied by the total longitudinal extent of the cargo tank
spaces.
ii) SVR 5C-1-7/27.3ii) requires a system flow rate of not less than 6.0 L/min/m2 (0.15 gpm/ft2)
based upon the horizontal deck area of the single largest cargo tank.
iii) SVR 5C-1-7/27.3iii) requires a system flow rate of not less than 3.0 L/min/m2 (0.075
gpm/ft2) of the area protected by the largest monitor, but not less than 1,250 L/min.
As indicated above, the minimum flow rate of the system is not to be less than the largest rate
identified in the three sets of criteria specified in SVR 5C-1-7/27.3.
Complete detailed system flow/pressure drop calculations are required to verify that the capacity
and sizing of the system pumps, piping and monitors are adequate to comply with the above
requirements.
There are certain cargoes on which regular foams are not effective and certain alternative
requirements, including different application rates, are applicable. For more information, refer to
6/3.2.12 of these Guidance Notes.
Foam Concentrate Quantity
For a vessel fitted with an inert gas system, the amount of foam concentrate carried onboard is to
be sufficient to supply the system for a period of at least 20 minutes when operating at the
systems maximum flow rate. For a vessel not fitted with an inert gas system, the amount of
foam concentrate carried onboard is to be sufficient to supply the system for a period of at least
30 minutes when operating at the systems maximum flow rate. The above is based upon the
requirements in SVR 5C-1-7/27.5.
The amount of foam concentrate required to be carried should be calculated based upon the
maximum rated capacity of the system for the time period specified above, and as indicated in
SVR 5C-1-7/27.5, the expansion ratio of the foam should not typically be greater that 12:1.
244

However, if it is slightly greater than 12:1, the calculated amount is still to be based upon the
12:1 ratio. If a medium expansion foam (between 50:1 and 150:1) is to be used, the same would
require special approval.
System Arrangements
Based on the requirements of SVR 5C-1-7/27.7, the cargo deck foam system is to be a fixed
system. Also, on tankers of 4,000 DWT and above, the system is to consist of monitors, as well
as foam applicators. Tankers of less than 4,000 DWT may utilize a fixed system supplying only
foam applicators with a capacity of not less than 25% of the foam supply rate required in SVR
5C-1-7/27.3i) or 5C-1-7/27.3ii) [6/2.4i) and 6/2.4ii) of these Guidance Notes].

Foam Monitors
The cargo deck foam monitors (see general discussion above for definition/description) are
critical components of the deck foam system since they provide the crew with the ability to
engage the fire by placing large quantities of foam where needed from a relatively safe location.
SVR 5C-1-7/27.7 and 5C-1-7/27.9 provide specific requirements concerning the number,
capacity and locations of the monitors. Details of the monitor(s), as well as the proposed
locations should be checked. These requirements are summarized below:
Each monitor must have the capacity to deliver not less than 50% of the foam required in SVR
5C-1-7/27.3i) and 5C-1-7/27.3ii) [6/2.4i) and 6/2.4ii) of these Guidance Notes]. In addition, each
monitor is to have a capacity of at least 3.0 L/min/m2 (0.074 gpm/ft2) of the area protected by
that monitor, but in no case less than 1,250 L/min (330 gpm). The capacity of the monitors
should be verified by reviewing the monitor capacity curves produced by the manufacturer at the
pressure indicated in the foam piping system pressure drop calculations. Accordingly, pressure-
drop calculations for the foam piping distribution system should be requested and reviewed.
245

The number and position of the monitors is to be adequate to provide coverage to the entire
cargo tank deck area, as well as into any cargo tank that is open due to a rupture in the deck. The
coverage area of any particular monitor is to be based upon the following:
i) Only the area forward of the monitor is to be considered to be protected by that particular
monitor.
ii) The distance to the farthest point of the coverage of a monitor is not to be more than 75% of
the monitor through in still air.
iii) Monitors are to be provided both on the port as well as starboard sides of the vessel at the
front of the accommodations space.
Compliance regarding the locations and capacities of the monitors with the above requirements
should be verified by reviewing a deck foam system arrangement drawing in conjunction with
the monitor capacity and throw data provided by the monitor manufacturer along with system
pressure flow drop calculations determining the pressure at the inlet of the monitor.
Foam Applicators
The foam applicators (see general discussion above for definition/description) are also a critical
component of the deck foam system as they provide the crew with the versatility and flexibility
needed to combat a cargo tank fire. SVR 5C-1-7/27.11 and 5C-1-7/27.13 provide specific
requirements concerning the number, capacity and locations of the applicators. Details of the
applicators, as well as the proposed locations, should be checked. These requirements are
summarized below:
Each applicator must have the capacity to deliver not less than 401 L/min (106 gpm) and a throw
of at least 15 m (50 feet) in still air. Once again, the capacity and throw of the applicators should
be verified by reviewing the capacity and throw curves produced by the manufacturer at the
pressure indicated in the foam piping system pressure drop calculations.
Each monitor station is to be provided with a hose connection for an applicator, including the
monitor stations provided at the port and starboard sides of the vessel at the front of the
accommodations space.
The number and locations of the foam main outlets for hose connections to serve the foam
applicators is to be sufficient to ensure that at least two (2) applicators can be directed to any part
of the cargo tank deck area.
246

At least four (4) applicators with the appropriate hoses, connection devices, etc., are to be carried
onboard.
Isolation Valves
The foam main is to be fitted with isolation valves immediately forward of any monitor position
so as to provide the means to isolate damaged sections of the main, as required by SVR 5C-1-
7/15. These isolation valves should be of a type, design and material that will ensure that they
will not be rendered ineffective by heat.
Simultaneous Operation
SVR 5C-1-7/27.17 specifies that the operation of the deck foam system at its required output is
to permit the simultaneous use of the minimum required number of jets of water at the required
pressure from the fire main. This is especially important to note when the fire pumps are being
utilized to also supply the foam system. If the fire pumps are used for this service, the combined
capacity of the fire pumps must be capable of supplying the total required fire main capacity at
the required pressures while simultaneously supplying the maximum capacity required by the
foam system.

247

UI SC61 re. SOLAS Chapter II-2, Regulation 61.10 (FSS Code Chapter. 14/2.1.3)
A common line for fire main and deck foam line can only be accepted provided it can be
demonstrated that the hose nozzles can be effectively controlled by one person when supplied
from the common line at a pressure needed for operation of the monitors. Additional foam
concentrate is to be provided for operation of 2 hose nozzles for the same period of time required
for the foam system. The simultaneous use of the minimum required jets of water should be
possible on deck over the full length of the vessel, in the accommodation, service spaces, control
stations and machinery spaces.
Foam Concentrate Quality and Testing
As discussed above, the quality of the foam and its suitability for use in the intended application
is critical. Accordingly, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has developed
performance testing criteria for foam concentrates. This testing criterion is provided in IMO
Circular 582, Guidelines for the Performance and Testing Criteria, and Surveys of Low-
Expansion Foam Concentrates for Fixed Fire Extinguishing Systems. The testing procedure
covers a wide spectrum of requirements, from freezing and drain time testing to expansion ratio
and fire testing. It is important to note that certain portions of the testing, such as the expansion
ratio, drain time and fire tests, are dependent upon the types of mixing and expansion equipment
used (proportioners, monitors, etc.). Accordingly, it should be verified that the foam concentrate
has been tested in accordance with IMO Circular 582 and further, that the equipment being
provided onboard is the same equipment utilized during the testing or is equipment that will
produce foam which is equivalent to that tested.
Suitability of Foam Concentrate
In addition to the above, it is critical to recognize that the foam to be used must be suitable for
the particular cargoes to be carried. While this is not normally a problem with most cargoes
being carried by an Oil Carrier, the carriage of products such as MTBE, which is a polar
solvent cargo, by Oil Carriers must be recognized. Accordingly, during the review of the deck
foam system, clarification should be requested as to whether the vessel is to carry any polar
solvent cargoes, and if so, then the suitability of the foam for such cargoes should be verified.
UI SC131 re. SOLAS Chapter II-2, Regulation 55.2 (SOLAS 2000 II-2/1.6.2)
248

A liquid cargo with a flashpoint not exceeding 60C for which a regular foam fire fighting
system complying with Regulation 61 is not effective, is considered to be a cargo introducing
additional fire hazards in the scope of Regulation II-2/55.2 (SOLAS 2000 II-2/1.6.2) The
following additional measures are required: The foam should be of an alcohol resistant type.
The capacity and application rates of the foam extinguishing system should comply with Chapter
11 of the IBC Code, except that lower application rates may be accepted based on performance
tests. For tankers fitted with inert gas systems a quantity of foam concentrate sufficient for 20
min. of foam generation may be accepted.
For determining which cargoes require the use of an alcohol-resistant foam, the MSC/Circular
553 may be used for guidance.
Liquid cargoes with a flashpoint above 60C other than oil products or liquid cargoes subject to
the Chemical Codes requirements are considered to constitute a low fire risk not requiring the
protection of a foam extinguishing system.

249

Example Calculation of the Capacity of Foam System for Oil Carrier
Ship particulars
Beam = 14.5 m
Length of cargo area = 56 m
Length of largest cargo tank = 9 m
Cargo deck area = 14.5 m 56 m = 812 m2
Horizontal sectional area of single largest tank = 14.5 m 9 m = 130.5 m2
(Note: For the purpose of this illustration, a single tank encompasses the entire beam of the
vessel)
Proposed monitor spacing = 9 m
Area protected by largest monitor = 9 m 14.5 m = 130.5 m2
Gas Carrier Cargo Area Fire-extinguishing Systems
1 Unique Hazards of Fires Onboard Gas Carriers
Gas carriers present a number of unique fire hazards. Therefore, the fire-fighting systems used
must be carefully reviewed to ensure they are adequate for the dangers involved. The unique
hazards associated with gas carriers include:
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs)
Vapor release of cargo, leading to creation of gas clouds
Liquid pool fires, where discharge of water would only increase the evaporation rate and
intensify the fire
Jet fires
Flammability
When a gas is released to the atmosphere, it will burn if within its flammable range or if exposed
to a source of ignition. Depending upon the conditions under which combustion takes place,
some degree of overpressure will also occur due to the rapid expansion of the heated gas. A
liquid spill or vapor cloud burning over open water will develop little overpressure due to the
unconfined nature of its surroundings. However, ignition of vapor within an enclosed space
rapidly creates an overpressure sufficient to burst the boundaries.
In cases of partial confinement, such as what might occur among shore plants and equipment,
ignition may produce an overpressure sufficient to cause substantial damage, thus escalating the
250

hazard and its consequences. If a leakage of liquid or vapor occurs from a pipeline under
pressure, it will burn as a jet and continue to burn as long as fuel is supplied.
BLEVE
A particularly destructive form of vapor burn, BLEVE is associated with the storage of liquefied
gas in pressurized containers. The BLEVE is a phenomenon associated with the sudden and
catastrophic failure of a pressurized containment vessel when subjected to surrounding fire. This
is one of the most devastating of liquefied gas accident scenarios.
In all BLEVE incidents, the pressure vessel is subjected to flame impingement. BLEVEs occur
when the fire increases internal tank pressure, and particularly at that part of the vessel not
cooled by the internal liquid, the structure can be weakened to the point of failure. As a result,
the tank can suddenly split, throwing pieces of the vessels shell a considerable distance, and
concave sections such as end caps, being propelled like rockets if they contain liquid. Upon
rupture, the sudden decompression produces a blast and the pressure immediately drops. At this
time, the liquid temperature is well above its atmospheric boiling point, which then
spontaneously boils off, creates large quantities of vapor that travels upward along with the
liquid droplets.
When the gas/air mixture is within its flammable limits, it will ignite from the tearing metal of
the surrounding fire, creating a fireball that can reach gigantic proportions. A sudden release of
gas provides further fuel for the rising fireball. The rapidly expanding vapor produces a further
blast and intense heat radiation.

251

Jet Fires
Small leaks from pump glands, pipe flanges or from vent risers will initially produce vapor. This
vapor will not ignite spontaneously. However, if the escape is large, then there may be a risk of
the vapor cloud spreading to a source of ignition. If ignition does occur, it will almost certainly
flash back to the leak. Leaks from pipelines are likely to be under pressure and, if ignited, will
give rise to a jet flame. While arrangements for the emergency shutdown of the pumps and
remote closure of ESD valves are required, pressure may remain in a closed pipeline until the
liquid trapped within has been expelled through the leak. In such a case, the best course of action
is often to allow the fire to burn out. The alternative of extinguishing the fire has a high risk of
producing a vapor cloud and having a flash back from re-ignition of the vapor. While the fire is
being allowed to burn itself out, the surroundings should be protected with cooling water.
Liquid (Pool) Fires
Significant pool fires are not likely on the vessels decks because the amount of liquid which can
be spilled in such a location is limited. The arrangement of the vessels deck, with its camber and
open scuppers, will allow liquid spillage to flow quickly and freely away over the vessels side.
Prompt initiation of ESD procedures further limits the availability of liquid cargo. However, any
spillage of flammable gases in a liquefied state will result in a gas vapor cloud as the liquid
evaporates. The gas generation rate will be large due to the low liquefication storage temperature
and the large amount of heat available from the surrounding structure and environment. Water
should never be applied to a burning liquefied gas pool, which would provide a heat source for
more rapid vaporization of the liquid and increase the rate of burning.
Any ignition of the ensuing vapor cloud would then result in a pool fire. The emissive power of a
flame surface increases with pool diameter. LNG vapors burn in the initial stages with a
comparatively clear flame; LPG, however, burns with a greater production of soot and, therefore,
maximum surface emissive powers are lower than for LNG. Heat radiation levels from both
LNG and LPG pool fires dictate that unprotected personnel must escape form the immediate
vicinity as quickly as possible. Because of the damage which radiation can inflict on surrounding
tanks and structure, such items are required to be protected by a water deluge system.
General Principles of Cargo Deck Dry Chemical Extinguishing System
Vessels carrying liquefied gases in bulk are required to be fitted with a dry chemical fire
extinguisher conforming to IMO Regulations. The system is used to protect the cargo deck area
252

and all loading-station manifolds on the vessel. A deck system is typically made up of several
independent skid-mounted units. The units are self-contained fire-fighting systems that use a dry
chemical-extinguishing agent propelled by a high-pressure inert gas such as nitrogen.
Dry chemical extinguishing agents are chemicals in powder form. Dry chemical powders, such
as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate and urea potassium bicarbonate can be very
effective in extinguishing small LNG or LPG fires. Dry chemical powders are effective in
dealing with gas fires on deck or in extinguishing jet fires from a holed pipeline. They have been
used successfully in extinguishing fires at vent risers.
Extinguishing Effects of Dry Chemical
Dry chemical agents extinguish fire to the greatest extent by breaking the combustion chain.
Minor amounts of cooling, smothering and shielding of radiant heat are also present.
Chain Breaking
As discussed in Section 1 of these Guidance Notes, chain reactions are necessary for continued
combustion. In these chain reactions, fuel and oxygen molecules are broken down by heat, and
they recombine into new molecules, giving off additional heat. This additional heat breaks down
more molecules, which then recombine and give off still more heat. The fire thus builds, or at
least sustains itself, through reactions that liberate enough heat to set off other reactions

253

Dry chemical (and other agents such as the halogen) attacks this chain of reactions. It does so by
reducing the ability of the molecular fragments to recombine and form additional radicals. It also
combines with the fragments of fuel and oxygen molecules so that the fuel cannot be oxidized.
Although the process is not completely understood, chain breaking is the most effective
extinguishing action of dry chemical.
Cooling
No dry chemical exhibits any great capacity for cooling. However, a small amount of cooling
takes place simply because the dry chemical is at a lower temperature than the burning material.
Heat is transferred from the hotter fuel to the cooler dry chemical when the latter is introduced
into the fire.
Smothering
When dry chemical reacts with the heat and burning material, some carbon dioxide and water
vapor are produced. These dilute the fuel vapors and the air surrounding the fire. The result is a
limited smothering effect.
Shielding of Radiant Heat
Dry chemical produces an opaque cloud in the combustion area. This cloud reduces the amount
of heat that is radiated back to the heart of the fire (i.e., the opaque cloud absorbs some of the
radiation feedback that is required to sustain the fire). Less fuel vapor is produced, and the fire
becomes less intense.
ABS Requirements for Fire Fighting Systems Onboard Gas Carriers
The following information is provided as general guidance and instruction regarding the ABS
requirements for fixed dry chemical fire extinguishing systems. However, reference should
always be made to the Rules applicable to the specific vessel concerned for the complete set of
requirements.
Dry Chemical Powder Fire Extinguishing Systems
Vessels intended to carry flammable products are required to be fitted with a fixed dry chemical
powder type extinguishing system for the purpose of fighting fires on the deck in the cargo area
and bow or stern cargo handling areas, if applicable. The ABS requirements for such systems are
found in SVR 5C-8-11/4.
Coverage Area and Arrangement
254

In accordance with SVR 5C-8-11/4.2, the arrangement and capacity of the system is to provide
the ability to deliver powder from at least two hand hose lines or combination monitor/hand hose
lines to any part of the above-deck exposed cargo area including above-deck product piping. In
addition, at least one hand hose line or monitor should be situated at the after end of the cargo
area, as per SVR 5C-8-11/4.3.
Per SVR 5C-8-11/4.6, coverage considered from fixed monitors should be limited to the
following:
Cargo Area Water Spray Systems
Fixed water deluge systems are required to be provided to protect surfaces such as vessels
structures, cargo tanks and piping, which can be exposed to liquefied gas fires. Such systems are
designed to provide a layer of water over the exposed surfaces, and by this means, the radiant
heat from the fire is absorbed by the water. Provided a water layer of some thickness can be
maintained, the surface temperature usually will not exceed 100C (212F).
Areas to be Protected
In association with SVR 5C-8-11/3.1, vessels carrying flammable or toxic products, should have
a water spray system for cooling, fire prevention and crew protection equipment that can cover
the following:
Cargo tank domes and any other exposed parts of cargo tanks
Exposed on-deck storage containers of flammable or toxic products
Cargo liquid, vapor discharge and loading manifolds and the area surrounding the control
valves or any other areas where essential control valves are situated
Boundaries of superstructures and deckhouses that are normally manned
Cargo compressor and pump rooms, storerooms containing high fire risk items and cargo
control rooms, which all face the cargo area
Note: Boundaries of unmanned forecastle structures that do not contain high fire risk items or
equipment do not require water spray protection.
Coverage Rate
As discussed in SVR 5C-8-11/3.2, the system is to be capable of covering all areas mentioned
with a uniformly distributed water spray of at least 10 L/min/m2 (0.24 gpm/ft2) for horizontal
255

projected surfaces and 4 L/min/m2 (0.096 gpm/ft2) for vertical surfaces. For structures having no
clearly defined horizontal or vertical surfaces, the capacity of the water spray system should be
the greater of the projected horizontal surface multiplied by 10 L/min/m2 (0.24 gpm/ft2) or the
actual surface multiplied by 4 L/min/m2 (0.096 gpm/ft2). On vertical surfaces, spacing of
nozzles protecting lower areas may take into account anticipated rundown from higher areas.
Piping Arrangement
For isolating damaged sections, stop valves are required to be fitted in the spray system at
various intervals. Alternatively, the system is permitted to be divided into two or more sections,
which may be operated independently provided that the necessary controls are located together
aft of the cargo area. However, a section protecting any area included in SVR 5C-8-11/3.1.1
(e.g., exposed cargo tank domes and any exposed parts of cargo tanks) and SVR 5C-8-11/3.1.2
(exposed on-deck storage vessels for flammable or toxic products) should cover the whole of the
athwartship tank grouping which includes that area. In addition, the vertical distances between
water spray nozzles for protection of vertical surfaces is not to exceed 3.7 m (12 ft).
Pumping Capacity
The capacity of the water spray pumps should be sufficient to deliver the required amount of
water to all areas simultaneously or where the system is divided into sections, the arrangements
and capacity should be such as to supply water simultaneously to any one section and to the
surfaces specified above as indicated in SVR 5C-8-11/3.3. Alternatively, the main fire pumps
may be used for this service, provided that their total capacity is increased by the amount needed
for the spray system. In either case, a connection, through a stop valve, should be made between
the fire main and water spray main outside the cargo area. Water pumps normally used for other
services may be arranged to supply the water spray main if specifically approved by the
Administration.

256

General Piping Requirements
In addition to the requirements in SVR Sections 4-6-1 and 4-6-2; all pipes, valves, nozzles and
other fittings in the water spray systems should be resistant to corrosion by seawater (for which
purpose galvanized pipe, for example, may be used) and to the effect of fire, as required in SVR
5C-8-11/3.5.
Controls
Remote starting of pumps supplying the water spray system and remote operation of any
normally closed valves in the system should be arranged in suitable locations outside the cargo
area, adjacent to the accommodation spaces and readily accessible and operable in the event of
fire in the areas protected. Details verifying compliance with the above should be reviewed in
accordance with SVR 5C-8-11/3.6.
Fire Main System
Refer to Section 3 for more information about the requirements for fire main systems installed on
gas carriers.
Cargo Pump/Compressor Room Fixed CO2 Fire Extinguishing System
Per SVR 5C-8-11/5, the cargo compressor and pump rooms of any vessel must have a fixed
carbon dioxide fire-extinguishing system. For more information about the requirements for this
system, refer to Section 4.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Extinguishers
Carbon dioxide extinguishers are used primarily on class B and C fires. The most common
size of portable extinguisher for shipboard use contains 6.8 kg (15 lb) of CO2.
Note: This weight does not include that of the relatively heavy shell.
The CO2 is mostly in the liquid state and is at a pressure of 5860 kPa (850 psi) at 21C (70F).
The range of the CO2 varies between 1.8 to 2.4 meters (3 to 8 feet), and the duration from 8 to
30 seconds.
257

The extinguisher is carried to the fire in an upright position. (The short range of the CO2,
extinguisher means the operator must get fairly close to the fire.) The extinguisher is placed on
the deck and the locking pin is removed. The discharge is normally controlled either by opening
a valve or by squeezing two handles together.
The operator must grasp the hose handle and not the discharge horn. The CO2 expands and cools
very quickly as it leaves the extinguisher. The horn gets cold enough to frost over and cause
severe frostbite. When a CO2 extinguisher is used in a confined space, the operator should guard
against suffocation by wearing breathing apparatus.
For use on class B fires, the horn should be aimed first at the base of the fire nearest the
operator. The discharge should be moved slowly back and forth across the fire. At the same time,
the operator should move forward slowly. The result should be a sweeping of the flames off
the burning surface, with some carbon dioxide snow left on the surface. Whenever possible, a
fire on a weather deck should be attacked from the windward side. This will allow the wind to
blow the heat away from the operator and to carry the CO2 to the fire. Generally, CO2
extinguishers do not perform well in a wind. The blanket of CO2 gas does not remain on the fire
long enough to permit the fuel to cool down.
For use on Class C fires, the discharge should be aimed at the source of a fire that involves
electrical equipment. The equipment should be de-energized as soon as possible to eliminate the
chance of shock and the source of ignition.
CO2 extinguishers need not be protected against freezing. However, they should be stowed at
temperatures below 54C (130F) to keep their internal pressure at a safe level. At about 57C
(135F), the safety valves built into CO2 extinguishers are activated at approximately 18620 kPa
(2700 psi), to release excess pressure.
Note: IMO Circular 847 indicates that CO2 extinguishers should not be placed in
accommodations areas, as the inadvertent or undetected release of the CO2 could suffocate
unsuspecting personnel.
Dry Chemical-type Fire Extinguishers
Dry chemical extinguishers are available in several sizes, with any of five different extinguishing
agents.
258

The different dry chemical agents have different extinguishing capabilities. If sodium
bicarbonate is arbitrarily given an extinguishing capability of 1, then the relative capabilities of
the other dry chemical agents are as follows:
Mono-ammonium phosphate (ABC) 1.5
Potassium chloride (BC) 1.8
Potassium bicarbonate (BC) 2.0
Urea potassium bicarbonate (BC) 2.5
Dry chemical extinguishers typically extinguish fires by inhibiting the chemical reaction of the
fire process. All five dry chemicals mentioned above are suitable for extinguishing Class B
and Class C fires. However, one dry chemical-extinguishing agent, mono-ammonium
phosphate (ABC, multi-purpose) is also approved for use on Class A fires. This agent
extinguishes a fire by chain breaking (as do the other dry chemical agents). As a by-product of
this chemical reaction, a residue is created that coats and clings to the surfaces of burning
materials. This coating deprives solid fuels of air and has therefore been found acceptable for use
on Class A fires. Since dry chemical extinguishers extinguish fires mainly through the
breaking of the chemical chain reaction, there is little or no cooling of the flame or fuel surface.
Thus, a reflash is possible if fuel continues to remain in contact with hot surfaces. Additional dry
chemical extinguishers or other appropriate extinguishers should be available as backup, until all
sources of ignition are eliminated. Dry chemical extinguishing agents may be used along with
water and some dry chemical extinguishers are filled with an extinguishing agent that is
compatible with foam.
There are basically two different types of dry chemical extinguishers: the cartridge-operated
extinguisher and the stored-pressure extinguisher. The following provides a description of each:
Cartridge-Operated Dry Chemical Extinguisher
Portable cartridge-operated, dry chemical extinguishers range in size from 2.25 to 13.6 kg (5 to
30 lb), and semi-portable models contain up to 22.7 kg (50 lb) of agent. An extinguisher may be
filled with any of the five agents, and its rating will be based on the particular agent used. A
small cylinder of inert gas is used as the propellant. Cartridge-operated, dry chemical
extinguishers have a range from 3 to 9.1 m (10 to 30 ft). The 2.25 kg (5 lb) extinguisher will
have a discharge duration of approximately 8 to 10 seconds, while the larger extinguishers
provide up to 30 seconds of discharge time.
259

The extinguisher is carried and used upright. The ring pin is removed and the puncturing lever is
depressed. This releases the propellant gas, which forces the extinguisher agent up to the nozzle.
The flow of dry chemical is controlled with the squeeze-grip On-Off nozzle at the end of the
hose. The discharge is directed at the seat of the fire, starting at the near edge. The stream should
be moved from side to side with rapid motions, to sweep the fire off the fuel. On a weather deck,
the fire should be approached from the windward side if possible. The initial discharge should
not be directed onto the burning material from close range, 0.91 to 2.4 m (3 to 8 ft), as the
velocity of the stream may scatter the burning material. However, the agent may be applied in
short bursts by opening and closing the nozzle with the squeeze grips.
If the propellant gas cylinder is punctured but the extinguisher is not put into use or is only
partially discharged, the remaining gas may leak away in a few hours. Thus, the extinguisher
must be recharged after each use or activation.
Stored-Pressure Dry Chemical Extinguishers
Stored-pressure dry chemical extinguishers are available in the same sizes as cartridge-operated
types. They have the similar ranges and duration of discharge and are used in the same way. The
only differences are that the propellant gas is mixed in with the dry chemical in the stored-
pressure type and the extinguisher is controlled with a squeeze-grip trigger on the top of the
container. A pressure gauge indicates the condition of the charge.
Many stored-pressure extinguishers have pressure gauges that indicate whether the internal
pressure is within the operating range. The gauge is located on the bottom of some extinguishers.
Dry Powder-type Fire Extinguishers
Frequently the terms Dry Powder extinguisher and Dry Chemical extinguisher have been
incorrectly considered as interchangeable. The two terms actually represent different types of
medium, and it is important to understand that there is a difference between the two types of
extinguishers. Dry chemical extinguishers and their mediums, as discussed above, are typically
suitable for use on B and C Class fires, or in the case of mono-ammonium phosphate,
suitable for use on A, B and C fires. However, the extinguishing medium in a Dry
Powder extinguisher is a special type of dry chemical agent that is specifically suitable for use
on combustible metal (class D) fires. Accordingly, the term Dry Powder extinguisher is
intended to specifically refer to that extinguisher which has an extinguishing agent suitable for
260

use on combustible metal (class D) fires. The extinguishing agent typically found in Dry
Powder extinguishers is sodium chloride, which forms a crust on the burning metal.
Portable Fire Extinguishers
Portable extinguishers are smaller extinguishers that can easily be transported to the fire. The
Rules consider a 13.5 liter (3.5 gallon) fluid extinguisher (or smaller) to be a portable
extinguisher. Extinguishers utilizing other extinguishing mediums must provide an equivalent
degree of portability to that of a 13.5 liter (3.5 gallon) fluid extinguisher. IMO Resolution
A.602(15) defines a portable extinguisher as one which is designed to be carried and operated by
hand and which in working order has a total weight of not more than 23 kg (50.6 lbs). For more
information, refer to Appendix C IMO Resolution A.602(15).
Although portable fire extinguishers provide only a limited quantity of fire extinguishing agent,
their ability to be transported easily to a fire and used to quickly engage a fire before it spreads
plays a vital role aboard a vessel. Many large scale fires have been avoided simply due to the
availability and use of small portable fire extinguishers.
Semi-portable Fire Extinguishers
Semi-portable extinguishers provide a larger amount of extinguishing agent to a fire rapidly,
which allows the operator to make a sustained attack. However, semi-portable fire extinguishers
are much larger, which results in a restriction of mobility. Semi-portable units may be wheeled
units or may be semi-fixed and typically utilize a discharge hose which can be run out to engage
the fire. The hose must be of sufficient length to reach all portions of the protected area.
Semi-portable systems typically utilize foam, carbon dioxide dry chemical or dry powder,
depending upon the requirements of the hazard to be protected. They are often required to be
provided at high fire risk areas within spaces which may already be fitted with a fixed fire
extinguishing system. The purpose of the semi-portable units is to provide the means to quickly
engage a fire with larger volumes of extinguishing agent. If this attack controls or extinguishes
the fire, then the large fixed system need not be activated. Semi-portable systems may also be
used as primary extinguishing systems.
Fire Extinguisher Designations
Portable and semi-portable extinguishers are typically classified with one or more letters and
with a numeral. The letter or letters indicate the classes of fires on which the extinguisher may be
used. These letters correspond exactly to the four classes of fires (refer to Section 2). Thus, for
261

example, class A extinguishers may be used only on class A fires those involving common
combustible materials. Class AB extinguishers may be used on fires involving wood
(classA) or diesel oil (class B) or both. The numeral indicates either the relative efficiency of
the extinguisher or its size. The particular size and classification ratings for a specific
manufacturers extinguisher should be established through appropriate testing conducted by a
recognized testing agency or laboratory.
In the method of designation used by the Rules, Roman numerals are used to indicate the sizes of
portable extinguishers. The numeral I indicates the smallest size, and V the largest. The
ratings of the different types of extinguishers are provided in the following table.

Fire Control Plans The Fire Control Plan provides vital information that is crucial for the rapid
and efficient action of the vessels crew during a fire. Accordingly, it is very important that the
Fire Control Plan accurately reflects the fire-fighting arrangements installed onboard and is
consistent with the arrangements approved for the vessel. The following discussion is limited to
the active fire-fighting arrangements and equipment for the vessel to be depicted on the Fire
Control Plan. This discussion does not address requirements associated with the passive fire
protection, such as structural fire protection, or any additional requirements associated with
electrical systems or arrangements. However, other requirements for passive fire protection
arrangements (e.g., structural fire protection arrangements, escape routes, etc.), as well as
electrical system requirements (e.g., electrical control arrangements, emergency generator
location, etc.), exist and should be shown on the Fire Control Plan.
The Fire Control Plan is frequently submitted as part of the Safety Plan, which also indicates
lifesaving equipment, etc. While ABS is authorized to review the requirements associated fire
control and safety plans by most Flag Administrations, the review for life saving equipment is
also outside the scope of this discussion
262

UNIT -IV

263

HYDRANT SYSTEM

HYDRANT SYSTEM
The Hydrant System comprises of AC motor driven pump sets with all required accessories
valves, instrumentation and controls etc. Complete in all respects. An automatic hydrant
system is furnished covering the areas completely from independent. Pipe work from the fire
water pump set.
The hydrant pipe work is remaining pressurized through the proposed jockey pump
taking care of any leakages in the system pipe lines, valves and fittings.
The hydrant system is kept charged by pressurized water at approx. 7 Kg. Cm. Sq. at
all times. In the event of fire when any of the hydrant valves in the net work is
opened,the resultant fall in pressure system is enabling starting the AC MOTOR driven
fire water pumping set through pressure switches automatically. One diesel engine pump
shall be standby pump serving hydrant system. Apart from the automatic starting of the
pump sets,provision shall be kept for manual starting also. Shutting down of the pump
sets shall be manual.
YARD HYDRANTS Hydrants inside the building is furnished with required accessories
such as hose pipes with instantaneous gun metal couplings and g.m branch pipes located
264

in hose cabinets. The hose cabinets is wall / column mounting type, constructed out of 18
gauge mild steel sheets.
The internal hydrants ( Landing valves) is single headed type taken out from 150/100
mm dia riser through suitable reducer. The outlets is gun metal and confirm to IS : 5290.
HT Hose reels is firmly held against the wall by suitable heavy brackets and supports.
The hose reel is swinging type ( 180 deg.) and the entire Dum reel etc. is as per IS :
3876. The rubber tubing is best quality ( Dunlop ) and the nozzle is 6 mm dia. Shut off
type. The equipment shall be out of one of the approved makes
The hydrant main is laid in the form of ring main. The hydrant risers is terminated with
air release valves at the highest points to release the trapped air in the pipe work.
FIRE HYDRANTS
Fire hydrants, namely, stand post type, conforming to IS 908: 1975 and underground type
conforming to IS 909: 1975 should be provided. For use in industrial establishment, only stand
post type hydrants should be provided.
For cities and towns, stand post type hydrants should be provided preferably but where
these are likely to cause obstruction to traffic or are liable to be misused by public, underground
type may be provided. Hydrant outlet and valve for the underground type hydrant and valves for
the stand post type hydrant should be located as near the ground level as possible. The top of the
outlet or spindle of the valve should be at a depth not exceeding 0.3 m. Ordinary manhole covers
of cast iron or reinforced concrete should not be used to cover underground hydrants or the
valves of the stand post type hydrants. They should be covered only by hinge cast iron covers as
specified in IS 3950: 1979 with letters FH embossed on them. Apart from painting the fire
hydrants and their covers in distinctive colors, all fire hydrants should have suitable indicating
plates fixed to the nearest wall or suitable post erected for the purpose to facilitate easy location.
The indicating plates can be made of vitreous enamelled mild steel, cast iron, aluminium alloy or
plastic. The plates should be yellow in color with letter H in black, preferably with fluorescent
color paints. Where possible, size of the mains and the distance of the hydrant from the plate
should be marked on the plate Normally in towns/cities, the hydrants should be provided at
intervals of 100 m but this distance may be suitably increased or decreased depending on the risk
265

in the area desired to be protected In case of industries of high hazard category (Gr G-3, H and
J), the hydrants should be installed at every 30 m apart along building line and the hydrant outlet
should be single or double hydrant with provision of landing valves. For moderate hazard (Gr G-
2) where the single hydrant is use, it should be installed at every 45 m apart. In case of any
portion which has multiple hazards, the relevant portion should be covered according to the
provision given for higher hazard. Further the pressure available at hydraulically most remote
hydrant should not be less than 3.5 kgf/cm
3
for light (Group A to F) and moderate hazard. In case
of high hazard (Group G-3, H and J), the hydrant system (Group G-2) should be so designed that
when half the aggregate pumping capacity is being discharged at the hydraulically most remote
point and other half in the most vulnerable area enroute a minimum pressure of 5.25 kg/cm
2
is
available at the remote point. For group classification IS 1641: 1988 should be referred to.
The hydrants should be located according to the attendant fire hazard so as to facilitate the most
effective service. They need not necessarily be equidistant from each other. In industries where
they are to cover specific buildings, advantage should be taken of convenient doors or windows
or both, to place hydrants so that only a minimum length of hose is required to reach the opening
through which fires may be attacked The location of hydrant landing valves on floors above the
ground floor or a processing unit should be close to the staircase landings. Hydrants should be
located at a distance of not less than 2 m from the face of the buildings. This distance may
suitably be increased up to maximum 15 m where hydrants are installed to protect hazardous
storages or processes so that the hydrants remain approachable and workable even in the case of
a serious fire. All hydrants should be readily accessible to the fire appliances and for fire fighting
operations. Hydrants located in situations where they are likely to be damaged by vehicular
traffic should be suitably protected on all sides against possible damage .In cold climates where
frost is likely to be experienced, the hydrants should be fitted with suitable means for draining
off the water trapped in the body of the hydrant between the valve and the outlet. No portion of a
protected building should be more than 45 m from an external hydrant, and where this
requirement cannot be met, internal hydrants/landing valves should be provided Hydrant
accessories, such as, hydrant stand pipes, hydrant key and bar suction collecting heads, delivery
hoses, branch pipes and nozzles, etc, should be provided in sufficient quantities for quick
operation of the hydrants.In case of industries having their own fire brigades, the hydrant
accessories should be provided centrally on each of the fire appliance and at the fire station.
266

However, in the case of industries which do not have their own brigade or where it is intended
that the train ed. worker s will engage in interim fire fighting, the appropriate essential
accessories should be provided near each hydrant point in hydrant boxes of adequate size. In
such cases, delivery hoses should be provided at the scale of two, 63 mm hoses generally
conforming to type A of IS 636: 1988, duly bound with instantaneous couplings in 15 m lengths
and one branch pipe duly fitted with a nozzle (preferably universal branch conforming to IS
2871:1983). The key and other accessories should be provided according to the peculiar needs of
each system.
INSPECTIONS, CHECKS AND MAINTENANCE
After installation the system should be capable of withstanding pressure equal to 150
percent of the maximum working pressure for 2 h.
Each hydrant provided in the area should be inspected as often as possible. The periodicity
for such inspections should be determined and laid down depending on the local conditions.
However, for cities and towns, such inspections for each hydrant should be carried out at
intervals not exceeding one month and for industrial establishment once every week. The
record of all such inspections should be maintained and remedial action for any defects
observed should be immediately taken on priority basis.
The following action should be taken during the monthly/weekly inspections:
a. The hydrant or valve pit should be opened and checked that it is clean and not filled with
any dirt or leaking water. If the pit is full of water, it should be emptied and cleaned.
b. The valve spindles should be checked and any signs of excessive wear including leakage
in the gland got rectified. If a false spindle is fitted, it should be checked that it is in
position and securely fixed.
c. The valve should be opened slightly to see that water is flowing freely and there is no
obstruction in the outlet. In the case of underground hydrants, the valves should be
opened only after fixing the stand pipe and fully closed before the stand pipe is removed.
Any blank caps or covers provided on the outlet should be replaced and securely fixed.
d. If any washers are used in the outlet, it should be ascertained that these are in position
and in working order. Unserviceable washers should be replaced by the inspection team
immediately.
267

e. The brick work of the pit, the cover and its frame and the state of the roadway or ground,
round the frame should be examined and a report made if these are damaged.
f. The pits should be thoroughly emptied of water and cleaned before the covers are closed.
g. The paint work of the hydrants, pit covers, indicator plates, etc, should be checked and
removed, if necessary. Brass parts should be cleaned and polished.
h. Any obstruction in the approach to the appliances round the hydrants should be removed.
i. If frost valves are fitted, those should be checked for satisfactory working and replaced
where required.
j. All cut off (isolating) valves should be operated and oiled, if necessary, once a month.
k. Isolating (cut off) valves should be thoroughly overhauled annually to remove sludge and
other foreign matter collected in valve seating. Apart from the monthly/weekly
inspections, the performance of the hydrants should be thoroughly checked during the
fire fighting operations and regular drills and practices. The practices should be so
arranged that the maximum number of hydrants in different areas are operated in
rotation.Testing of pressure and output in different areas covered by the hydrant system
should be carried, at least every quarter. Hydrant mains should be tested with the pump
delivering at its maximum pressure with all the hydrants outlet closed and thereafter, with
at least three adjacent hydrants opened to see that the hydrant yield the minimum output
of 1 125 litres per minute at a minimum pressure of 5.25 kgf/cm
2
or higher, if needed.
During such tests, apart from the senior officers of the fire authority, water department
engineers should also be associated. The results of such tests should be recorded and
remedial action taken where pressure and output fall short of the stipulated
requirements.Proper handling and working of the hydrants can go a long way in their
better maintenance and satisfactory performance over long period. The following simple
rules should be followed whenever hydrants are operated:
a. Open the hydrant valves slowly, specially, if the hose is connected directly to a branch.
b. Close the valve slowly to prevent water hammer and a possible main burst.
c. After use, ensure that the hydrant valve is properly closed and there is no leakage.
268

d. The valve of the hydrant should not be operated when the pit is full of water unless the
stand pipe or hose are first fitted.
e. The stand pipe or hose should not be disconnected from a hydrant in which no water is
available or from which the flow has suddenly stopped until the valve has been closed.
f. To avoid risk of contaminating the water supply, every endeavour should be made to
avoid collecting water simultaneously in a pump from a drinking water main.
Fire Hydrant Systems - Principle of Operation
In a building, a fire hydrant system is a safety measure or emergency equipment required in
some buildings that comprises a series of components that when assembled together provide a
source of water to assist fire authorities in a fire. Putting it another way, a fire hydrant system is a
water supply with a sufficient pressure and flow delivered through pipes throughout a building to
strategically located network of valves for fire-fighting purposes.In some circumstances, water
from a reticulated fire hydrant system can also be shared with other safety measures such as
automatic fire sprinkler systems or fire hose reels. In Australia, the Building Code of Australia
(BCA) sets out the Deemed-to-Satisfy (DtS) provisions for a fire hydrant system required in
buildings to the degree necessary to facilitate the needs of the fire brigade for;
fire-fighting operations; and
the floor-area of the building; and
the fire hazard.Fire hydrant systems are designed and installed in accordance with Australian
Standard AS2419 and comprise the following primary components;
Water Supply & Storage
Pipework & Valves
Fire Brigade Booster
Pumpset
Hydrant, Hydrant Valve or Landing Valve & Coupling
Layflat Fire Hose
When designing a fire hydrant system specific performance objectives must be satisfied. These
performance objectives require a hydraulic analysis to demonstrate there is sufficient water
269

pressure and flow at the most hydraulically disadvantaged hydrant. The pressure and flow
requirements vary according to the building classification, floor area and sprinkler protection.
Water Supply & Storage

A water supply for a fire hydrant system can be derived from a reliable source of water such as;
street mains, static water supply such as a tank or dam. Water storage must also include a facility
for automatic replenishment (make-up water) due to losses from evaporation, leakage, periodic
testing, etc. The capacity or volume of the water supply or storage must also be taken into
account as part of the hydraulic analysis.
Pipework & Valves
To direct the water from its point of origin (supply) to its destination (hydrant valve) requires a
series of interconnected pipes at defined sizes. The dimensions of the pipe is determined by
Australian Standard AS2419 and hydraulic analysis. The the Control valves are used in
combination with the pipework to control an direct the flow of water.
Fire Brigade Booster

The booster assembly provides a point of attachment for the fire brigade to provide additional
water to a fire hydrant system in in the event of an emergency. The location of the fire brigade
booster should be chosen to ensure that it is readily accessible and provide protection to fire-
fighters. A booster is typically mounted in a cabinet that includes details of the pressure
limitations and requirements for the fire hydrant system.

270

Booster Pumpset

In some circumstances where the a hydraulic analysis has determined that the water supply is
insufficient for the building requirements, one or more booster pumpsets may be required. A
pumpset may comprise a combination of electric or compression ignition (diesel) motors.
Hydrant
The end-point of a fire hydrant system is the Hydrant (also known as a Hydrant Valve, Landing
Valve or Millcock) strategically located throughout a building in accordance with the provisions
of AS2419. The nominal diameter for a hydrant valve connection is 65mm. The connection for a
fire hose varies throughout Australia according to the local fire authority. In simple terms fire
brigades throughout Australia use different hose connections. In these cases, the Hydrant must
also be fitted with a connection or coupling compatible with the local fire brigade. Care must be
taken to ensure each fire hydrant is readily accessible and has sufficient clearance to satisfy the
requirements of the AS2419.
Layflat Fire Hose
Some buildings may also require as part of the approved design the installation of ancillary
equipment such as a layflat fire hose. A layflat fire hose is manufactured in accordance with
Australian Standard AS2792 is a flexible hose and nozzle that may be connected to a hydrant.

271

Block Plan

A fire hydrant system block plan is a indelible diagram mounted within the booster cabinet,
pump room and fire control room that illustrates the primary features of the fire hydrant system
including the water supply location & dimensions, location & capacity of each water storage or
tank, location & quantity of each valve, location of each pump, pressure & flow rating of the
pumps, location of the main electrical control room, location of all flammable storage areas, year
of installation, installing contractors name, the height of the highest fire hydrant and the lowest
booster connection.
Typical Operation
Under normal circumstances, a fire hydrant system is pressurised with water ready for
emergency use. When a hydrant valve is opened, the system experiences a drop in water
pressure. The drop in water pressure is detected by a pressure switch which in turn starts the
booster pump(s), drawing water from the water supply to increase the water pressure of the
system. Water from the hydrant is then directed through the layflat fire hose to a nozzle which is
then directed to the seat of a fire. During a fire the fire brigade may provide additional water and
boost the water pressure to satisfy the demands of the fire hydrant system. This is carried out by
connecting a fire appliance (truck) between an alternate water supply and the booster connection.
272

Maintenance
Fire hydrant systems require periodic inspections, tests and survey to determine the system is
operating and is maintained in a state that enables it to fulfil its purpose. Australian Standard
AS1851 sets out the requirements for the maintenance and Australian Standard AS2419 sets out
the minimum requirements for the operation of the operation of the system.
Fire hydrant systems are an active fire protection system that is installed as part of an overall
strategy for the protection of life within a building. The Building Code of Australia sets out the
deemed-to-satisfy requirements for safety measures (including fire hydrant systems) that in
buildings. Other active fire protection systems include automatic fire sprinkler systems, fire hose
reels, fire detection & alarm systems, and the smoke and heat control measures of mechanical
ventilation systems. Fire Fighting Hydrant Systems are the most commonly used systems, in
many residential and industrial projects. If you have ever seen a Red colour pipe, circulating
around a building or factory, you have seen a Fire Hydrant Pipe. In most news clippings about a
fire, you can see a fireman shooting water up to 8stories high or more, that fire man is using the
Fire Hydrant System. Such is the power of the Fire Hydrant System that water can be shot right
up to 8 floor, directly into the fire.
Is it always necessary to provide Fire Protection with Fire Hydrant Systems?
Fire Hydrant Systems forms the basis, of Fire Protection Systems, without Fire Hydrant System a
Fire Protection System cannot be called a Fire Protection System. It will be a superficial system.
(With respect to large areas, in general). Fire Hydrant System installation is relatively easy.
273

How do Fire Hydrant Systems Function?
A special well is dug, called Fire Well, where water is stored throughout the year for 365days.
This water well is connected to the pump room. From the pump room, there are two to three
main pipes. These pipes form a network of pipe that cover the factory compound and the factory.
The pump has the work, to continuously filling all the pipes connected with water under
pressure. The pressure is nearly 7bar to 10bar. When a fire is seen by a person, he activates the
hydrant system and points it in the direction of the fire. A very strong flow of water now, attacks
the fire and the fire is eventually extinguished. The pump continuously pumps the water to
maintain the system pressure.
What are the advantages of Fire Hydrant Systems?
Fire Hydrant Systems are very strong and can be used from medium to large sized
fires. Fire Hydrant Systems, have a long range. Since the Fire Hydrant System is
spread out, the fire hydrant can attack fire from different angles. This entire systems
requires low maintenance and virtually, does not leak water. Besides this, Fire
Hydrant Systems have a long life.
What are the disadvantages of Fire Hydrant Systems?
There are few disadvantages. The first is that it has to be manually activated. The flow of Fire
Hydrant System is so strong that, there are two men required to hold the water hose. Fire
Hydrant System, may cause damage to the instruments or machines.
Fire Hydrant systems are very popular and hence many, Clients search only for Fire Hydrant
Companies or Fire Hydrant System Suppliers; but the important thing to understand is that it
may not be the most efficient system.

274

SPRINKLER SYSTEM

WATER:
FIRE PROTECTION FROM A NATURAL SOURCE
The progressive modernization of industry and commerce not only calls for structural
fireprotection and assistance from fire brigades; there is also a need for automatic fire protection
systems which can operate on the machinery or in the facto Continuous innovation from the
earliest times until today... It was the engineer Wilhelm Walther who developed the very first
automatic sprinkler system in Germany, as long ago as 1884. His revolutionary extinguishing
concept was based on the idea of fighting the fire quickly, reliably and comprehensively as soon
as it developed. Todays modern sprinkler systems from TOTAL WALTHER GmbH are still
based on this principle all through the range, from special fast-response sprinklers to highly
sensitive life safety sprinklers. TOTAL WALTHER sprinkler systems are successfully used as
an alternative to passive fire protection, and they allow enormous freedom of design for
commercial and industrial buildings. In addition, special fast response sprinklers are used to
protect people and property in hotels and hospitals.
The special extinguishing action of a sprinkler system is based on the principle of selective
activation. Sprinkler systems only operate where they are needed. Finely sprayed water Because
the water which emerges from the sprinklers is separated into a fine spray, it vaporizes quickly,
ensuring high cooling by absorbing the heat from hot fire gases. This intensive vaporization
displaces some of the oxygen needed to feed the fire, giving rise to an inerting effect.
275

Targeted protection successful extinguishing TOTAL WALTHER sprinkler systems reliably
confine fires to the initial location where they arise. Materials which have not yet been affected
by the fire are moistened in advance so that they are less likely to ignite. In addition, the water
cools the structural elements of the building, making them heat-resistant. Without sprinkler
systems from TOTAL WALTHER, the striking architectural design of the hall at Stuttgart
Airport would have been impossible to implement. Modern high-bay storage units also call for
special sprinkler protection. The addition of film forming foam concentrates can extend the use
of sprinkler systems to virtually every risk area in industry and largescale commerce.
The natural choice for the environment The high water solubility of smoke and fire gases in the
fine water spray reduces harmful emissions. The volume of extinguishing water used in sprinkler
systems is optimized: a sprinkler will only go into action if it is heated to its actuation
temperature. This ensures that unnecessary extinguishing water and residues are avoided. There
are also environment benefits from sprinkler protection: harmful emissions can largely be
prevented by confining a fire to the location where it first arises, and by bonding toxic gases to
the extinguishing water.

276

Sprinklers are specially developed spray nozzles: they are sealed by a glass bulb, and they react
automatically to the heat of a fire. Sprinklers go into action when the glass bulb bursts and the
nozzle closure is released. Water immediately emerges from the nozzle, and a spray plate
effectively distributes it over the entire seat of the fire in the form of a fine shower of water
droplets. Depending on the particular risk, the area protected by each sprinkler varies between 9,
12 and 21m2. The choice of spray plate depends on the type and position of the sprinkler
installation. The experts at TOTAL WALTHER GmbH attach particular importance to the
optimal ratio of drop sizes for effective extinguishing and uniform moistening of the ground.
Thanks to its wide range of sprinklers, TOTAL WALTHER can offer the correct sprinkler for
every location.
Spray sprinklers can be mounted upright or pendent. For normal risks in industry and
commerce, one sprinkler is used for every 12 m2. In warehouses, 9 m2 are protected by one
sprinkler. Low hazard spray sprinklers can protect a maximum area of 21m2.
Conventional sprinklers are fitted with a deflector which can be installed both upright and
pendent. Since they spray as much as 40% of the extinguishing water upwards, they are
especially suitable for installation under combustible ceilings.
Side-wall sprinkler
This type of sprinkler is specially for applications where for example overhead clearance needs
to be ensured for vehicles. It can be installed upright or pendent, with different deflectors.
For installation purposes, the maximum permitted room width (both walls) ism 7.5 m.

277

Horizontal extended coverage side-wall sprinkler A sprinkler which has been specifically
developed to protect people in hotels, hospitals, senior citizens homes and nursing
establishments. The sprinklers special design enables it to be installed at a later stage, while
keeping the building costs down. This life safety sprinkler is fitted with a fast response element.
ESFR sprinkler A special sprinkler to protect high bay warehouses where only the ceiling can be
equipped with sprinklers. Its distinguishing feature is a particularly high extinguishing
performance. ESFR stands for Early Suppression Fast Response.
Optimal protection on your side The effectiveness of sprinkler systems has been analysed over a
period of more than 100 years. Regular investigations by the Federal German Association for
Fire Extinguishing Equipment and Systems (known as the BVFA) confirm that in most cases,
only a few sprinklers are needed to fight a fire effectively.
An investment that brings multiple benefits TOTAL WALTHERs sprinkler systems offer
reliable protection against damage to property, and also against the resultant production
stoppages and losses of business in industry and commerce. Furthermore, insurers will grant
discounts of up to 65% on premiums for fire insurance and business interruption insurance. And
thanks to sprinkler systems, it is possible to depart from the tight restraints of the conditions
imposed for structural fire
protection.

278

INTELLIGENT TECHNOLOGY FOR SUCCESSFUL FIRE PROTECTION

The structure and handling of a complex sprinkler system are based on TOTAL WALTHERs
expertise and know- how in the development of water extinguishing systems. Our specialists will
give you professional advice on selecting the correct sprinkler, and on how to choose the
sprinkler system which meets your particular requirements for protection. Wet systems are
suitable for fire protection in rooms which are safe from frost. Branchpipes with sprinklers are
arranged on the ceilings of the rooms to be protected, and above any locations at particular risk.
The pipe network is filled with water up to the sprinklers. If the glass bulb bursts, water will flow
out immediately. In wet systems, up to 1.000 sprinklers can be connected to one alarm valve.

279

Dry systems are used in rooms exposed to the risk of frost. In the dry system, the pipe network is
pressurized from compressed air upstream of the alarm valve. If a sprinkler opens in the dry
system, the pressure is released. The alarm valve opens and water flows to the open sprinkler. In
dry systems, up to 250 sprinklers can be connected to one alarm valve. If the dry valve station
has a fast opening device, 500 to 700 sprinklers can be used, depending on the particular risk.
After a sprinkler has opened and the alarm valve has opened, between 100 and 150 litres of water
per minute flow to the alarm bell and the alarm pressure switch via a bypass.

From the water supply to the point of use Before a sprinkler system can be commissioned, it
must be connected to an industrial or public water supply. The necessary volume of water may
be taken from a pressure tank or a pump which draws
water from storage or intermediate tanks.

Pre-Action: double protection for better performance Pre-action systems combine a fire detection
system with a sprinkler system. They are used to ensure reliable protection against false alarms
for example, to protect EDP systems against water damage. The pre-action valve is only opened
by a signal from the fire detection system, not by a fall in pressure after a sprinkler has opened. If
there is a fault on the fire detection system, a pre-action system
is switched over to operate as a normal dry system. The specialist engineers and experts at
TOTAL WALTHER GmbH
will give you professional advice all the way through from the design of your sprinkler system to
commissioning and maintenance - a reliable team for every aspect of fire protection.
280

281

UNIT -V

282

CHEMICAL FIRE HAZARDS

Chemicals are frequently used in our daily life and at work. Quite a number of the chemicals are
dangerous substances by nature, and some are hazardous when heated, ground or mixed with
other chemicals. Sometimes, even pouring chemicals from one container to another may be
hazardous. Without adequate knowledge of the hazards or in the absence of appropriate
precautionary measures, accidents may occur leading to casualties.
Numerous hazards exist when chemicals are in use. The hazards vary with the reactions
involved. Especially in the cases of chemicals in contact with air and mixing of chemicals, there
are lots of hazards with various causes that cannot be individually listed out. The purpose of this
guidebook is to present some of the common hazards that may easily lead to accidents, and the
safety measures that should be taken to ensure safety and health at work.
The Hazards and the Consequences

les

Generation Key Steps in Safe Use of Chemicals
Know the hazard sand take safety measures
Know the Hazards

Use May the process generate heat and/or gases ? Is there any side reaction involved ? What are
the side products ? Are the products dangerous substances ? What are the hazardous properties ?
283

reactants and the products
May light, heat and shape of the container affect the reaction so
that it will be out of control ?
May light, heat, air and water affect the reactants and the products
so that other reactions will occur ?
Safety measures

including ventilation and exhaust system, temperature
control, stirring facility, appropriate container

including procedures for use of engineering control and
personal protective equipment and for waste disposal

follow emergency procedures
including procedures for fire fighting, evacuation, first aid,
treatment of spillage
How can we obtain hazard and safety
information ?
ad the label and material safety data sheet (MSDS)
of the chemicals

handbooks on chemical safety
Dos and Don'ts in Safe Use of Chemicals:
Know the hazard before using the chemicals: Before using the chemicals, the hazardous
properties of all chemicals involved and the possible hazards at every stage of the process should
be fully understood. Appropriate safety measures can then be taken.
284

Use appropriate control measures and personal protective equipment: Appropriate control
measures (such as engineering control) should be used to reduce the exposure to the hazard to the
lowest level. Personal protective equipment should only be a supplement to, and not in lieu of,
control measures, and should be selected appropriate to the hazards to be encountered. Keep the
work area well-ventilated, or even work under local exhaust ventilation: Always keep the work
area well-ventilated to avoid accumulation of hazardous gas/ vapour. Increase the ventilation by
mechanical means if necessary. In case where more hazardous chemicals or processes are
encountered, work under local exhaust ventilation.
Keep away from any ignition source when handling flammable substance: Ignition source may
ignite the vapour of the flammable substance, and even lead to explosion.
Don't eat, drink and smoke: Dangerous substances can easily enter the body while eating,
drinking or smoking during use of chemicals, and would be injurious to health.
Don't touch chemicals with bare hands. Wear
protective gloves: Dangerous substances can easily enter the body through the skin while
touching chemicals with bare hands, and would be injurious to health. If the chemical is
corrosive, the hands will suffer from chemical burn. Appropriate protective gloves should be
worn.
Don't suck chemicals with your mouth. Use appropriate liquid delivery tools: Dangerous
substances can easily enter the body during sucking chemicals with mouth, and would be
injurious to health. If the chemical is corrosive, the mouth will suffer from chemical burn.
Appropriate liquid delivery tools such as hand pumps should be used.
Don't use container with narrow opening for a process that evolves heat and/or gases: As the
opening of the container is narrow, the releasing gas bubble may carry along hot liquid out of the
container. At the same time, the heat and gas generated may tremendously increase the pressure
inside the container which consequently burst. It will be more hazardous if dangerous substances
are involved.
285

Don't mix oxidizing agents with flammable / combustible substances:
When oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate is in contact with flammable
/combustible substance, including sulphur powder, carbon powder, zinc dust, wood dust, etc.,
vigorous oxidation reaction may occur spontaneously evolving large amount of heat and possibly
gases. This may also lead to fire and explosion.
Don't mix acid with bleaching solution: When bleaching solution is mixed with acid, reaction
occurs spontaneously liberating toxic gases.
Beware of Hazards During Chemicals in Use
Grinding solids into powder form: Beware ofinhaling dangerous substances and causing
explosion During grinding solids, the chemical in powder form may become airborne and easily
enter the human body by inhalation. If the chemical is a toxic/harmful/irritating substance, it
will be injurious to health. In addition, during the grinding process some explosive chemicals
(such as peroxides) can cause explosion under friction or shock.
Safe practices

airborne particles.

Pouring powdered chemicals into anothercontainer: Beware of inhaling dangerous substances
and causing fire/explosion During pouring powdered chemicals into another container, the
chemical in powder form may become airborne and easily enter the human body by inhalation. If
the chemical is a toxic/harmful/irritating substance, it will be injurious to health. In addition,
airborne particles of combustible chemicals and easily oxidisable metals form flammable
mixtures when mixed with air. The flammable mixtures catch fire in the presence of an ignition
source and even lead to explosion.
286

Safe practices

hazardous airborne particles.

such as respirator, gloves as
appropriate
Using a sprayer to spray chemicals: Beware of inhaling dangerous substances and causing
fire/explosion
During spraying, the chemical in aerosol form may enter the human body by inhalation or skin
contact. If the chemical is a toxic/harmful/irritating substance, it will be injurious to health.
Besides, propellants used in common aerosol cans are flammable substances, and if the chemical
being sprayed is a combustible substance, the aerosol of the chemical may form flammable
mixtures with air. The flammable mixtures catch fire in the presence of an ignition source and
even lead to explosion.
Safe practices

osal as far as
practicable. If this is not practicable and the work with less hazardous chemical is of short
duration, ensure that the ssplace is well-ventilated.
Heating liquids: Beware of splashes of superheated liquid and inhaling hazardous vapours
In the absence of nucleus for bubble formation in the
container, the liquid under heating may not appear to boil
even though the temperature exceeds the boiling point.
287

This is the superheating phenomenon. However, when
the liquid is disturbed such as lifting the container bubbles
form spontaneously and rush out, leading to splashing of
the hot liquid. In addition, if the chemical involved is a
dangerous substance, the hazardous vapour evolved
during heating will be injurious to health when inhaled.
Safe practices

practicable, or constantly stir the liquid during heating. This
helps bubble formation and avoids superheating.
entilation to vent away
hazardous vapours as far as practicable. If this is not
practicable and the chemical is less toxic, ensure that the
place is well-ventilated.

protection, respirator as appropriate. Pouring flammable liquids to another container: Beware of
fire/explosion Pouring flammable liquids (such as petrol, acetone, etc.) from one container to
another activates vaporization of the flammable material. At the same time, friction between the
liquid flow and the container as well as air may generate
static electricity. Spark forms when discharge occurs. The spark ignites the flammable vapour in
the vicinity. Consequently the flammable liquid will be on fire and may even lead to explosion.
Safe practices

flammable vapour as far as practicable. If this is not
practicable and the chemical is less hazardous, ensure that
the place is well-ventilated.

to avoid spark discharge.

288

the process should be taken off and should be properly
treated, such as venting off the flammable contaminant by
exhaust ventilation.

protective clothing, gloves as appropriate.

Wiping off flammable liquid spills or leakage: Beware of fire Friction from wiping off
flammable liquid (such as petrol, acetone, etc.) spills or leakage using a piece of cloth may
generate static electricity. Spark forms when discharge occurs. The spark ignites the flammable
vapour in the vicinity, and consequently the flammable liquid will be on fire.

Safe practices
stored or handled !
any flammable liquid spill or eakage is found.
static electricity due to friction.
appropriate.

289

Dissolving caustic soda: Beware of splashes of superheated corrosive liquid Caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide) pellets dissolve in water to form alkaline solution and evolve heat. The
process may cause localized heating and even superheating. When the solution is disturbed such
as lifting the container, bubbles form spontaneously and rush out, leading to splashing of the hot
corrosive liquid.
Safe practices

pellets or strong alkaline solutions!
soda or other strong alkaline solutions slowly to water.
Constantly stir the solution to prevent localized heating, and to help bubble formation in
avoiding superheating. Cool the outside of the container by cold water or ice if necessary.
protective equipment such as gloves, eye
protection as appropriate.
Diluting acids: Beware of splashes of corrosive liquid and emission of acid fumes In general,
diluting acids (such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, etc.) is an exothermic
process. During dilution the acid solution may experience localized heating and evolves gas
bubbles and acid fumes, or even be superheated. Bubbling can easily lead to splashing of hot
corrosive liquid.
Safe practices:
id !
Cool the outside of the container by cold water or ice if necessary.

rotective equipment such as gloves, eye protection as appropriate.
Physics and chemistry of combustion
Fire is a chemical reaction which needs three things to be present so it can happen:
OXYGEN + HEAT + FUEL = FIRE
If one of these is not present, the fire cannot start. If one of these is taken from a fire it will go
out. But how does this all work?
290

When Oxygen in the air combines with flammable vapours given off by fuels they create a form
of heat at a molecular level. Then, a source of ignition (a match or spark, say) can cause it to
combust.

291

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
Essentially, fires are extinguished by taking away one or more of the elements in the fire
tetrahedron.
This can be achieved by:
Removal or separation of unburnt FUEL (eg turn off the gas)
Removal or dilution of the OXYGEN supply (eg smothering the fire with a fire blanket or an
inert gas)
Removal of the HEAT of the oxidation reaction (eg spraying the fuel with water)
Inhibiting the CHAIN REACTION by modifying the combustion chemistry
Sound fire prevention practices are based upon the principle of keeping fuel and ignition
sources apart.

292

CLASSES OF FIRE
Fires are classified according to the type of fuel involved. Not all extinguishing agents are
compatible with all types of fuel (eg water used on a flammable liquid fire is likely to increase
the rate of burning dramatically and to disperse the fuel to cover a greater area).
Thus, if the wrong type of extinguisher is selected the fire situation can be made worse, often
threatening your own personal safety. Some extinguishers are simply more effective than
others on particular classes of fire.
The various types of fires are classified as follows:
Class A Fires involving carbonaceous solids, such as wood, cloth,
paper, rubber and plastics. Class A does not include flammable
metals (see Class D).
Class B Fires involving flammable and combustible liquids.
Class C Fires involving combustible gases.
Class D
Class E
Fires involving certain combustible metals, including
potassium, sodium, & magnesium. Specialist advice should be
sought.
Electrical Hazards
Class F Fires involving cooking oils and fats.
Most fire extinguishers have a pictograph label identifying the type of fuels that may be
extinguished.
Electrical hazards
Where a fire, involving an electrical hazard, can be expected, the extinguisher must be
electrically non-conductive, in addition to having the correct classification for the materials
involved. The marking of '(E)' on the fire extinguisher indicates the extinguisher is safe for
extinguishing a fire involving energised electrical equipment.

293

FIRE SAFETY INFORMATION
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Portable fire extinguishers are designed to attack a fire in its initial stage. The selection of a
suitable extinguisher is primarily influenced by the following factors:
the size and rate of fire spread
the Class of fire (i.e. type of materials involved)
the training and capabilities of the person using the extinguisher
Note: Always follow the specific instructions on a fire extinguisher and familiarise yourself with
these instructions prior to an emergency situation. Persons should be trained in the use of
extinguishers to optimise their effectiveness.
General Guidelines for Using a Fire Extinguisher
P.A.S.S.
1. raise the alarm, summon help and have someone call the fire service on '000'
2. keep your escape path at your back. Never allow the fire to get between you and the escape
path
3. select the correct extinguisher for the Class of fire
4. remember P.A.S.S.
Pull the pin
Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of flames
Squeeze trigger while holding the extinguisher upright
Sweep the extinguisher or nozzle from side to side covering the
base of the fire.
5. observe fire after initial extinguishment, it may rekindle
6. the contents of small extinguishers may last as little as 8 seconds and up to 60 seconds for
larger extinguishers. The time to discharge an extinguisher depends on the type and size of the
extinguisher
Do Not Use (or continue to use) an extinguisher if:
the fire is larger than a waste paper basket
the fire is spreading quickly beyond the point of origin
the extinguisher is not having any effect or is having an adverse reaction on the fire
you are putting your life at risk
294

you cannot extinguish the fire quickly (less than 30 sec)
you do not know what fuels are involved in the fire
REMEMBER - Saving lives through a quick escape is far more important than saving
property.
An emergency is not the time to read extinguisher instructions, if you do not know how to use
the extinguisher or the type of materials involved in the fire:
Close the door to contain the fire
Ensure everyone is out of the building
Ring the fire service on 000
Never go back into the building once out
Wait to meet the fire service
Fire Extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are provided for a 'first attack' fire fighting measure generally undertaken by
the occupants of the building before the fire service arrives. It is important that occupants are
familiar with which extinguisher type to use on which fire.
Most fires start as a small fire and may be extinguished if the correct type and amount of
extinguishing agent is applied whilst the fire is small and controllable.
The principle fire extinguisher types currently available include:
Extinguishing Agent Principle Use
Water (solid Red) wood and paper fires - not electrical
Foam (Blue band) flammable liquid fires - not electrical
Carbon Dioxide (Black band) electrical fires
Dry Chemical (White band) flammable liquids and electrical fires
Wet chemical (Oatmeal band) fat fires - not electrical
Special Purpose (Yellow band) various (eg. metal fires)
Fire extinguisher locations must be clearly identified. Extinguishers are colour coded
according to the extinguishing agent.
The important thing to remember is that fire fighting
must always be secondary to the safety of people.
Upon discovery of Fire or Smoke
1. Remove persons from immediate danger!
295

2. Alert others in near vicinity and Administration
3. Contain Fire and Smoke (close doors)
4. Evacuate and/or Extinguish
WHAT IS FIRE?
Fire is a chemical reaction in which oxygen is combined with a gaseous or vaporous fuel.
Note that, even if the fuel is a solid (e.g. wood) or a liquid (e.g. petrol) it is the vapours given
off when the fuel is heated that burn. This rapid oxidation produces heat and light (flames).
Fire can usually take place only when these three elements are present:
Oxygen
Fuel
Heat (energy)
These 3 elements make up what is commonly called the 'Fire Triangle.'
Oxygen:
Oxygen is usually readily available. It makes up 21% of the air we breathe.
Fuel:
solid combustibles like paper, furniture, clothing and plastics
flammable liquids like petrol, oils, kerosene, paints, solvents and cooking oils / fats
flammable gases like natural gas, LPG, acetylene
Heat:
The heat given off by the oxidation reaction sustains the fire once it is established. But first, a
heat source is required to produce ignition
Ignition sources include:
heating and cooking appliances
faulty electrical equipment
cigarettes, lighters and matches
friction
Chemical Chain Reaction:
Research has added a fourth side to the fire triangle concept resulting in the development
of a new model called the 'Fire Tetrahedron.'
The fourth element involved in the combustion process is referred to as the 'chemical chain
reaction'. Specific chemical chain reactions between fuel and oxygen molecules are
296

essential to sustain a fire once it has begun.

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
Essentially, fires are extinguished by taking away one or more of the elements in the fire
tetrahedron.
This can be achieved by:
Removal or separation of unburnt FUEL (eg turn off the gas)
Removal or dilution of the OXYGEN supply (eg smothering the fire with a fire blanket or an
inert gas)
Removal of the HEAT of the oxidation reaction (eg spraying the fuel with water)
Inhibiting the CHAIN REACTION by modifying the combustion chemistry
Sound fire prevention practices are based upon the principle of keeping fuel and ignition
sources apart.
CLASSES OF FIRE
Fires are classified according to the type of fuel involved. Not all extinguishing agents are
compatible with all types of fuel (eg water used on a flammable liquid fire is likely to increase
the rate of burning dramatically and to disperse the fuel to cover a greater area).
Thus, if the wrong type of extinguisher is selected the fire situation can be made worse, often
threatening your own personal safety. Some extinguishers are simply more effective than
297

others on particular classes of fire.
The various types of fires are classified as follows:
Class A Fires involving carbonaceous solids, such as wood, cloth,
paper, rubber and plastics. Class A does not include flammable
metals (see Class D).
Class B Fires involving flammable and combustible liquids.
Class C Fires involving combustible gases.
Class D
Class E
Fires involving certain combustible metals, including
potassium, sodium, & magnesium. Specialist advice should be
sought.
Electrical Hazards
Class F Fires involving cooking oils and fats.
Most fire extinguishers have a pictograph label identifying the type of fuels that may be
extinguished.
Electrical hazards
Where a fire, involving an electrical hazard, can be expected, the extinguisher must be
electrically non-conductive, in addition to having the correct classification for the materials
involved. The marking of '(E)' on the fire extinguisher indicates the extinguisher is safe for
extinguishing a fire involving energised electrical equipment.
FIRE SAFETY INFORMATION
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Portable fire extinguishers are designed to attack a fire in its initial stage. The selection of a
suitable extinguisher is primarily influenced by the following factors:
the size and rate of fire spread
the Class of fire (i.e. type of materials involved)
the training and capabilities of the person using the extinguisher

298

Note: Always follow the specific instructions on a fire extinguisher and familiarise yourself with
these instructions prior to an emergency situation. Persons should be trained in the use of
extinguishers to optimise their effectiveness. General Guidelines for Using a Fire Extinguisher
P.A.S.S.
1. raise the alarm, summon help and have someone call the fire service on.
2. keep your escape path at your back. Never allow the fire to get between you and the escape
path
3. select the correct extinguisher for the Class of fire
4. remember P.A.S.S.
Pull the pin
Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of flames
Squeeze trigger while holding the extinguisher upright
Sweep the extinguisher or nozzle from side to side covering the
base of the fire.
5. observe fire after initial extinguishment, it may rekindle
6. the contents of small extinguishers may last as little as 8 seconds and up to 60 seconds for
larger extinguishers. The time to discharge an extinguisher depends on the type and size of the
extinguisher
Do Not Use (or continue to use) an extinguisher if:
the fire is larger than a waste paper basket
the fire is spreading quickly beyond the point of origin
the extinguisher is not having any effect or is having an adverse reaction on the fire
you are putting your life at risk
you cannot extinguish the fire quickly (less than 30 sec)
you do not know what fuels are involved in the fire
REMEMBER - Saving lives through a quick escape is far more important than saving
property.
An emergency is not the time to read extinguisher instructions, if you do not know how to use
the extinguisher or the type of materials involved in the fire:
Close the door to contain the fire
Ensure everyone is out of the building
299

Ring the fire service on 101
Never go back into the building once out
Wait to meet the fire service
Fire Extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are provided for a 'first attack' fire fighting measure generally undertaken by
the occupants of the building before the fire service arrives. It is important that occupants are
familiar with which extinguisher type to use on which fire.
Most fires start as a small fire and may be extinguished if the correct type and amount of
extinguishing agent is applied whilst the fire is small and controllable.
The principle fire extinguisher types currently available include:
Extinguishing Agent Principle Use Water (solid Red) wood and paper fires - not electrical Foam
(Blue band) flammable liquid fires - not electrical Carbon Dioxide (Black band) electrical fires
Dry Chemical (White band) flammable liquids and electrical fires Wet chemical (Oatmeal band)
fat fires - not electrical Special Purpose (Yellow band) various (eg. metal fires) Fire extinguisher
locations must be clearly identified. Extinguishers are colour coded according to the
extinguishing agent.

Classification of Fire

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Classification of Fire

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

1

KOVAI FIRE AND SAFETY COLLEGE

Você também pode gostar