Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet

Chapter 1 Studying the Nervous System

Components of a neuron:
1. endrites: ! neurona" pro#ess arising from the nerve #e"" $ody that re#eives
synapti# input.
%. Ce"" &ody'Soma
3. !xon: (he neurona" pro#ess that #arries the a#tion potentia" from the nerve #e""
$ody to a target.
)now the #e""u"ar #omponents of the nervous system: neurons * neurog"ia +astro#ytes,
o"igodendro#ytes * S#hwann #e""s, mi#rog"ia" #e""s-
neurons
o Cells specialized for the conduction and transmission of electrical signals in
the nervous system. Also called nerve cells.
CNS.
o neurons a##umu"ate into nuclei with simi"ar #onne#tions * fun#tions/
o cortex is sheet "i0e arrays of nerve #e""s/
o tracts in CNS "i0e nerves in 1NS/
o oligodendrocytes mye"inate axons
PNS.
o nerve #e"" $odies reside in ganglia,
o periphera" axons gathered into $und"es #a""ed nerves/
o Schwann cells mye"inate axons
neurog"ia: (he support #e""s asso#iated with neurons +astro#ytes,
o"igodendro#ytes, and mi#rog"ia" #e""s in the #entra" nervous system/ S#hwann
#e""s in periphera" nerves/ and sate""ite #e""s in gang"ia-.
o !stro#ytes: 2ne of the three ma3or #"asses of g"ia" #e""s found in the
#entra" nervous system/ important in regu"ating the ioni# mi"ieu of nerve
#e""s and, in some #ases, transmitter reupta0e.
o o"igodendro#ytes * S#hwann #e""s
o mi#rog"ia" #e""s: #on#erned primari"y with repairing damage fo""owing
neura" in3ury. 4ma#rophages
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
&asi# staining te#hni5ues +6o"gi, Niss", f"uores#ent dyes-
7 6o"gi method stain. si"ver sa"ts
7 8"uores#ent "a$e"ing. intra#e""u"ar in3e#tion of dye or en9yme, sees sing"e neuron
7 Niss" stains "a$e" nerve and g"ia" #e"" $odies with N! or RN!
7 Cresy" vio"et : stains RN! +nu#"eo"us and ri$osomes-
!fferent vs efferent neurons
o Afferent neurons: #arry information toward the $rain or spina" #ord
o Efferent neurons: #arry information away from the $rain or spina" #ord
1arts of the spina" ref"ex +sensory, interneurons, motor neurons, dorsa" root gang"ia-
Sensory Neurons: synapse with and ex#ite motor neurons
o Interneurons: on"y parti#ipate in local aspe#ts of a #ir#uit
;otor neurons: &y #ommon usage, any nerve #e"" that innervates s0e"eta" mus#"e.
#ondu#t a#tion potentia" to synapses on mus#"es
orsa" Root 6ang"ia: (he segmenta" sensory gang"ia of the spina" #ord/ they
#ontain the first.order neurons of the dorsa" #o"umn'media" "emnis#us and
spinotha"ami# pathways.
1. Sensory neuron synapses, ex#ites spina" interneuron, synapses to inhi$it motor
neuron to f"exor, motor neuron #ondu#ts !1 #ausing #ontra#tion, f"exor re"axes
$e#ause of inhi$ition, extension of "eg
CNS vs 1NS
CNS: Centra" Nervous System:
o &rain * Spina" Cord
1NS: 1eriphera" Nervous System
o Nerves, somati# and autonomi#
Re#eptive fie"ds:
(he region of a re#eptive surfa#e +e.g., the $ody surfa#e, or a spe#ia"i9ed stru#ture
su#h as the retina- within whi#h a spe#ifi# stimu"us e"i#its the greatest a#tion
potentia" response from sensory #e""s.
Center +hyperstimu"ation- vs. surround +understimu"ated-
&rain imaging te#hni5ues:
CT: <.ray moved around the head, measures 3. density differen#es. Reso"ution
of a few mm=s.
MRI: nu#"ei of some atoms +>- a#t as spinning magnets. In a strong magneti#
fie"d, they wi"" "ine up and spin at a fre5ue#y dependent upon fie"d strength.
(issues differ in amount of water +>-. Su$.mm reso"ution.
1ositron emission tomography +PET-. unsta$"e positron emitting isotopes are
added to g"u#ose or oxygen. ;eta$o"i#a""y a#tive areas put out more positrons. +?
mm reso"ution-
Sing"e.photon emission C( +SPECT-. in3e#tion of radio"a$e"ed drugs whi#h
produ#e photons.
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
fMRI. $"ood oxygenation "eve" dependent #hanges in the magneti# resonan#e
signa" +&est overa"" te#hni5ue. No radioa#tivity needed@ Spatia": %.3 mm,
(empora": few se#onds-.
Chapter % E"e#tri#a" signa"s in nerve #e""s
Resting membrane potential
o Slightly negative potential, constant voltage while at rest (-40 to -0 m!"
threshold
o if mem#rane potential is more positive than resting potential at a certain
threshold, an action potential occurs
depolarization
o $isplacement of a cell%s mem#rane potential toward a less negative value.
hyperpolarization
o &he displacement of a cell%s mem#rane potential toward a more negative
value.
receptor potential
o &he mem#rane potential change elicited in receptor neurons during sensory
transduction. Also called generator potential.
synaptic potential
o refers to the difference in voltage #etween the inside and outside of a
postsynaptic neuron ('(S( vs )(S("
action potential
o &he electrical signal conducted along a*ons (or muscle fi#ers" #y which
information is conveyed from one place to another in the nervous system.
active transporters
o &ransmem#rane proteins that actively move ions into or out of cells against
their concentration gradients. &heir source of energy may #e A&( or the
electrochemical gradients of various ions.
ion channels
o )ntegral mem#rane proteins possessing pores that allow only certain ions to
diffuse across cell mem#ranes, there#y conferring selective ionic
permea#ility.
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
electrochemical equilibrium
&he condition in which no net ionic flu* occurs across a mem#rane #ecause ion
concentration gradients and opposing transmem#rane potentials are in e*act
#alance.
Nerst e5uation,
Ex : +R(-'98 A "n B<C% ' B<C1
Ex : 5D'1 A "og B)C% ' B)C1 : .5D mE
6o"dman E5uation
E : 5D "og 1)B)C% F 1NaBNaC% F 1C"BC"C1
1)B)C1 F 1NaBNaC1 F 1C"BC"C%
1arts of an a#tion potentia"
rising phase
&he initial, depolarizing, phase of an action potential, caused #y the regenerative,
voltage-dependent influ* of a cation such as +a
,
or Ca
-,
.
overshoot phase
&he pea., positive-going phase of an action potential, caused #y high mem#rane
permea#ility to a cation such as +a
,
or Ca
-,
.
Falling phase
Falling Phase"=REPOLARIZATION=efflux K+
undershoot
&he final, hyperpolarizing phase of an action potential, typically caused #y the
voltage-dependent efflu* of a cation such as /
,
.
1ermea$i"ities of Na and ) during !1
Chapter 3 Eo"tage.dependent mem$rane permea$i"ity
es#ri$e the vo"tage #"amp te#hni5ue
1. interna" e"e#trode measures mem$rane potentia" and is #onne#ted to vo"tage
#"amp amp"ifier
%. vo"tage #"amp amp"ifier #ompares mem$rane potentia" to the desired
+#ommand- potentia"
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
3. when mem$rane potentia" is different from #ommand potentia", the #"amp
amp"ifier in3e#ts #urrent into the axon through a se#ond e"e#trode, mem$rane
potentia" : #ommand potentia"
?. #urrent f"owing $a#0 into axon a#ross mem$rane #an $e measured
Capa#itive #urrent
(he se#ond phase is a "arge surge of outward #urrent, ref"e#ting the very
high rate of depo"ari9ation +in the order of 1GGG vo"ts'se#ond- during the
rising phase of the a#tion potentia". (he inward Na #urrent supp"ies this
outward #apa#itive #urrent to #omp"ete the #ir#uit.
2hm=s Haw
E : IAR
Ro"es of Na * ) for in#urrents and out#urrents
Na: 8ast in#urrent
): repo"ari9es
Effe#t of tetraethy" ammonium and tetrodotoxin on #urrents
Tetrodotoxin : a"0a"oid neurotoxin in puffer fish, tropi#a" frogs, * sa"amanders
that $"o#0s Na #hanne"s
Tetraethylammonium (TEA) : $"o#0s vo"tage.dependent ) #hanne"s
refractory period
&he #rief period after the generation of an action potential during which a second
action potential is difficult or impossi#le to elicit.
passive flow
&he flow of electrical current across neuronal mem#ranes that does not entail the
action potential mechanism.
action potential
&he electrical signal conducted along a*ons (or muscle fi#ers" #y which information
is conveyed from one place to another in the nervous system.
saltatory conduction
0echanism of action potential propagation in myelinated a*ons1 so named #ecause
action potentials 23ump2 from one node of 4anvier to the ne*t due to generation of
action potentials only at these sites.
myelin
&he multilaminated wrapping around many a*ons formed #y oligodendrocytes or
Schwann cells.
;ye"in a#ts as an insu"ator to #"ose "ea0y mem$ranes and speed up propagation of
re"ative"y s"ow a#tion potentia"s.
nodes of Ranvier
(eriodic gaps in the myelination of a*ons where action potentials are generated.
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
Chapter ? Channe"s and transporters
macroscopic currents
o )onic currents flowing through large num#ers of ion channels distri#uted over
a su#stantial area of mem#rane.
o Eo"tage #"amp measures macroscopic currents.
microscopic currents
o )onic currents flowing through single ion channels.
o 1at#h #"amp measures microscopic currents.
patch clamp
An e*traordinarily sensitive voltage clamp method that permits the
measurement of ionic currents flowing through individual ion
channels.
1at#h #"amp methods
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
ifferen#es $etween Na * ) #hanne"s
Eo"tage vs. "igand.gated #hanne"s:
Eo"tage sensor in vo"tage.dependent #hanne"s
&asi# stru#ture of a #hanne"
1roperties of the Na') pump
Chapter 5 Synapti# transmission
E"e#tri#a" vs. #hemi#a" synapses
E"e#tri#a" synapses: via dire#t f"ow of #urrent, found in a"" nervous systems, $ut
minority of synapses, 8!S( passive f"ow of #urrent, syn#hroni9es e"e#tri#a"
a#tivity among popu"ations of neurons
Chemi#a" synapse: via se#retion of #hemi#a" signa"s +neurotransmitters- SH2I
re"ease of neurotransmitters, "arger synapti# #"eft
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
Signa" transmission at #hemi#a" transmission
+synaptotagmin * SN!RE #omp"ex proteins-
Hoewi=s famous experiment with frog heart
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
efinition of a neurotransmitter
1- 1resen#e in the presynapti# termina"
%- Its re"ease at the synapti# #"eft
3- (he postsynapti# presen#e of re#eptors
Sma"".#"ear #ore vs. "arge.dense #ore vesi#"es
C"ear: S"ow transport of en9ymes down mi#rotu$u"e tra#0s for sma"" mo"e#u"e
neurotransmitters
ense: 8ast transport of en9ymes and pre#ursors down mi#rotu$u"e tra#0s
8or neuropeptides
end plate potential (EPP)
$epolarization of the mem#rane potential of s.eletal muscle fi#er, caused #y the
action of the transmitter acetylcholine at the neuromuscular synapse.
end plate
&he comple* postsynaptic specialization at the site of nerve contact on s.eletal
muscle fi#ers.
;E11 : ;iniature End 1"ate 1otentia"s
miniature end plate potential (MEPP)
Small, spontaneous depolarization of the mem#rane potential of s.eletal muscle
cells, caused #y the release of a single 5uantum of acetylcholine.
Juanta" re"ease of neurotransmitters
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
Re#y#"ing of synapti# vesi#"es
synaptic vesicle cycling
Se5uence of #udding and fusion reactions that occurs in presynaptic terminals to
maintain the supply of synaptic vesicles.
C"athrin
!ssem$"es into a #urving #oat to aid in formation of vesi#"e
Effe#ts of $otu"ism and tetanus on transmitter re"ease
!ffe#t the SN!RE proteins for vesi#"e fusion in order to prevent fusing and
re"ease of neuro transmitters
postsynaptic current (P!)
&he current produced in a postsynaptic neuron #y the #inding of neurotransmitter
released from a presynaptic neuron.
postsynaptic potential (PP)
&he potential change produced in a postsynaptic neuron #y the #inding of
neurotransmitter released from a presynaptic neuron.
E1S1s and I1S1s
E1S1 : Ex#itatory 1ost.Synapti# 1otentia"s
+eurotransmitter-induced postsynaptic potential change that depolarizes the
cell, and hence increases the li.elihood of initiating an action potential.
I1S1 : Inhi$itory 1ost.Synapti# 1otentia"s
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
+eurotransmitter-induced postsynaptic potential change that tends to
decrease the li.elihood of a postsynaptic action potential.
Reversa" potentia"
reversal potential
0em#rane potential of a postsynaptic neuron (or other target cell" at which the action
of a given neurotransmitter causes no net current flow.
summation
&he addition in space and time of se5uential synaptic potentials to generate a larger
than normal postsynaptic response.
Higand.gated +ionotropi#- vs. 6.protein.#oup"ed re#eptor +meta$otropi#- ion #hanne"s
ionotropic receptors
4eceptors in which the ligand #inding site is an integral part of the receptor molecule.
"#protein#coupled receptors
A large family of neurotransmitter or hormone receptors, characterized #y seven
transmem#rane domains1 the #inding of these receptors #y agonists leads to the
activation of intracellular 6-proteins.
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
metabotropic receptors
4eceptors that are indirectly activated #y the action of neurotransmitters or other
e*tracellular signals, typically through the aegis of 6-protein activation. Also called 6-
protein-coupled receptors.
Chapter K Neurotransmitters
&asi# #ategories of N(s.
Sma"" mo"e#u"e N(s :
!#h, !mino
!#ids +glutamate,
aspartate, 6A7A,
and glycine"
1urines, &iogeni#
!mines +includes
the
catecholamines
(epinephrine,
norepinephrine,
dopamine",
serotonin, and
histamine."
Harge mo"e#u"e N(s :
peptide N(s +3.3G
amino a#ids-
A general term
descri#ing a large
num#er of
peptides that
function as
neurotransmitters
or
neurohormones.
Ro"e of transporter proteins and en9ymes for N( produ#tion and degradation
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
&asi# stru#ture of a re#eptor'#hanne".
ionotropi# +3.? transmem$rane su$units-
meta$otropi# +L transmem$rane su$units-
;ost important ex#itatory N(=s : g"utamate and !#h
lutamate. the most important transmitter in the $rain +amino a#id-.
Near"y a"" ex#itatory neurons in the CNS are g"utamatergi#.
2ver ha"f of a"" $rain synapses re"ease it.
6"utamine is produ#ed $y g"ia" #e""s.
;ost important inhi$itory N(=s : 6!&! and g"y#ine
;ost inhi$itory synapses in the $rain and spina" #ord use 6!&! +gamma.
amino$utyri# a#id- or g"y#ine.
1'3 of $rain synapses use 6!&!.
6"y#ine is more "o#a"i9ed. M of spina" #ord synapses use g"y#ine.
Re#eptors for 6!&!'g"y#ine are ionotropi# C". #hanne"s.
8"ow of C". inhi$its postsynapti# #e""s
;odes of a#tion of venomous toxins
(oxins
2u$ain
&otu"ism
(etrodotoxin
Hatrotoxin
&ungarotoxin
(etanus
(E!
Ni#otini# !Ch Re#eptors +n!ChR-
N Ni#otine $inds to these re#eptors
N Nonse"e#tive #ation #hanne"s
N Ionotropi# neurotransmitter re#eptor
N Ex#itatory postsynapti# responses
;us#arini# !Ch Re#eptors +m!ChR-
N ;us#arine $inds these re#eptors +poisonous a"0a"oid found in mushrooms-
N ;eta$otropi# neurotransmitter re#eptor
N ;ediate most of the effe#ts of !Ch in the $rain
N Inhi$itory inf"uen#e on dopamine * heart rate
The Case of the !ro"en Addict
+Nova, #opyright 1&S-
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
I. drug.indu#ed 1ar0insonism
!. syntheti# heroin +Odesigner drugsO- . at this time, sma"" #hanges in the
#hemi#a" stru#ture of an i""ega" su$stan#e #ou"d ma0e it a Ostreet."ega"O
drug +this "oopho"e in the "aw has sin#e $een p"ugged-
&. treated with ".dopa +the standard treatment for 1ar0insonPs disease-
1. rep"a#es missing dopamine in the $rain +".dopa is the pre#ursor for
dopamine-
%. without dopamine, thoughts of movement #annot $e trans"ated into
the movements themse"ves
C. #ontaminants in the syntheti# drug +produ#ed through s"oppy $asement
#hemistry- had destroyed the dopamine neurons in the su$stantia nigra,
produ#ing an advan#ed 1ar0insonian state overnight
1. ;111 +syntheti# heroin-
a. in3e#ted rats free9e up
$. $ut on"y temporari"y
%. ;1(1 +the #ontaminant-
a. in3e#ted rats are unaffe#ted
$. in3e#ted mon0eys deve"op 1ar0insonism
. revita"i9ed resear#h into 1ar0insonPs disease
II. 1ar0insonPs disease
!. a disease of o"d age #hara#teri9ed $y:
1. fine tremor, espe#ia""y noti#ea$"e in the hands when at rest
%. #ogwhee" rigidity
3. diffi#u"ty initiating vo"untary movements
?. mas0ed fa#e
5. shuff"ing gait
&. ".dopa therapy
1. oftentimes must $e ta0en every few hours, even during the night
%. side effe#ts . writhing movements +athetosis- and ha""u#inations/
sometimes s#hi9ophreniform psy#hosis
C. severe #ases +drug.indu#ed- have $een misdiagnosed as hysteri#a"
para"ysis and as #atatoni# s#hi9ophrenia
. #auses: environmenta" toxins are suspe#ted
1. su$stantia nigra #e""s die off gradua""y with aging
%. if exposure to a toxin 0i""s off "arge num$ers of the #e""s, then
su$se5uent #e"" death with aging resu"ts in 1ar0insonPs disease
3. DGQ of nigra" dopamine neurons must die $efore symptoms
$e#ome evident
III. possi$"e toxins
!. ;1(1 is #onverted to ;11F +Cyper5uat- in the $rain $y ;!2
&. this produ#t is re"ated to #hemi#a" her$i#ides +Cyper5uat, 1ara5uat-
C. in#iden#e of 1ar0insonPs disease is highest in agri#u"tura" areas and areas
with pu"p and paper mi""s +a##ording to a Canadian study #ited in the
video..a su$se5uent study done in the midwestern RS has found the same
pattern, $ut this study was not mentioned in the video-
. ;1(1."i0e su$stan#es +pyridines- are widespread in the environment
Neuro 335 Exam I Review Sheet
E. the ;!2.$"o#0ing drug pargy"ine prevents the ;1(1.indu#ed
1ar0insonism and prevents #e"" death in the su$stantia nigra
8. 1E( s#anning #an dete#t those at ris0 for 1ar0insonPs disease..someday it
may $e possi$"e to do a routine $rain s#an on midd"e.aged peop"e/ those
with a$norma""y "ow nigra" #e"" #ounts may then $e put on ;!2 $"o#0ers
to prevent further nigra" #e"" deterioration
IE. some new findings sin#e this video was made
!. ;1(1 has $e#ome a ma3or resear#h too" in the study of 1ar0insonism in
anima" mode"s
&. a 1ar0insonian."i0e state has now $een produ#ed in rats
C. some resear#h suggests that the toxin $inds to a pigment mo"e#u"e in the
su$stantia nigra #a""ed neurome"anin +it is neurome"anin that gives the
su$stantia nigra its dar0 appearan#e in primates/ rats have very "itt"e
pigmentation in the su$stantia nigra, whi#h may $e why they are "ess
sus#epti$"e to the toxin-