1.

Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics, the branch of physics that deals with the motion of air and with the
relative motion between air and objects in the air. The bodies in the air can be moving
(for example, aircraft, missiles, birds, and automobiles), or they can be stationary
structures (for example, bridges and buildings) acted upon by moving air.
Aerodynamicists are concerned mainly with the design of airplanes and, to a lesser
extent, automobiles. The flight of birds demonstrates many of the principles of
aerodynamics.
2.Aeronautics
Aeronautics, the science and practice of aircraft flight. (An aircraft is a vehicle that is
supported in flight by its own buoyancy or by the action of air on its surfaces.) The
term aeronautics takes in all phases of the design, construction, and operation of both
lighterthanair craft (airships and balloons) and heavierthanair craft (such as
airplanes, helicopters, convertiplanes, autogiros, gliders, and kites). The term aviation
is usually restricted to powered, heavierthanair craft.
3.Air
Air, the mixture of gases that surrounds the earth and forms the earth!s atmosphere.
Air is invisible and tasteless, and normally has no odor. Air has weight, can be
expanded or compressed, and, at extremely low temperatures, can be changed into a
li"uid or solid. Air in motion, called wind, has enough force to turn windmills and to
move ships# such strong winds as hurricanes and tornadoes uproot trees and destroy
buildings.
Composition of Air
Air is a somewhat variable mixture, consisting chiefly of nitrogen (about $% per cent
by volume) and oxygen (about &' per cent by volume). Air also contains argon,
carbon dioxide, water vapor, neon, helium, methane, krypton, and o(one.
The oxygen in air is essential to all land animals and many plants. Through a process
called respiration, animals and plants take in oxygen, use it to obtain energy from
food, and release carbon dioxide. )arbon dioxide in the air is needed by plants for
photosynthesis, the process by which they use sunlight to make food. *uring
photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere.
)arbon dioxide forms only about +.+, per cent of the air by volume. )arbon dioxide
is produced not only by the respiration of animals and plants but also by the burning
and decay of organic matter.
The watervapor content of the air is referred to as humidity. The humidity varies with
conditions on the earth!s surface.
The air usually contains a variety of tiny solid particles, such as volcanic dust, pollen,
spores of molds and algae, bacteria, soot, and finely pulveri(ed earth. *ust particles in
the air can be seen in a beam of sunlight that penetrates into a darkened room. The
scattering of sunlight by dust and other particles in the air causes the coloring of the
sky at sunrise and sunset. (The blueness of the clear sky during the day is caused by
the scattering of sunlight by the molecules of the gases making up the air.)
The contamination of the air by impurities emitted from furnaces and motor vehicles
has created serious problems over some cities and industrial areas.
Air Density and Pressure
Air is densest (heaviest) at or below sea level. At sea level, the density of the air is
about +.+% pounds per cubic foot ('., kg-m,). The weight of the atmosphere causes
air at sea level to exert an average pressure of '..$ pounds per s"uare inch ('+'.,
k/a) in all directions. This pressure is called one atmosphere. (0n weather maps, air
pressure is usually given in millibars, abbreviated mb# one atmosphere is e"ual to
',+', millibars.) Air pressure decreases with altitude. At an altitude of &+,+++ feet
(1,'++ m), for example, the average air pressure is 1.% pounds per s"uare inch (.$
k/a). Air pressure is measured by an instrument called a barometer.
A balloon will rise when it is filled with helium or any other gas that is lighter (less
dense) than the surrounding air. 2irds and airplanes, which are heavier than air, fly
through the air by means of wings. As a wing moves through the air, it experiences an
upward force (called lift) because the pressure exerted by air passing over the wing is
less than the pressure exerted by the air passing under the wing.
Special Forms of Air
Compressed Air
3hen air is compressed that is, forced into a smaller space than it normally occupiesit
has a tremendous expansive pressure. This pressure is used to drive such piston
operated machines as rivet guns and rock drills. 4t also is used to operate hoists, jacks,
hammers, and molding machines. 4n sandblasting, compressed air is used to hurl jets
of sand against a hard material, such as stone or glass. The air cushion vehicle, a
device developed in the late '56+!s, rides on a layer of compressed air.
Liquid Air
7i"uid air is an intensely cold, clear, paleblue substance. 4ts density is about nine
tenths that of water. To li"uefy air, it is first compressed, thereby raising its
temperature. 8ext, heat is removed from the hot air by passing it through chilled
pipes. The cooled air is then allowed to expand. As the air expands, its temperature
drops, causing some of the air to li"uefy.
8itrogen, oxygen, argon, neon, krypton, and xenon are produced commercially by the
fractional distillation of li"uid air. This process, which was developed by the 9erman
physicist )arl von 7inde in '%56, depends on the fact that the gases that make up the
air have different boiling points. 7i"uid air is also used as a refrigerant and is used in
lowtemperature scientific investigations.
4.Archimedes Scre!
Archimedes! :crew, a device used to raise water from one level to another. An
Archimedes! screw consists of a helix, or spiral, fitted inside a cylinder that is open at
both ends. 4n use, the lower end of the device is placed under water at a slant and a
handle, attached to the helix, is turned. As the helix revolves, small amounts of water
are slowly raised in wells formed by the side of the cylinder and the surfaces of the
helix. The Archimedes! screw was developed in ancient ;gypt and, it is believed,
improved by Archimedes (&%$<&'& 2.).)# it is still used occasionally in the =iddle
;ast. The device can also be used to lift loose materials, such as grains.
".Attraction
Attraction, in physics and chemistry, a force that draws objects together. There are
several forms of attraction. 9ravitation holds the planets in their orbits around the sun,
and prevents objects on the earth from flying out into space. )ohesion is the attraction
between like molecules of a substance, such as the water molecules in a glass of
water. Adhesion is the attraction between unlike molecules, such as molecules of glue
and those of wood.
=agnetic attraction is the force that draws an iron object to a magnet. ;lectrostatic
attraction draws electrically charged objects toward one another, provided they are
oppositely charged. >or example, a positively charged glass rod will attract a
negatively charged rubber rod.
#.$allistics
2allistics, the science that deals with the motion of projectiles such as bullets, shells,
rockets, and aerial bombs. 4t is important to police officers who investigate crimes
involving shooting, to artillerymen and naval gunnery officers, and to engineers who
design firearms, missiles, bombsights, and firecontrol systems.
2allistics has three branches. 4nterior ballistics deals with the behavior of a projectile
within a gun barrel. ;xterior ballistics is concerned with the motion of a projectile in
flight. Terminal ballistics deals with the effect of the projectile on its target.
%nterior $allistics
A firearm such as a rifle, pistol, or artillery piece fires a projectile as a result of the
burning of its propellant, which usually is smokeless powder. 3hen the powder is
ignited, large "uantities of gases are produced. These gases force the projectile
through the barrel in much the same way that children blow peas from a peashooter.
4f the gas pressure is too small, the bullet or shell will not reach its target. 4f the
pressure is too great the gun may blow up. Also, if the pressure changes with each
shot, the velocity of the projectile will change and accuracy will be poor. ?ow to
regulate this pressure is one of the most important problems in interior ballistics.
Almost all types of firearms (except for shotguns and rocket launchers) have spiral
grooves on the inside of their barrels. These grooves are called rifling. The depth,
diameter, and number of turns vary in different weapons and differ slightly with each
separate weapon of the same type. 3hen a pistol or rifle is fired, the bullet!s metal
fills into the grooves. 4rregularities, some visible only through a microscope, leave
markings on the bullet. These markings help ballistic experts determine which
weapon fired a given bullet, since all bullets from the same gun have similar
markings. This type of investigation is useful in police work.
&'terior $allistics
3hen a bullet or artillery shell leaves a gun, it spins like a top because of the spiral
rifling. This spinning motion gives the projectile stability of flight. :ome rocket
missiles are made to spin by metal fins or by small auxiliary rocket engines. 3hile in
the air, the projectile is subject to various forces, such as gravity, air resistance, wind,
and drift@ caused by the spin. The effect of these forces must be considered when
aiming a weapon to achieve accurate shooting.
(erminal $allistics
The penetration of tank armor by armorpiercing ammunition is an important concern
of terminal ballistics. Another is the damage done to the target by the blast effect and
flying fragments of a shell or bomb. 3ith nuclear weapons there is also damage from
intense heat and radiation. The study of terminal ballistics helps scientists to develop
more effective weapons and to devise means of defense against enemy weapons.
).$oyles La!
2oyle!s 7aw, a principle that describes the relationship between the pressure and
volume of a gas. According to this law, the pressure exerted by a gas held at a
constant temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas. >or example, if the
volume is halved, the pressure is doubled# and if the volume is doubled, the pressure
is halved. The reason for this effect is that a gas is made up of loosely spaced
molecules moving at random. 4f a gas is compressed in a container, these molecules
are pushed together# thus, the gas occupies less volume. The molecules, having less
space in which to move, hit the walls of the container more fre"uently and thus exert
an increased pressure.
2oyle!s 7aw actually applies only to an ideal, theoretical gas. 3hen real gases are
compressed at a constant temperature, changes in the relationship between pressure
and volume occur. ?owever, the law is accurate enough to be useful in a number of
practical applications. 4t is used, for example, in calculating the volume and pressure
of internalcombustion engines and steam engines.
The law was first stated in '11& by Aobert 2oyle. 4n '1$1, ;dme =ariotte of >rance
independently stated the same law, and it is sometimes called =ariotte!s 7aw.
:tated as a formula, 2oyle!s 7aw readsB
C'-C&D/&-/' (at constant temperature)
where C' e"uals the original volume, C& e"uals the new volume, /' the original
pressure, and /& the new pressure.
*.$uoyancy
2uoyancy, the tendency of an object to rise or float when immersed in a fluid (either a
li"uid or a gas). Any fluid exerts an upward force on an object immersed in it. The
strength of the force is e"ual to the weight of the fluid displaced (pushed aside) by the
object# this principle is known as Archimedes! /rinciple. This principle explains why
less effort is re"uired to lift an object submerged in water than to lift the same object
when it is out of water.
4f a wooden board is placed in a bathtub full of water, some of the water will spill
over the side. The amount of water pushed aside by the board is called the board!s
displacement. The board sinks only until it has displaced a volume of water whose
weight e"uals the weight of the board. A metal ship can float because its hull displaces
an amount of water whose weight is greater than the weight of the ship. 4f a ship fills
with water, however, the combined weight of the ship and water will exceed the
buoyant force, and the ship will sink. 3hen the density (the ratio of the mass to
volume) of an object matches the density of the surrounding fluid, it will neither rise
nor sink, but will remain suspended in the fluid.
+.Center of ,ra-ity
)enter of 9ravity, the point at which all of the weight of an object appears to be
concentrated. 4f an object rotates when thrown, the center of gravity is also the center
of rotation. 3hen an object is suspended so that it can move freely, its center of
gravity is always directly below the point of suspension. An object can be balanced on
a sharp point placed directly beneath its center of gravity. 4t is important for
automobiles and trucks to have their centers of gravity located close to the road,
because a low center of gravity gives them stability.
1..Centrifu/al Force
)entrifugal >orce, in physics, the tendency of an object following a curved path to fly
away from the center of curvature. )entrifugal force is not a true force# it is a form of
inertia (the tendency of objects that are moving in a straight line to continue moving
in a straight line). )entrifugal force is referred to as a force for convenienceEbecause
it balances centripetal force, which is a true force. 4f a ball is swung on the end of a
string, the string exerts centripetal force on the ball and causes it to follow a curved
path. The ball is said to exert centrifugal force on the string, tending to break the
string and fly off on a tangent.
The effects of centrifugal force can be controlled and even harnessed for useful
purposes. >or example, centrifugal force is used in centrifuges and in engine
governors. ?ighway curves are banked (tilted) to prevent centrifugal force from
forcing cars outward off the road.
3hen measured in pounds, centrifugal force is given by the formula wv&-gr
3here w is the weight of the object in pounds, v the velocity in feet per second, g the
acceleration of gravity (,& feet per second per second), and r the radius of the circle in
feet.
11.Centripetal Force
)entripetal >orce, in physics, a force that draws the parts of a rotating object toward
the center of the object, thereby causing the parts to move in a circular path. This
force is directly opposite to centrifugal force, which pulls an object away from its
center. 4n a properly rotating part, such as a wheel, both forces must be e"ual. 4f the
centripetal force is overcome or ceases to exist, the wheel will Fexplode,G the parts
flying off in all directions.
12.Cohesion
)ohesion, the force of attraction that holds the molecules of a substance together. The
strength of this force depends upon the physical state of the substance. 4t is greatest
for solids, in which molecules are close together. 4n li"uids, the molecules are farther
apart and the force is less. )ohesion is least in gases, the molecules being so widely
spaced that a gas can occupy any shape or volume.
:ometimes there is a strong attraction between molecules of unlike substances in
contact, as between wood and glue. This force, which is distinct from cohesion, is
called adhesion.
13.&quili0rium
;"uilibrium, a state of balance between opposing forces. 4n mechanics, an object at
rest is in a state of e"uilibrium. :uch an object will move only if the balance of forces
acting upon it is upset. 4f this balance is relatively difficult to upset, the object is in
stable e"uilibrium. A good example is a cone resting on its base on a hori(ontal
surface. An object in unstable e"uilibrium is easily overturned, as is a cone placed on
its tip. An object in stable or unstable e"uilibrium is overturned by tilting it until its
base is no longer under its center of gravity.
An unstable object has a high center of gravity and a small base. The center of gravity
is easily shifted by slight force, causing the object to fall over. A stable object has a
broad base and its center of gravity is low. 4t can be overturned only by tilting it so far
that a vertical line drawn through the center of gravity clears the base. 4n an object in
neutral e"uilibriumEsuch as a wheel, a ball, or a cone resting on its sideEthe center
of gravity coincides with the center of rotation and cannot be shifted by tilting.
2iological e"uilibrium is the coordination of muscular forces that maintain an animal
in its normal posture. 4t is controlled by the sense of balance. )hemical e"uilibrium is
the state in which one chemical reaction balances another. :uch a state is indicated in
a chemical formula by two hori(ontal arrows, one over the other, pointing in opposite
directions. Thermodynamic e"uilibrium is a condition in which temperature and
pressure do not fluctuate.
14.Fallin/ $odies
>alling 2odies, objects moving downward under the influence of gravity. The nature
of this motion is the same for an object that falls straight down as it is for one that
moves forward and down at the same time. Thus a bullet fired hori(ontally from a
rifle falls at the same rate as one that is simply dropped. Hnowledge of the motion of
falling bodies is important in calculating the trajectory of bombs, bullets, artillery
shells, and missiles.
4n the fourth century 2.)., Aristotle maintained that an object falls with a speed
proportionate to its weightthat is, the heavier the object, the faster it falls. This idea
was generally accepted until the '$th century, when 9alileo showed that the rate of
fall caused by gravity is the same for all objects. (There is a tradition that 9alileo
made this discovery by dropping iron balls of une"ual weight from the 7eaning Tower
of /isa. 4n describing his experiments, however, 9alileo did not mention the 7eaning
Tower.) 4n an experiment made with balls rolling down a sloping board, 9alileo
determined the rate at which bodies accelerate (speed up) as they fall.
A seeming contradiction of the principle that all bodies fall at the same rate is the fact
that a lump of lead will fall faster than such objects as feathers or leaves. ?owever,
these objects fall at a different rate because of air resistancein a vacuum, a lump of
lead, a feather, and a leaf will fall at the same rate. This phenomenon was
demonstrated by astronauts on the moon, which has no atmosphere. 4n one
experiment, a hammer and a feather were dropped together from the same height#
both fell at the same rate and struck the surface of the moon simultaneously.
4n the mid'5%+!s, some physicists believed they had found evidence for a previously
unknown force, much weaker than gravity, that would cause objects of different
compositions to fall at very slightly different rates. Their report led to a number of
experiments designed to detect such a force.
La! of Fallin/ $odies
The law of falling bodies statesB
A falling body in a vacuum accelerates at the rate of ,& feet, per second (5.% m-s)
during each second that it falls. This acceleration is called the acceleration of gravity,
which is expressed mathematically as g. (4n air, the body accelerates until it reaches
its terminal velocitya constant velocity at which air resistance e"uals the force of
gravity.)
The velocity (v) of a falling body that falls from rest is found by multiplying g by the
time (t) during which a body fallsB v D gt
>or example, at the end of 6 seconds, a body will have a velocity of ,& I 6 D '1+ feet
per second.
The total distance (s) a body falls is e"ual to half of the acceleration of gravity
multiplied by the s"uare of the timeB :Dgt&-&
>or example, at the end of the fifth second a body will have fallen
,6 I 6 I 6-&D'1I&6 D .++ feet.
1".Force
>orce, in physics, the pushing or pulling agency that makes (or tends to make) objects
speed up, slow down, or change direction. 7ike time and speed, force in itself cannot
be seen. 4nstead, it is a cause whose effect can be measured, as in the workings of
gravitation, of electricity and magnetism, and of nuclear reactions. :ome forces have
specific names. >or example, a force that resists the movement of one object against
another is called friction# a force that turns or tends to turn an object is called tor"ue#
and the force with which the earth!s gravity pulls on an object is called weight.
The calculation and measurement of forces is of fundamental importance in physics,
engineering, and other sciences. The scientific understanding of force began with the
work of :ir 4saac 8ewton ('1.&'$&$). ?e used the idea of force in his three laws of
mechanics.
A force acting on an object is expressed in terms of the object!s mass (the amount of
matter it contains) and the acceleration (change of motion) that the force tends to give
the object. (>or an explanation of acceleration, The relationship between force (>),
mass (m), and acceleration (a) is given by the formula >Dma.
Jnits of >orce
>orce can be expressed in two kinds of unitsgravitational and absolute. The
gravitational units are based on acceleration due to gravity# the absolute units, on
acceleration given in terms of a standard unit of length.
The most familiar gravitational units of force are the poundforce and the
kilogramforce. ;ach of these units is usually called by the same name as the unit of
mass used in defining itB the pound and the kilogram, respectively.
A Pound1force
is the force that gives a mass of ' pound the same acceleration as that produced by
gravity (about ,& feet per second per second).
A 2ilo/ram1force
is the force that gives a mass of ' kilogram the same acceleration as that produced by
gravity (about 5.% meters per second per second).
The most common absolute units of force are the poundal, newton, and dyne.
A Poundal
is the force that gives a mass of ' pound an acceleration of ' foot per second per
second.
A 3e!ton
is the force that gives a mass of ' kilogram an acceleration of ' meter per second per
second. 4t is the basic unit of force in the :4, the internationally accepted form of the
metric system.
A Dyne
is the force that gives a mass of ' gram an acceleration of ' centimeter per second per
second.
1#.Friction
>riction, the force or resistance that opposes the movement of one body or substance
against another. >riction between solids is usually caused by irregularities in sliding
surfaces, but sometimes by adhesion (sticking) or electrical attraction. >riction
between fluids is usually caused by their viscosity (resistance to flowing).
4f there were no friction, walking would be impossible and cars would spin their
wheels without moving. >riction holds nails and screws in wood, and the operation of
all brakes depends on friction. >riction between belts and pulleys is important in the
operation of many machines. >riction between moving parts of machines, however, is
undesirable. 4t wastes energy that could otherwise be used to perform work, produces
heat, and can cause considerable wear. >riction can never be entirely eliminated, but it
can be reduced by smoothing sliding surfaces or applying a lubricant such as oil.
There are three types of frictionB
Slidin/ Friction
results when one solid moves across another, as in dragging a box across a floor.
4ollin/ Friction
is produced when a rolling body, such as a wheel or ball bearing, rolls over another
:urface. 0n hard surfaces, rolling friction is generally much less than sliding friction.
Fluid Friction
is that produced by fluids in motion, or by contact between moving fluids and solids.
Thin fluids flow more easily than thick fluids, and therefore produce less friction.
4n general, more force is re"uired in overcoming friction to start an object moving
across a surface than to keep it moving. 0nce the object is moving, the friction acting
on the object (that is, the force opposing its motion) is directly proportional to the
force with which the object presses against the surface. >or example, doubling the
weight of an object sliding across a surface will double the force with which the
object presses against the surface and therefore double the friction that must be
overcome to keep the object moving.
The ratio of the friction acting on an object to the force with which the object presses
against a surface is called the coefficient of friction. 4ts value depends on the materials
in contact. The greater the friction between two materials, the higher is the coefficient.
Hnowledge of the coefficient of friction between materials is useful to engineers in
designing the moving parts of machines and in calculating the amount of power
necessary to operate them.
1)., Force 5physics6
9, in physics, a symbol relating to gravity. A capital 9 indicates the gravitational
constant, as explained in the article 9AAC4TAT408. A lowercase g stands for the
acceleration imparted by gravity at the earth!s surface. An acceleration of ' g is ,&. '
feet per second per second (5.% m-s&).
>liers and astronauts may experience accelerations many times larger than ' g. These
accelerations are usually expressed in multiples of g, such as &g, ,g, etc. >or example,
when the speed of a space vehicle increases 51., feet per second (&5.. m-s) during a
second of travel, the vehicle is said to be accelerating at , g!s. An astronaut in the
space vehicle would experience a force, called a g force, three times as strong as the
force of gravity at the earth!s surface.
9reat effort is re"uired to move parts of the body against the g force produced at an
acceleration of , g!s. Tolerance to even greater accelerations depends on the position
of the individual in relation to the g force. A person in an upright position with respect
to the g force suffers temporary vision loss at about . g!s, and loss of consciousness at
6 to % g!s, because the amount of blood reaching the brain is reduced. A person in a
lying position with respect to the g force can endure up to &+ g!s for short periods.
1*.,ra-itation
9ravitation, the mutual attraction of all bodies and particles of matter in the universe.
Although gravitation is a relatively weak force, it is responsible for much of the large
scale structure and organi(ation of the universe. The motion of the moon around the
earth, of the earth around the sun, and of the sun around the core of the =ilky 3ay
galaxy are all the result of gravitation.
The term gravitation is closely related to the term gravity. 9ravity refers specifically
to the gravitational attraction a large body has toward comparatively small masses on
or near its surface. 4t is because of the earth!s gravity that objects fall to the ground.
The force with which an object is pulled by gravity is the object!s weight.
:ir 4saac 8ewton was the first to propose that the same type of force that causes an
object such as an apple to fall to the ground also holds the moon in its orbit around the
earth. ?e presented his theory of gravitation in '1%$. The essence of this theory is the
law of universal gravitation, which statesB ;very particle of matter attracts every other
particle of matter with a force proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the s"uare of their distance apart.
This law can be expressed in the form
> D 9 =' =&-d&
where > is the gravitational force# =' and =& are the masses of the two particles# d is
their distance apart# and 9 is the universal gravitational constant. The value of 9 must
be determined by experiment. 3hen the force, masses, and distance are measured in
newtons, kilograms, and meters, respectively, 9 has a numerical value of 1.1$ I '+
''.
To calculate the gravitational force between large bodies, it is generally necessary to
consider each body as being composed of small particles and to calculate the
gravitational interaction of all the particles. 4n certain cases, the calculations can be
greatly simplified. >or example, a spherical body, such as the earth, exerts a
gravitational force on other bodies as if all of its mass were concentrated at its center.
The gravitational forces with which two bodies attract each other are e"ual in strength
and opposite in direction. An apple at the earth!s surface, for example, attracts the
earth with a force e"ual in strength to the force with which the earth attracts the apple.
2ecause of the earth!s much greater mass, however, the effect of the apple!s
gravitational attraction of the earth is not noticeable.
8ewton!s theory of gravitation has proved to be very accurate and useful. A notable
success of the theory was the discovery of the planet 8eptune in '%.1# 8eptune was
found where calculations based on 8ewton!s theory predicted a planet should be in
order to account for irregularities in the orbit of Jranus.
4n the &+th century, several new theories of gravitation have been developed. The
most thoroughly investigated and best established of these theories is that of Albert
;instein. 4t is a cornerstone of his general theory of relativity, which was published in
'5'1.
4n the general theory of relativity, gravitation is presented as an effect resulting from a
geometrical property of space called curvature. The curvature is affected by the
distribution of matter in space. ;instein!s concept of gravitation is largely based on the
principle of e"uivalence. According to this principle, the effects caused by the
acceleration of a system cannot be distinguished from those caused by gravitational
attraction.
>or conditions in the vicinity of the sun and planets, the differences between the
predictions of 8ewton!s theory and ;instein!s theory of gravitation are minute and
difficult to observe. The predictions of the two theories differ appreciably only for
bodies moving at speeds approaching the speed of light and for regions containing
bodies of extremely large mass.
:everal phenomena predicted by ;instein!s theory have been used to test it. These
phenomena include the slowing and deflection of light by the sun!s gravity, and the
gradual shifting of =ercury!s orbit around the sun. Although some observations have
been inconclusive, others strongly support the theory.
Jsing ;instein!s theory, physicists have predicted the existence of a variety of
astronomical phenomena. These include gravitational wavesEweak disturbances in
space that are generated by accelerated matter and travel at the speed of light#
gravitational lensesEmassive bodies with a gravitational field that focuses light from
a more distant body, forming a multiple image of the body# and black holesEobjects
whose gravity is so great that neither matter nor light can escape from it. 4ndirect
evidence has been found for both black holes and gravitational waves. :ome
experiments conducted in the late '51+!s seemed to provide direct evidence for
gravitational waves, but the results of the experiments have not been confirmed. :ince
the late '5$+!s, astronomers have discovered several "uasars that appear in
photographs as double images near the image of an intervening galaxy. =any
astronomers believe that the intervening galaxies in these photographs are
gravitational lenses.
1+.7orsepo!er
?orsepower, a unit of power. /ower is the rate at which work is done. 0ne horse
power (abbreviation, ?/ or hp) e"uals 66+ footpounds of work per second. (A foot
pound is the amount of work done by one pound of force exerted through a distance
of one foot.) The metric unit is the watt# one horsepower e"uals $.6.$ watts.
0riginally, horsepower meant the ability of a horse to perform heavy tasks such as
turning a mill wheel or drawing a load. Kames 3att ('$,1'%'5), inventor of the first
efficient steam engine, chose horsepower as a standard to which the power of an
engine could be meaningfully compared. 3att!s measurements of horsepower were
widely accepted, even though the measurements applied only to very strong horses
working for brief periods. Although the horse is no longer an important source of
power, 3att!s standard is retained for rating engines, turbines, electric motors,
windmills, and waterpower devices.
4ndicated horsepower is the power an engine would develop if it worked without
frictional losses.
2rake, or shaft, horsepower (also called delivered horsepower) is the actual power
output of an engine. =echanical efficiency of an engine is the ratio between brake
horsepower and indicated horsepower, and friction horsepower is the difference
between indicated horsepower and brake horsepower.
3ater horsepower is a measure of water power. The falling of ,,,+++ pounds ('.,515
kg) of water over a distance of one foot (,+ cm) in one minute produces one
horsepower.
Thrust horsepower is a measure of the power of a jet or rocket engine. 4t is also a
measure of the rotational power that an enginedriven propeller converts into thrust.
(Thrust is the forward force of propulsion.)
Taxable horsepower is calculated by state and local governments for the purpose of
assessing taxes on automobiles and other machines. Taxable horsepower, usually
based on a formula using the diameter and number of cylinders, is generally much
lower than brake horsepower.
An average person while running can develop about one horsepower for a brief period
and about oneseventh horsepower for sustained periods. :mall motors in household
appliances are rated at about onethird to threefourths horsepower.
2..7ydraulics
?ydraulics, the branch of engineering that deals with water and other li"uids.
?ydraulics makes use of the principles of hydromechanics, a field of physics.
?ydraulic engineers build dams, spillways, irrigation structures, a"ueducts, canals,
floodcontrol dikes, and piers. ?ydraulic engineering principles are used in the
construction of oil and gas pipelines and storage tanks. /lacer mining of gold is a
hydraulic process. ?ydraulics research is concerned with ways to improve no((les
and valves# the hulls and propellers of boats# and pumps, turbines, and other hydraulic
machinery.
21.7ydromechanics
?ydromechanics, the branch of physics that deals with forces acting upon and within
fluids (li"uids and gases). ?ydromechanics is divided into hydrodynamics, the study
of fluids in motion# and hydrostatics, the study of fluids at rest.
/rinciples of the hydromechanics of fluids are applied in hydraulics, which deals with
water and other li"uids at rest or in motion# in aerodynamics, which deals with the
motion of air and with the relative motion between air and objects in the air# in
fluidics, which deals with automated sensing and controlling devices that use the
movements of fluids to operate # and in pneumatics, which deals with the mechanical
properties of gases .
7ydrodynamics
A li"uid or gas flows from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure. This
happens, for example, when water is s"uee(ed from a sponge or s"uirted from a hose.
The flow of a fluid is influenced by viscosity, the resistance that opposes the motion
of a fluid. :ome li"uids flow by capillary action, which depends largely on adhesion
and surface tension.
The flow of a li"uid or gas can be laminar (smooth) or turbulent (rough and eddying).
The nature of the flow depends on the viscosity and density of the fluid, on the speed
at which the fluid is moving, and on the surface and shape of objects in contact with
the fluid. >or example, water flows turbulently along the rough banks of a river but
flows laminarly around the smooth, curved sides of a boat floating in the river. An
object whose shape offers little resistance to the smooth flow of a fluid is said to be
streamlined.
$ernoullis Principle8
discovered by the :wiss physicist *aniel 2ernoulli ('$++'$%&), states that the
pressure exerted by a flowing fluid on the walls of a tube (for example, a hose or pipe)
decreases where the speed of the fluid increases (as at the exit from a no((le).
2ernoulli!s /rinciple explains the FliftG obtained by hydrofoil boats and by aircraft
with wings or rotors.
The effects explained by 2ernoulli!s /rinciple can be produced by sending a fluid
through a venturi tube, or venturi, a short tube whose diameter tapers to a relatively
narrow section at its middle. The speed of the fluid in this narrow section is
greaterand its pressure lessthan in the rest of the tube. The venturi tube is used in
several kinds of devices, including instruments that measure flow of fluids.
(orricellis (heorem
is an application of the 7aw of >alling 2odies to li"uids. This theorem was derived by
the 4talian physicist ;vangelista Torricelli ('1+%'1.$). 4t states that a li"uid flowing
from an outlet in a tank has the same speed as an object falling freely from the level of
the li"uid!s surface to the level of the outlet. The theorem also states that a jet of water
rises to the level of its source, unless opposed by friction. Torricelli!s Theorem
explains the action of an artesian well.
22.7ydrostatics
Archimedes Principle
states that a fluid exerts a buoyant (lifting) force on an object placed in the fluid. The
force is e"ual to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The principle,
discovered by the 9reek mathematician Archimedes, explains why ships float in water
and balloons in air.
Pascals La!8
formulated by the >rench philosopher 2laise /ascal ('1&,'11&), applies to any fluid
at rest in a container. The law states that pressure upon the fluid at any point will be
transmitted uniformly throughout the fluid. 4n the case of a gas, a pressure increase
causes compression (uniform lessening of volume). 7i"uids, however, are not
compressible. An increase of pressure at any piont upon a contained li"uid will result
in an increase of pressure at every point upon the walls of the container# the volume of
the li"uid remains the same. /ascal!s 7aw explains the action of a hydraulic press and
similar devices.
23.7ydrometer
?ydrometer, an instrument for determining the specific gravity of li"uids. A common
application is in measuring the concentration of antifree(e in the cooling system of an
automobile. The lower the specific gravity of the coolant, the greater is the
concentration of antifree(e present. :pecial forms include the alcoholometer, for
measuring the alcoholic strength of a li"uid# and the acidimeter, for determining the
acid content of a storage battery.
The hydrometer works on the principle that a floating body displaces a volume of
li"uid whose weight is e"ual to its own# the lighter the li"uid (that is, the less its
specific gravity), the deeper the body sinks because a greater amount of li"uid is
re"uired to e"ual the body!s weight.
24.%nclined Plane
4nclined /lane, a simple machine consisting of a flat, tilted surface. A ramp is an
example. Two other simple machinesEthe screw and the wedgeEwork on the
principle of the inclined plane. The screw can be regarded as a cylinder with an
inclined plane wrapped around it and the wedge as two inclined planes placed back to
back.
4t re"uires less force to move an object up an inclined plane than it does to lift the
object vertically. The object, however, has to be moved a proportionately greater
distance, and the amount of work done therefore remains the same. (3ork is
calculated by multiplying force times distance.)
The theoretical mechanical advantage of an inclined plane (the number of times it
multiplies force) is the length of the plane divided by its height (if, as in the
illustration, force is applied parallel to the plane)# or the length of the base divided by
the height of the plane (if force is applied parallel to the base).
The ratio of height to length is called the grade of the inclined plane, and is expressed
as a percentage. >or example, an inclined plane &++ feet (1' m) long that rises &+ feet
(1.' m) would have a grade of '+ per cent.
2".%nertia
4nertia, the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest and of an object in motion to
remain in motion. 4nertia is a property of matter and is described by :ir 4saac
8ewton!s first law of motionB Jnless acted upon by an outside force, a body at rest
will remain at rest and a body in motion will continue to move in a straight line with
uniform speed. A child on a sled, if the rope is suddenly jerked, is left sitting on the
snow# or a passenger in an automobile, if the car suddenly stops, pitches forward.
These instances illustrate inertia.
2#.%nterference
4nterference, in physics, the effect caused by the coming together of waves, including
water, sound, and light waves. 4nterference can be seen when two different series of
waves come together on the surface of a body of water. 3hen the colliding waves are
in phase (the crest of one coinciding with the crest of the other), the elevation of the
water surface is the sum of the heights that the separate waves would have had. 3hen
the colliding waves are out of phase (the crests not coinciding or the crest of one
coinciding with the trough of the other), there is much less disturbance of the water
surface, and the elevation or depression amounts to the difference between the height
of one wave!s crest and the depth of the other wave!s trough.
:imilar effects result from the coming together of sound waves and of light waves.
3hen two sound waves of slightly different fre"uencies are superimposed the
loudness of the resulting sound alternately increases and diminishes, producing beats.
2eats are heard, for example, when two instruments playing the same note are not in
tune with each other.
3hen two beams of identical monochromatic light (light of one wavelength and
hence of one color) are brought together, interference results. 3here the waves are in
phase the light is intensified# where the waves are out of phase the light is less intense
or extinguished. These bands of light and darkness are called fringes.
3hen two beams of white light (a composite of all colors) come together, each color
produces its own interference fringes. The combined effect of all the colors is a
brilliantly colored pattern of interference fringes. The iridescent colors of a soap
bubble or of a film of oil on water are caused by the joining together of two beams of
white light. These are slightly out of phase, one beam being reflected from the outer
surface of the film, the other from the inner surface.
2).Le-er
7ever, a rigid rod or bar to which a force may be applied to overcome a resistance.
The lever is free to turn about a fixed support called the fulcrum. A lever is a simple
machine used to gain force, gain speed, or change direction. )rowbars, seesaws,
wrenches, wheelbarrows, nutcrackers, hammers, bats, balance scales, and thousands
of other things in common use are levers or combinations of levers. Arms, legs, hands,
feet, and other parts of the body are also levers.
(he Fulcrum
is the fixed support about which the lever moves.
(he Force Arm
is the part of the lever to which some kind of force is applied. 4ts length is e"ual to the
distance from the fulcrum to the point where force is applied.
(he 4esistance Arm
is the part that moves against a weight or other form of resistance. 4ts length is e"ual
to the distance from the fulcrum to the point where the resistance is concentrated.
Classes of Le-ers
There are three basic kinds, or classes, of leversfirst, second, and third. A compound
lever is one made up of two or more levers of the same or of different classes.
First Class
The fulcrum is between the force arm and the resistance arm. :eesaws, crowbars, and
oars are firstclass levers.
Second Class
The resistance is between the force arm and the fulcrum. 3heelbarrows and
nutcrackers are secondclass levers.
(hird Class
The force is applied between the resistance and the fulcrum. 2rooms and a kicking leg
are thirdclass levers.
7o! Le-ers 9or:
:ome levers reduce the force needed to move weights. They do this by increasing the
distance through which the force acts. >or example, a 'kilogram force acting through
a distance of , meters can move a ,kilogram weight ' meter, if friction is ignored.
:peed is lost in a lever of this kind. The weight moves only '-, as fast as the force
arm.
4n other levers speed is increased by applying the force through a shorter distance than
the resistance is moved. This re"uires a proportional increase of force. 3hen a bat is
swung, for example, the end of the bat moves faster than the hands, but greater force
is needed to swing the bat than is needed to move the hands alone.
(he La! of Le-ers
>orce (>) multiplied by the length of the force arm (Af) is e"ual to the resistance (A)
multiplied by the length of the resistance arm (Ar). This can be stated as followsB
> I Af D A I Ar
This formula makes it possible to calculate how much force must be applied to a
given lever to move a certain resistance. >or exampleB 3hat force must be applied to
a ,meter force arm to move a ,kilogram weight on a &meter resistance arm<
AnswerB
> I , D , I &
,> D 1
> D &
A force of & kilograms balances the ,kilogram weight. To move the weight a force
greater than & kilograms is re"uired.
The formula can also be used to calculate the length of the force arm re"uired to move
a given resistance with a given amount of force. >or exampleB ?ow long must the
force arm be if the force is 6 kilograms, the resistance is '6 kilograms, and the
resistance arm is & meters long< AnswerB
6 I Af D '6 I <
6Af D ,+
Af D 1
A 1meter force arm is needed to balance the resistance. To move the resistance with
the same force re"uires a longer force arm.
2*.;anometer
=anometer, an instrument used to measure the pressure of a fluid, such as a gas or
vapor. 4t is typically used with fluids under relatively low pressure in a closed
container. :cientists use manometers to obtain precise measurements of the pressure
of gases in laboratory experiments. 4n medicine, a type of manometer called a
sphygmomanometer is used to obtain bloodpressure readings.
The simplest manometer is a Jshaped glass tube partially filled with a li"uid, usually
mercury. 0ne end of the Jtube is open to the fluid in a closed container# the other
end is open to the atmosphere. The difference between the height of the column of
mercury or oil in the two sides of the tube corresponds to the difference between the
pressure of the fluid in the container and the atmospheric pressure.
2+.;aser
=aser, a device that generates or amplifies short radio waves, called microwaves,
which cannot be effectively amplified by ordinary electronic e"uipment. The word
maser is derived from microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The operating principles of the maser are the same as those of a related device, the
laser, except that the laser generates or amplifies light waves rather than microwaves.
=asers are used in astronomy and in various fields of research, especially when weak
microwaves must be amplified. The first maser was produced in '56. by )harles ?.
Townes of )olumbia Jniversity.
3..;echanics
=echanics, in physics, the study of forces and their effect on matter. =echanics is
divided into two main branchesEstatics and dynamics.
:tatics is the study of the balance of forces needed to keep a body in e"uilibrium. A
practical application is in architectural engineering, in which it is necessary to
calculate all stresses to which loadbearing supports will be subjected.
*ynamics is the study of motion and the forces that produce it. *ynamics is
sometimes divided into kinetics and kinematics. Hinetics deals with the effects of
forces, such as gravity or electromagnetic force, on the motion of matter. Hinematics
studies motion, but ignores the forces that produce it. :tudies of velocity and
acceleration are parts of kinematics. An important practical application of dynamics is
in mechanical engineering, which is concerned with the design and construction of
machinery.
=echanics and its branches are divided into separate fields according to the matter
involved. >or example, celestial mechanics is concerned with astronomical bodies.
>luid mechanics is the mechanics of gases and li"uids. The term hydromechanics,
narrowly speaking, is used to refer to the branch of fluid mechanics concerned with
li"uids# more generally, however, hydromechanics also includes gases in situations
where they behave like li"uids.
The term classical mechanics refers to the mechanics established by :ir 4saac 8ewton
in the late '$th century. Luantum mechanics refers to the mechanics based on the
"uantum theory, as developed by =ax /lanck, Albert ;instein, and others in the &+th
century.
The basic laws of classical mechanics were stated by 8ewton. They areB
A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion continues to move in a
straight line at a uniform velocity (speed), unless it is acted upon by some
external force. (The principle stated by this law is called inertia.)
)hange in the motion of a body is in proportion to, and in the direction of, the
force causing the change.
The action of every force is accompanied by an e"ual action (called a reaction)
in the opposite direction.
>orce is commonly measured in newtons or poundals, units that are defined in terms
of the acceleration (change in velocity) that the force causes when applied to a body
of a given mass. A newton is the force that will change the velocity of a onekilogram
mass by one meter per second for every second the force is applied (one meter per
second per second)# a poundal is the force that will give a onepound mass an
acceleration of one foot per second per second.
A body, whether in motion or stationary, tends to oppose the action of a force in
proportion to its mass. Thus a body with a mass of two kilograms re"uires a force
twice as great as that needed to give a body with a onekilogram mass the same
acceleration.
31.;icro!a-es
=icrowaves, extremely short radio waves. The term is usually used to refer to radio
waves with a wavelength between ,+ centimeters and , millimetersEthat is, with a
fre"uency between ' gigahert( (billion hert() and '++ gigahert(. Aadio waves as long
as ' meter and as short as ' millimeter are also sometimes considered microwaves.
An important use of microwaves is in transmitting signals for telephone, television,
and other communications systems over a long distanceEparticularly between
communications satellites and the earth!s surface. =icrowaves are also used in many
kinds of radar# in some navigation systems to guide landing aircraft# and in
microwave ovens to heat food and other items rapidly.
=icrowaves are generated using either semiconductor devices or such electron tubes
as the magnetron and the klystron. >or transmission over a short distance, microwaves
are sent through a coaxial cable or through a hollow metal tube called a waveguide.
>or long distances, microwaves are transmitted by a parabolic or hornreflector
antenna that is usually designed to direct the microwaves in a relatively narrow beam.
The first practical microwave e"uipment was built in the '5,+!s. 4ts development was
spurred during 3orld 3ar 44 by research for improving radar.
32.;omentum
=omentum, (pluralB =omenta or =omentums), in physics, the velocity of a body
multiplied by its mass. A moving car, a running child, or a missile in flight has
momentum. 7ike velocity, momentum has direction. Two bodies that have the same
mass but different velocities have different momenta, as do two bodies that have the
same velocity but different masses. The object with the larger mass or velocity has the
greater momentum. =omentum is stated in units such as footpounds per second or
kilogrammeters per second.
The law of the conservation of momentum states that unless an outside force acts on a
body, its momentum will remain unchanged. The law also applies to the total
momentum of two or more bodies that collide. The velocity of each of the bodies may
be different after the collision, but the total momentum will not be changed.
The momentum of a body can be changed by an outside force. The change in
momentum depends on the strength of the force and the length of time the force acts.
33.Pendulum
/endulum, an object connected to a fixed support in such a way that it is free to swing
back and forth under the influence of gravity. The typical pendulum consists of a
weight, or bob, and a wire or slender rod by which the bob is suspended. At rest, the
bob hangs directly below the point of support# if the bob is moved from this position
and released, gravity causes it to swing back and forth along a circular arc at the end
of the wire or rod. 3hen the bob reaches the end of one swing, gravity causes it to
begin to fall and gain speed as it moves downward. After it passes the lowest point in
the swing, the bob begins to move upward along the arc. 9ravity then causes the bob
to slow down until it stops and begins to fall again. The bob continues to swing back
and forth in the same vertical plane unless acted upon by an outside force.
The time it takes for a pendulum to oscillate from the peak of a swing on one side to
the other side and back is called the period of vibration. 4n general, the period depends
on the length of the pendulum, the magnitude of gravitational acceleration where the
pendulum is located, and the amplitude of the swing. 4f the amplitude is small, it has
virtually no effect on the period. 4n that case, the period is given by the e"uation TD&p
l-g where T is the period of vibration, l is the length of the pendulum, and g is the
local gravitational acceleration. The 9reek letter M (pi) is a constant with an
approximate value of ,.'.'1.
Thus when the amplitude of the swing is small, the period of vibration of a pendulum
is directly proportional to the s"uare root of its length. >or example, if a pendulum
one meter long has a period of one second, a pendulum four meters long will have a
period of two seconds.
<ses of Pendulums
2ecause of the uniformity of its period, a pendulum can be used in keeping time.
/endulums can also be used to determine gravitational acceleration at a particular
location.
4n '%6', Kean 2ernard 7eon >oucault used a long pendulum to make the first
conclusive demonstration of the earth!s rotation. The pendulum was free to swing in
any direction with respect to its support and had a bob that traced a line in loose sand
on each swing. After the pendulum was set in motion, the tracings showed that the
plane of the pendulum!s swing seemed to turn slowly in a clockwise direction. :ince
the vertical plane in which a pendulum swings does not change once the pendulum is
set in motion, the tracings indicated that the earth must be turning. /endulums that
demonstrate the rotation of the earth are known as >oucault pendulums# they are
exhibited in many museums.
34.Pressure
/ressure, in physics, force per unit area# that is, force divided by the area against
which it is applied. A common unit of measurement for pressure is the poundforce
per s"uare inch (often called simply pound per s"uare inch and abbreviated psi). The
metric unit for pressure is the pascal, which e"uals one newton of force per s"uare
meter. (0ne psi e"uals approximately 1,%56 pascals.) :ince pressure depends on both
area and the strength of a force, a given force can produce widely differing pressures.
>or example, a '+pound force applied to an area of ' s"uare inch exerts a pressure of
'+ psi. The same force applied to an area of '+ s"uare inches exerts a pressure of '
psi. /ressure is always a push at right angles to each point on a surface.
Atmospheric pressure, which is caused by gravity acting on the air that surrounds the
earth, plays an important part in weather. ?umans cannot live unprotected at pressures
greatly above or below atmospheric pressure. /ressure also affects the temperature at
which various substances boil. 3ater boils at higher temperatures when under high
pressure. /ressure acting upon material deep in the earth is partially responsible for
forming metamorphic rocks. 4n the ocean, pressure increases rapidly with depth.
4n hydromechanics, the study of the effect of forces on fluids, several important laws
relate to changes in and transmission of pressure. 2ernoulli!s /rinciple explains the
reduction of pressure in moving streams of li"uids and gases. /ascal!s 7aw states that
a change in pressure is transmitted e"ually to all parts of a confined fluid. 2oyle!s
7aw relates changes in pressure in a gas to changes in volume when the temperature
remains constant.
3".Pulley
/ulley, a device consisting of a wheel, usually with a grooved rim, that is used with a
rope or chain. A pulley is a simple machine. A pulley block, or block, is a case that
encloses one or more pulleys (often also called sheaves) and has a hook or eye by
which it can be attached. The rope or chain used with a pulley is often called the
tackle.
A fixed pulley only changes the direction of the force applied# it has a theoretical
mechanical advantage of '. (The theoretical mechanical advantage is the ratio of the
force delivered by the machine to the force put into it, disregarding friction.) 3hen
one end of the rope is attached to a support and a movable pulley is used, the
theoretical mechanical advantage (assuming that the pulley itself does not weigh
anything) is &. A block and tackle is a combination of fixed and movable pulleys with
a single rope passing over the sheaves. 4t has a theoretical mechanical advantage e"ual
to the number of lengths of rope that support the movable pulleys.
3#.Scre!
:crew, in physics, a simple machine, usually consisting of a cylindrical body with one
or more spiral ribs, or ridges, around it. The screw is a modification of the inclined
planeit is the e"uivalent of an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. The ribs are
called threads. A screw may have one thread or several wound around it many times.
The pitch of a screw is the distance between two adjacent corresponding points, such
as between crest and crest, of the threads. 0n a singlethread screw, when a rotational
force is applied through one complete turn, the screw advances, or moves along its
long axis, a distance e"ual to the pitch. The smaller the pitch, the greater the holding
or biting power the screw has, but the less it advances with each turn. =ultiplethread
screws combine much of the holding power of a screw with small pitch and the
relatively rapid advance of a screw with a large pitch. 3ith a double thread, the screw
advances a distance e"ual to twice the pitch for each full turn# triplethread screws
advance three times the pitch for each full turn.
:crews are useful in many applications. :crew fasteners include screws, bolts, and
pipe fittings. :ome conveyor devices, such as Archimedes! screws, move material
along between the threads. :hip propellers are based on the screw principle. 0ther
applications of the screw principle are screw jacks, some kinds of drill bits, and some
measuring instruments, such as micrometers and calipers.
3).Shoc: 9a-e
:hock 3ave, a compression wave that moves through a material at a speed greater
than the speed at which the material transmits ordinary sound waves. The material
may be a gas, li"uid, or solid. :hock waves are caused by sudden, strong disturbances
generated by such phenomena as explosions, earth"uakes, and lightning. :hock waves
are also created by aircraft flying faster than the speed of sound. These shock waves
are often heard as sonic booms.
The passage of a shock wave is marked by a sharp increase in pressure, density, and
temperature. :trong shock waves transfer a considerable amount of energy to
anything in their path. =uch of the damage done by explosions and earth"uakes is
caused by the shock waves they produce.
3*.Siphon
:iphon, a bent tube used to move a li"uid over an obstruction to a lower level without
pumping. A siphon is most commonly used to remove a li"uid from its container. The
siphon tube is bent over the edge of the container, one end in the li"uid and the other
outside end at a lower level than the surface of the li"uid in the container. 4f the tube
is once filled, a flow of li"uid from the container through the tube will be set up.
:everal methods can be used to fill the tube. A small pump may be used. (The pump is
no longer necessary once the flow has begun.) 3ater or any other harmless li"uid may
easily be siphoned through a small, short tube by sucking it through the tube with the
mouth, as through a drinking straw, until the flow is started. The tube may also be
filled by submerging it completely and then covering both ends while it is placed in
position.
:iphons are sometimes used in irrigation to lift water from the irrigation canal, over a
dike, and into a field. 3ine may be siphoned from the top of large winemaking vats
without disturbing the sediments on the bottom. A"ueducts sometimes act as siphons
in carrying water over elevations.
7o! A Siphon 9or:s
:iphons operate by atmospheric pressure. The container from which the li"uid is
siphoned must therefore be open to the air. 3hen the tube is filled, the li"uid will run
out of the lower end. (The greater weight of the li"uid in the arm outside the container
determines the direction of flow of the li"uid.) As the li"uid starts to flow, the fluid
pressure at the top of the tube is lowered. A li"uid always flows from an area under
higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. The li"uid in the container (under
atmospheric pressure) flows up into the tube (an area of lowered pressure). This li"uid
in turn will flow out the outside end of the tube, again lowering the pressure at the top
of the tube.
0nce the flow has begun, it will continue if undisturbed as long as the inside end of
the tube remains below the surface of the li"uid. The flow can be cut off by raising the
outside end of the tube above the level of the surface of the li"uid in the container.
0ne limit to the use of siphons is imposed by the height to which atmospheric
pressure can lift a given li"uid. At sea level, atmospheric pressure can raise water to a
height of about ,+ feet (5 m). At higher altitudes the pressure is less, as is the height to
which the water can be raised. 7i"uids heavier than water cannot be raised as high as
water. Thus at sea level, mercury can only be raised about ,+ inches ($1+ mm).
3+.Specific ,ra-ity
:pecific 9ravity, the ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance to the
weight of the same volume of a standard such as water or air. 3ater is the standard of
comparison for li"uids and solids# air is the standard for gases. 2ecause it actually
expresses the density of a substance compared to the density of the standard, specific
gravity is sometimes called relative density. Thus, to say that aluminum has a specific
gravity of &.$+ means that the density of aluminum is &.$+ times the density of water.
:pecific gravity measurements are widely used in chemistry, mining, and metallurgy
to aid in finding the purity and composition of materials. A solid can be checked by
comparing its weight with the weight of an e"ual volume of water. >or li"uids, a
hydrometer is often used. The specific gravity of a gas can be found by weighing
e"ual volumes of the gas and dry air, with both at the same temperature and pressure.
:ome approximate specific gravities are given below.
7i"uids and :olids (3aterD'.++)
Alcohol, ethyl +.$5
Aluminum &.$+
2alsa wood (dry) +.'1
)opper %.51
;bony (dry) '.+
9lycerine '.&1
9old '5.,
4ce +.5&
4ron $.%$
Herosene +.%'
7ead ''..
7ithium +.6,.
=agnesium '.$.
=ercury ',.6
=ilk '.+6
0ak (dry) +.$1
:alt, common &.'$
:ilver '+.6
9ases (AirD'.++)
)arbon dioxide '.6,
)hlorine &..5
?elium +.',%
?ydrogen +.+$+
=ethane +.66.
8itrogen +.51$
0xygen '.''
Aadon $.6,
4..Sprin/
:pring, in mechanics, a device that can absorb and release energy by a change in its
shape. :prings can be made in a wide variety of types and si(es from almost any
material that has elasticity (the ability to regain its shape and si(e after being
deformed). :teel and other metals are the most fre"uently used spring materials. A
familiar use for springs is as a cushion between the wheels and body of a motor
vehicle or railway car. 0ther uses include the absorbing of vibrations, providing
motive power in watches and other windup mechanisms, and furnishing power for
devices such as door closers.
:everal types of springs in common use can be classified by shape. The coil, or
helical, spring is a metal wire or rod wound into a cylindrical shape. 4t can be
designed either to compress under a force or to resist force as it is stretched. >lat, or
leaf, springs consist of one or more relatively long metal strips# they are commonly
used in suspension systems of motor vehicles. The spiral spring, used to drive wind
up mechanisms, twists outward from its center. 0ther types of springs include the disk
spring, which is usually a curved or tapered washer# and the torsion bar.
41.Surface (ension
:urface Tension, the tendency for the surface of a li"uid to behave like a stretched
elastic membrane. =olecules within a li"uid!s interior are attracted e"ually in all
directions because of cohesion, the force that holds molecules together. :urface
molecules, however, are subject to cohesive force only from the interior of the li"uid
and from the sides, since there is no balancing pull from above the surface. As a result
of this une"ual attraction, which attempts to pull the surface inward, the entire surface
acts as if it were under tension.
:mall drops of li"uid tend to take on a spherical shape because the surface tension
acts to make each drop as small as possible. )apillary action, the tendency of li"uids
to rise within smalldiameter tubes, is due in part to surface tension.
3ater has a higher surface tension than most li"uids# it is possible to float a steel
needle or ra(or blade on water if the surface is not penetrated.
42.(ensile Stren/th
Tensile :trength, the ability of a material to withstand a pulling (tensile) force. 4t is
customarily measured in units of force per crosssectional area. >or example, if a
metal rod one s"uare inch in cross section can withstand a pulling force of ',+++
pounds but breaks if more force is applied, the metal has a tensile strength of ',+++
pounds per s"uare inch.
43.(orque
Tor"ue, a force that turns or tends to turn an object. The word tor"ue comes from the
7atin tor"uere, meaning to twist. 3hen an object is not free to moveEor when the
tor"ue is not of sufficient magnitude to rotate itEtor"ue produces torsion, a twisting
stress, in the object. The force used to swing open a door is an example of tor"ue.
2elts turned by electric motors exert tor"ue on fans and other rotating devices. The
shaft that drives an airplane propeller produces tor"ue on the propeller.
Tor"ue is calculated as force (measured in such units as pounds or newtons)
multiplied by the length of the lever arm. The lever arm is the perpendicular from the
axis of rotation of the body to the line in which the force acts. Tor"ue is usually
expressed in footpounds or newtonmeters. :ince tor"ue depends on distance as well
as force, a given force can be made to produce a larger tor"ue by increasing the length
of the lever arm.
Tor"ue D > x 7, where > is the force and 7 is the length of the lever arm.
44.=elocity
Celocity, the speed of a body in a particular direction. The term speed refers only to
the body!s rate of motionthat is, how fast the body movesregardless of the direction. A
body with a constant velocity travels with unchanging speed in an unchanging
direction. 3hen the velocity changes in some way, the body is said to undergo an
acceleration.
The instantaneous speed and instantaneous velocity of a body are its speed and
velocity at any given instant of time. The average speed is the distance traveled
divided by the time taken to travel that distance. The average velocity, on the other
hand, is the direct distance traveled between two points divided by the time taken to
travel between the two points.
%llustration
A car travels from one city to another city $+ miles (''&.1 km) due north. The two
cities are connected by a winding road 5+ miles ('...% km) long. 4f the trip takes &
hours, the car will have an average speed of .6 miles per hour ($&.. km-h) and an
average velocity of ,6 miles per hour (61., km-h) north.
Acceleration
Accelerations may be made in speed, in direction, or in both speed and direction. An
increase in speed is referred to as positive acceleration# a decrease, as negative
acceleration. A change in direction is called radial acceleration.
Acceleration is measured in terms of the rate at which the velocity changes with time.
This measurement is expressed in units of velocity divided by units of time, such as
feet per second per second or meters per second per second.
%llustration
An object is moving at a velocity of & feet (+.1 m) per second in a given direction and
speeds up to % feet (&.. m) per second in & seconds, still in the same direction. 4ts
average acceleration is found by subtracting the old velocity (& feet per second) from
the new velocity (% feet per second) and dividing the result by time (& seconds),
giving an acceleration of , feet (+.5 m) per second per second. This means that the
velocity increased by , feet per second during each second of acceleration.
4".=i0ration
Cibration, a toandfro movement. The swinging of a pendulum, the "uivering of a
violin string, and the cycling of an alternating electric current are examples of
vibrations. The energy of vibrations is transferred by waves, which in turn can
produce new vibrations. 7ight, heat, radio signals, and sound are produced by
vibrations.
A single vibration is called a cycle. The number of cycles made in a second is the
fre"uency of vibration. All things capable of vibrating have a natural fre"uency at
which they vibrate most easily.
Two objects that vibrate with the same fre"uency are said to be in resonance. 4f two
such objects are brought near to each other, the vibrations of one will be transmitted
to the other. 3hen a vibrating tuning fork is placed near another with the same
fre"uency, both give off sound waves. This is called sympathetic vibration. 3hen two
pendulums having the same fre"uency of vibration are suspended from a taut cord, the
vibrations of one are transmitted to the other. This is mechanical resonance.
/iano tuners make use of tuning forks and resonance in tuning pianos. Aesonance is
important also in the production of musical sounds. A radio receiver picks up waves
from a broadcasting station when it is tuned to resonance with the vibrations from that
station. Aesonance with the wind has destroyed great bridges, including the first
Tacoma 8arrows suspension bridge in 3ashington state. A column of soldiers
marching in step can produce dangerous resonance in a bridge.
An object may be forced to vibrate at a fre"uency other than its natural one. 3hen the
stem of a vibrating tuning fork is touched to a table, for example, the table will vibrate
at the same fre"uency as the fork. The table!s vibrations will be transmitted to the
fork, which will then vibrate with greater amplitude and give off a louder note. >orced
vibration is used in stringed instruments. 4n a violin, for example, the vibrations of the
strings are transferred to the wood and transmitted to the air within the instrument.
The control of destructive vibrations is important in engineering. Cibrations would
destroy an improperly designed airplane that tried to exceed the speed of sound.
:prings, shock absorbers, and tires are used to reduce vibrations in automobiles. The
flywheel and counterweights on the crankshaft reduce the vibrations of an automobile
engine.
4#.9a-es
3aves, rhythmic motions by which energy, including light and sound, is transmitted
through matter or space. 0nly electromagnetic waves, such as radio, light, and
infrared waves, can pass through a vacuum. 0ther kinds of waves can travel only
through matter, such as air or water.
All vibrations produce waves. Cibrating vocal cords, for example, produce sound
waves# and the vibrations, or oscillations, of an electrical circuit produce radio waves.
3aves themselves may be regarded as vibrations. 3ater waves, for example, are
vibrations set up in water by the wind, by earth"uakes, and by objects that drop into or
pass through water. 3aves may be reflected (bent backward) by various substances,
and they may be refracted (bent at an angle) when they pass from one substance to
another. *iffraction is the bending of a wave about an obstacle. 4nterference results
when two waves meet.
7o! 9a-es ;o-e
3aves transmit energy, but not matter. 3hen waves pass through a substance, such as
air, the molecules that make up the substance move to and fro but do not progress
forward with the wave. The molecules nearest the source of the wave move first.
Their movements set adjoining molecules into motion, and in this way the wave
travels forward.
4n a longitudinal wave, the molecules move to and fro parallel to the direction in
which the wave advances. :ound waves are longitudinal waves made up of a series of
compressions and rarefactions. 4n a transverse wave, the molecules move back and
forth at right angles to the direction in which the wave advances. A wave on the
surface of a body of water is a transverse wave. ;lectromagnetic waves are also
transverse waves. 4n electromagnetic waves, electric and magnetic fieldsErather than
moleculesEmove back and forth.
7o! 9a-es Are Descri0ed
Three important characteristics of waves are fre"uency, wavelength, and amplitude.
The fre"uency is the number of waves that pass a given point per unit of time. 4t is
usually expressed in hert(, the number of cycles, or complete vibrations, per second.
>or example, the fre"uency of sound waves produced by the lowest note on a piano is
&$.6 hert( (&$.6 cycles per second), meaning that &$.6 complete waves are formed
during each second that the note is sounded.
3avelength is the distance between two corresponding parts of adjacent waves. 4n a
transverse wave, the wavelength is commonly measured between the crests or troughs
of two adjacent waves# in a longitudinal wave, between points of maximum
compression or rarefaction. The wavelength multiplied by the fre"uency gives the
speed of a wave, the distance the wave travels per unit of time.
The amplitude of a wave is the greatest amount by which a changing property of a
wave varies from its normal value. 4n a water wave, for example, the amplitude is half
the distance between its trough and crest. The more energy a wave has, the greater is
its amplitude. The amplitude of a sound wave, for example, is large for a loud sound
and small for a soft one.
4).9ed/e
3edge, a device tapering to a thin edge or point, and used to split or pierce objects. A
wedge is a simple machine, a device that reduces the force needed to do work. A
wedge is often defined as two inclined planes placed back to back. ?owever, there are
two differencesB (') a wedge can have a curved surface, while that of an inclined
plane must be flat# and (&) a wedge is moved, while an inclined plane remains in one
place when work is being done.
The cutting edges of knives, axes, chisels, and other cutting instruments are wedges.
4ce picks, nails, pins, needles, and other piercing devices also are wedges.
7ess force is needed to drive a thin wedge than a thick one, but the thin wedge must
be driven a greater distance to do as much work as the thick one. Theoretically, a
wedge has a mechanical advantage e"ual to its length divided by its base. ?owever,
the friction involved in using wedges makes the theory meaningless.
4*.9ei/ht
3eight, the force exerted on an object by the gravity of a large body such as the earth.
3eight is often confused with mass, the property of matter that causes it to have
inertia (resistance to any change in its motion). =ass can also be thought of as the
amount of matter in an object. The weight of an object is proportional to its mass# at
any given place an object with twice the mass of another will have twice the weight.
The mass of an object does not change from place to place# its weight, however, will
vary depending on the mass of the large body on which it is weighed and on its
distance from that body!s center. >or example, on the moon an object weighs only
about onesixth as much as it does on the earth, and an object weighs less on the top
of a mountain than it does at the mountain!s base.
3eight is measured with balances and scales. 4t is commonly expressed in units with
the same names as those used for units of mass, such as the pound. As a unit of
weight, a pound is e"ual to the force exerted by gravity at a standard location on an
object with a mass of one pound. The unit is sometimes called a poundforce to
distinguish it from the unit of mass. The kilogram is a metric unit that is also
commonly used to express both mass and weight. ?owever, in the internationally
accepted form of the metric system (the :4), the kilogram is used only as a unit of
mass, and weight is expressed in terms of a unit of force called a newton.
4+.9ei/htlessness
3eightlessness, or Nero 9ravity, a condition in which an object appears to have no
weight. 3eightlessness occurs when an object is in free fallEthat is, when there is no
resistance to a gravitational force acting on the object.
A spacecraft coasting in orbit around the earth is in a state of free fall. (The craft!s
forward speed keeps it from falling to the earth!s surface.) Any astronauts in the craft
are also in a state of free fall and thus experience weightlessness. >or a discussion of
the physiological effects of weightlessness,
:hort periods of weightlessness can be experienced in an aircraft that flies upward and
then downward along a curved path. Astronauts in training take such flights to
become familiar with the sensations produced by weightlessness.
"..9heel and A'le
3heel and Axle, a simple machine consisting of a wheel (or crank) and an axle that
turn on the same axis. :teering wheels, doorknobs, and screwdrivers are wheeland
axle devices. A crank replaces the wheel in devices such as windlasses, bicycle pedals,
and hand drills.
The wheel and axle can be regarded as a form of leverB the radius of the wheel
corresponds to the force arm, to which force is applied# the radius of the axle
corresponds to the resistance arm# and the axis of the axle corresponds to the fulcrum.
A wheel and axle has a theoretical mechanical advantage (ratio of the force delivered
by the machine to the force put into the machine, disregarding friction) e"ual to the
radius of the wheel divided by the radius of the axle.