G a s

L i n e
S p a r e

G a s

L i n e
D r y i n g
A g e n t
T o t a l

G a s
D e t e c t o r
C h r o m a t o -
g r a p h
C o m p r e s s e d
A i r

S u p p l y
V e n t
V e n t
C a l i b r a t i o n
S y s t e m
R e c o r d i n g
E q u i p m e n t
D e g a s s e r
M u d

L o g g i n g
U n i t
R e t u r n

M u d

F l o w
F r o m

W e l l
( A u x i l i a r y

G a s

D e t e c t i o n

E q u i p m e n t

N o t

S h o w n )
I n - l i n e
H

S

S e n s o r 2
P u m p
P u m p

HYDROCARBON GAS: DETECTION AND OBJECTIVES

Reasons for gas measurements and monitoring:
1. Identify toxic or harmful fluids and gases which may be released at surface
2. Monitor pressure differencial between drilling and formation fluids
3. Detect well bore pressure imbalance
4. Identify zones of abnormal pressure
5. Identify reservoir and source rocks
6. Characterise reservoir fluids
7. Detect mechanical problems at the bit or in the drill string

Components of the Measurement Chain:
Degasser or gas trap to obtain continuous, representative samples of the gas
contained in the drilling fluid
H2S warning system
Vacuum system (with drying and filtering equipment), for transport the gas to the
Mud Logging unit
Total gas or total hydrocarbon detector, for continuous, qualitative monitoring and
safety
Gas chromatograph, for separation and quantitative evaluation of the individual
components (primarily hydrocarbons)
Calibration/reference gas system to ensure repeatability and consistency of the
measurements
Recording equipment




Reservoir Fluid Composition:
Oil and gas reservoirs contain fluids which exist in different phases and mutual solutions. The
temperatures and pressures found at each depth control the phase type and solution composition.
Generally, formation fluids include:

Water fresh water or brine, often containing hydrocarbons, polar gases and inert gases in
solution

Oil always containing some water and with associated gas in solution

Gas free gas at the top of the reservoir (usually saturated with water), or dissolved in other
fluids

For hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs five fluid types are identified by their chemical and
production characteristics:
1. Black oil oils which have initial producing gas-oil ratios of 2000 standard cubic feet
(SCF)/stock tank barrel (STB) or less. The stock tank oil usually has a gravity below 45
API. These oils are not necessarily black, but may be greenish or dark brown. During
production, the stock tank oil gravity will decrease slightly with time.
2. Volatile oil generally oils with initial producing gas-oil ratios of 2000 to 3300
SCF/STB. The stock tank oil usually has a gravity of 40 API or higher, with colours
ranging from brown through orange and green. The producing gas-oil ratio increases as
the reservoir pressure decreases below the bubble point pressure of the oil.

3. Retrograde gas fluids with a producing gas-oil ratio of 3300 SCF/STB or higher, up to
about 150.000 SCF/STB; above 50.000 SCF/STB, the quantity of retrograde liquid in the
reservoir is very small. The producing gas-oil ratio will increase during production as the
reservoir pressure falls below the gas dew-point pressure.


4. Wet gas this term refers to hydrocarbon liquids which condense at surface. Wet gases
and retrograde gas are commonly confused, with the term condensate describing both.
For a wet gas, producing gas-oil ratios remain steady throughout production.

5. Dry gas the term dry indicates that the gas does not contain enough heavy
hydrocarbons to form a liquid at surface; usually some liquid water is associated with the
gas.









Composition of Typical Petroleum Gases:

Hydrocarbon
Methane 70 98%
Ethane 1 10%
Propane trace 5%
Butanes trace 2%
Pentanes trace 1%
Hexanes trace 0.5%
Heptanes+ trace 0.5%

Nonhydrocarbon
Nitrogen trace 15%
Carbon Dioxide trace 5%
Hydrogen Sulphide trace 3%
Helium none trace; some up to 5%

Most Common Gas Readings at Surface:
- Light Alkanes: C1, C2, C3, iC4, nC4, iC5, nC5
- H2S
- CO2

Units of Measurement:
- % Gas in Air
- Parts per million (ppm); 10000 ppm = 1%
- Units - arbitrary and vary from Client to Client (usually 50 units = 1%; for Petrobras: 30
units = 1%)


Types of Detected Gases:
Liberated gas: the gas originally contained in the pore spaces of the rock crushed by the drill bit
only.

Produced gas: gas obtained from the undrilled part of the formation, due to drilling fluid
pressure lower than formation fluid pressure.

Recycled gas: residual gas in mud, recirculated through mud system and back into borehole.

Contamination gas: gas entering mud from a source other than formation or recycling. May be
from mud additives like lubricants or other oil based material.

Background gas: average or a baseline liberatated gas value. Usually low readings, more or less
constant ranging from 3 to 10 units, but may reach 100 units. It is typical for a determined
interval or formation.

Connection gas: short duration gas peaks occurring approximately one lag time after a pipe
connection, caused by reduction of hydrostatic pressure and drill string movement during the
connection

Trip gas: gas produced by swabbing during trips or air in the drill string


Mechanism of Gas Liberation:
When the bit contacts the formation, gas in the pore spaces of the rock will be released into the
surrounding mud. For an undisturbed formation, the volume of gas liberated by the drilling
process is proportional to:
1. the porosity and permeability of the rock
2. the diameter of the well bore
3. the rate of penetration
4. the mud flow rate


Gas Ratios Analysis:
The principle of gas ratios analysis is that increasing hydrocarbon fluid density in the reservoir
will result in increasing gas density measured at surface. Thus gas ratios analysis is most
commonly used to characterise the reservoir, and, to a limited extent may help identify the
source rocks.

One Depth Plots

Triangular Diagram: (C2/CT, nC4/CT, C3/CT)
1. A triangle with the apex pointing upward indicates a gas-rich zone
2. A triangle with the apex pointing downward indicates an oil-rich zone
3. A large triangle indicates dry gas or oil with a low gas-oil ratio
4. A small triangle (or nearly invisible) indicates wet gas or oil with a low gas-oil ratio

Format of Triangle Method Gas Evaluation Chart




Defining Ratios Triangle and Determining the Homothetic Center



Pixler Plots: C1/C2, C1/C3, C1/C4, C1/C5
The zones are defined as follows:
non-productive gas zone primarily methane, probably dissolved in water with
no free gas
productive gas zone methane and heavier alkanes existineg as free gas in the
reservoir, wet gases will ten to appear lower in the zone, dry gases higher
productive oil zone gases derived from black or volalile oils; higher API
gravity, density or heavy alkane content will result in lower values in the zone
non-productive oil zone heavy residual oils, tars or waxes with little methane
and poor mobility


Pixler Plot for Gas, Oil Zones

The gas ratio may be interpreted like this:
1. a ratio of C1/C2 between 2 and 15 indicates an oil-bearing zone
2. a ratio of C1/C2 between 15 and 65 indicates gas
3. the lower the C1/C2 ratio, the richer the gas (or the lower the oil gravity)
4. a C1/C2 ratio less than 2 or greater than 65 is probably non-productive
5. the slope of the line connecting the plotted ratios is a qualitative permeability indicator.
Steep slopes indicate tight zones.


Continuous Plots
Method of gas analysis that can be plotted continuously on a depth based mud log.

Wetness Wh = C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 x 100
C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5

Balance Bh = C1 + C2
C3+C4+C5

Character Ch = C4 + C5
C3



The wetness ratio indicates:
Wh < 0.5 = very dry gas Wh from 17.5 to 40 = oil
Wh from 0.5 to 17.5 = gas Wh > 40 = residual oil

Balance ratio indicates:
Bh > 100 = very dry gas
Wh in gas range and Bh greater than Wh = gas
Wh in gas range and Bh slightly greater than Wh = wet or retrograde gas
Wh in oil range and Bh less than Wh = oil
Wh greater than 40 and Bh much less than Wh = residual oil

Character ratio indicates:
Ch < 0.5; the Wh and Bh interpretation is correct
Ch > 0.5; gas character indicated by Wh and Bh actually represents oil

Ch is only used when Wh and Bh indicate gas.

Gas Readings in Relation to Pore Pressure Prediction:
Gas readings may help in pore pressure prediction and/or interpretation.
Usually when reaching a transition zone or a higher pressure zone, the background gas will
gradually increase as well gets imbalanced and more cuttings are generated. This will be true if
mud weight remains constant.
Then gradually produced gas readings will be noticed as any permeable formation is drilled if
there are any fractures in the shale of the transition zone.

Also an increase in heavy gases relative to C1 and C2 (C2/C3 ratio decreasing) may indicate
entry into a transition zone.

10
Ratio C2/C3 Total Gas %
MW
Depth (m)
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
0.1 1
0.1 1 10
Kick
Gas
CG
CG
CG
CG
CG
CG
CG
CG
CG
CG
A B C
But the best indication of a transition zone or hole imbalance is the connection gas, which will
increase as pore pressure approaches mud weight.



A. Positive, steady differential pressure
B. Positive, decreasing differential pressure
C. Negative differential pressure


Guiding Horizontal Wells With Gas Indices:
At least two criteria must be reached: over balanced drilling, guidance must depend on a number
of gas indices (observation of a chosen gas indicator) with respect to a minimum cut off
quantity. If gas quantity > minimum cut off, then well trajectory is correct.
The most representative gas indicator can be one of the components in particular, or the sum of
several of them, which characterise the specific reservoir. The choice should be as simple and
pertinent as possible for local production conditions. Whenever possible, light weight
components should be preferred (C1, C2 or C3) or sums or ratios of them.
Nowadays with the several available LWD tools, navigation inside reservoirs is a much easier
processs. However, if inside the same reservoir the oil/gas and oil/water contacts are present, the
gas index may be a valuable tool to show whether navigation is taking place inside the pay zone.

Gas Indices for Horizontal Wells




References:
Gas Detection: Theory and Practice (Geoservices, 1995)
Guiding Horizontal Wells According to Gas Indices (Geoservices, 1995)
Validation of Gas Micro-indices During Drilling (Geoservices, 1997)
Mud Logging Presentation During PERFORM School (2003)