Cognitive Radio Inspired M2M Communications

Invited Paper
Elias Z. Tragos
Institute of Computer Science
Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas, Greece
etragos@ics.forth.gr
Abstract -The Internet of Things (loT) presents itself as one
of the basic pillars of the Future Internet. Such an extended
network of heterogeneous "things" forms a global network
infrastructure supported by several communication protocols
where physical and virtual objects are interconnected. It is
envisaged that billions of machines will be connected to the
Internet, pushing the current communication technologies to
their limits in terms of connectivity and performance. The
wireless interconnectivity of a large number of devices in the ISM
bands is a fundamental issue due to the resulting high
interference environment, which degrades severely the
performance and the connectivity of these devices. The Cognitive
Radio technology can help mitigate the interference efect in such
environments, employing smart techniques for accessing the
wireless spectrum in an opportunistic manner. This paper
discusses the adaptation of Cognitive Radio technology for
enhancing the machine-to-machine communications, presenting
the challenges and open issues for future research.
Keywort-cognitive radio, m2m communications, smart
objects, spectrum management, energy effciency, interet of things
I. INTRODUCTION
The Internet technology has undergone enormous changes
since its early stages and has become an important
communication infastructure targeting to provide anywhere,
anytime connectivity. The wide deployment of mobile and
wireless technologies has brought the Internet to a vast number
of users (expected to jump to almost 4 billion in a few years),
since it has enabled the access fom almost everywhere.
Human-to-human (H2H) communications have always been
the center of importance and the communication technologies
have been developed for supporting human-based voice or data
applications. Thus, current mobile networks are optimized for
human-oriented trafc characteristics communication [I ].
Lately, an entirely different type of communication has
emerged with the inclusion of "machines" in the
communication landscape. Several types of devices (laptops,
smartphones, tablets, sensors, actuators etc.) are able to
communicate with each other exchanging information and data
without human intervention. This type of "machine-to
machine" (M2M) communication is expected to be a key part
of the future communication landscape, since a large number
of fture smart applications are based on machinedata [2][3].
As mentioned by the World Wireless Research Forums, until
2020 it is expected to have 7 trillion wireless devices for 7
billion of people [4]. This explosion in the number of wireless
devices raises various requirements for the new communication
technologies that will be developed to support the M2M
interconnectivity. The increased network usage, the new
Vangelis Angelakis
Department of Science and Technology
Linkoping University, Sweden
vangelis.angelakis@liu.se
connectivity requirements, the heterogeneous communication
technologies involved and the huge amounts of traffc that
these devices will fow through the Interet are key issues to be
addressed by fture M2M technologies, since current Internet
is not flly capable of supporting this type of communication.
For addressing some of these issues, intelligence is being
introduced into the devices, creating the concept of "smart
objects" or "things". The requirement for the interconnection
of "things" resulted in the development of the "Internet of
Things" (loT) which has gained signifcant research attention
the latest years [5]. Although initially the term loT was very
much related with the Radio Frequency Identifcation (RFID)
devices, recently it has been broadened to include all types of
smart objects and machines. Basically anything can be
considered as an object connected to a global network (the
Interet). According to the EC's Directorate-General
Information Society and Media, "the Internet of Things must be
seen as a vision where "things", especially everyday objects,
such as nearly all home appliances but also furniture, clothes,
vehicles, roads and smart materials, and more, are readable,
recognisable, locatable, addressable andor controllable via
the Internet" [6]. Sensors, actuators, mobile phones, Radio
Frequency IDentifcation (RFID) tags, cameras, thermometers,
microphones, speakers, refigerators, TVs are just a few of the
objects the loT consists of For the realization of the loT
paradigm, M2M communications are the key enabler.
Furthermore, since most of these "things" are not standalone
devices, but can be accessed or controlled by humans, the
concept of Machine-to-Machine-to-Human (M2M2H)
communications has emerged [3]. The machines will have to
be able to communicate not only with other machines but also
with humans, either with the same or with different
communication technologies and protocols.
In such a complex networking landscape, the requirement
for anywhere, anytime and anyplace connectivity seems to be
valid not only for the humans but also for the objects, since
many M2M applications can be of high importance, i.e.
medical applications or emergency/alarms. Current wireless
networking technologies, which are also used for M2M
communications, are severely impacted by interference, which
can degrade signifcantly the performance and the connectivity
of the devices. This paper discusses the adaptability of the
recently emerged concept of Cognitive Radio (CR) technology
on the M2M communications. In section II the fndamental
properties and effects of interference in the wireless M2M
devices connectivity in discussed. In Section III the model for
CR-inspired smart objects is proposed, while in section IV the
applications of CR-inspired M2M communications are
presented.
ISSN:1882-5621/13/ 2013 NICT 1
II. INTERERENCE IN M2M COMNICATIONS
Interference is one of the main performance limiting factors
in M2M, ad hoc and sensor networks. Interference depends on
the locations of the communicating nodes, the multiple access
(MAC) scheme, the transmit powers and the fading
distribution. For a given set of communicating nodes, at any
instant the spatial distribution of the transmitting nodes is
decided by the MAC mechanism in place.
The characteristics of interference in the M2M case differ
fom those of the interference in infastructure-based wireless
systems (such as the cellular systems). Moreover, the
distributed nature of several network fnctions in ad M2M and
the minimization of central control for core fnctions (such as
in topology control, medium access, and information routing)
lead to the need for interference models that can describe the
effects of interference on the overall network penetrating all
the communication layers. Finally, the communication devices
in such M2M networks can have severe restrictions on their
transmission/reception and processing capabilities and hard
requirements for low energy consumption to preserve network
lifetime (e.g. in remote sensors). Therefore, being able to
characterize interference is extremely helpfl in designing
efcient M2M networks.
In characterizing interference, the Protocol Model and the
Physical Model [7] establish conditions for successfl
communication on a given link in the presence of interference.
While the Protocol Model accounts for the effects of
interference based on pairwise device relations (distance), the
Physical Model takes into account the total interference.
Therefore, the Protocol Interference Model can heavily abstract
several aspects of communication, and its simpl icity has
motivated its use in the design and evaluation of several
communication protocols. The Physical Model though, due to
its more accurate and realistic formulation, is more appropriate
for capacity evaluation and study of other physical layer related
issues. M2M network connectivity and interference modeling
using graphs is facilitated by the ease with which graphs can be
used to model interference as a pairwise relationship between
two devices or two links. Therefore, graph-based interference
models are closely related to the Protocol Interference Model.
Nevertheless, several authors have proposed interference
graphs based on the aggregate interference, i.e., according to
the Physical Interference Model. Interference graphs are
particularly usefl in the context of resource allocation and
topology control problems, where elements and tools of Graph
Theory are readily applicable.
Overall in modeling interference in M2M as in ad-hoc
networks, there are four aspects that need to be taken into
account [8]. (I) The radio propagation model, that describes
the effects of path losses, fading and shadowing. (2) the
transmitters spatial distribution, that describes how nodes are
distributed. (3) The medium access control mechanism adopted
in the network, which can be based on random access (e.g.,
CSMA) or deterministic access (e.g., TDMAlCDMA), and (4)
the trafc model, that describes the transmitter's goal (e.g.
random queue arrivals or transmitting a known buffer).
Keeping interference low is of key importance. In addition
to enhancing throughput, minimizing interference may help in
lowering node energy spendings by reducing the number of
collisions (or the amount of energy spent in an efort of
avoiding them) and consequently retransmissions on the media
access layer. Interference can be reduced by reducing
transmIssIon power. The area covered by the smaller
transmission range will contain fewer nodes, yielding less
interference. On the other hand, reducing the transmission
range has the consequence of limiting the number of one-hop
neighbors, bringing routing into more central role. However,
there is a limit to how much the transmission power can be
decreased, both technically (at the implementation of the
transmission electronics), but also fom a conceptual point of
view. As in ad hoc networks, if a node's transmission range
becomes too small it may become disconnected fTOm the
network. Hence, transmission ranges must be assigned to nodes
in such a way that the desired global network properties are
maintained.
III. CR-INSPIRD SMART OBJECTS
The radio spectrum is a natural resource regulated by
governmental and international agencies. It is assigned to
license holders on a long term basis using fxed assignment
policy, which afects the spectrum usage as recent
measurements have shown [9]. This shows that for large
portions of spectrum the utilization is quite low, while for the
ISM bands the utilization is quite high leading to signifcant
interference as discussed in Section II. Cognitive Radio (CR),
proposed by 1. Mitola in [10], has emerged the last decade as a
promising technology able to exploit the unused portions of
spectrum in an opportunistic manner. CR was frst introduced
for opportunistic radio access in niche applications, such as
wireless microphones, later adopted on traditional ad-hoc
networks [11] for improving spectrum access, lately the
interest in being moved to sensor networks and the smart grid
as presented in [12].
With the explosion of the Internet of things, sensors and
smart objects in general have received much attention, aiming
to optimize their performance for enabling efcient M2M
communications. This attention will continue to increase in the
near fture, since M2M communications will become an
essential part of our everyday lives. For effciently
interconnecting wirelessly millions or even billions of smart
objects several issues have been identifed [5]:

Hardware heterogeneity,
Different communication protocols
Different communication technologies
Interference in WSN fequencies
Single-radio devices
Limited energy resources

No M2M-tailored QoS requirements
Low trustworthiness of M2M communications
Very large number of devices in small areas
When M2M communications are based on CR-inspired
Smart Objects (CRSO), most of the above mentioned issues
can be adequately addressed. This is achieved due to the
intelligence that is induced in the smart objects and their ability
to adapt to environmental conditions. The basic idea of a
CRSO is that it can exploit the unused spectrum bands
opportunistically, but taking only in an energy efcient way
(since as mentioned before one of the key issues of M2M
communications is the limited energy resources of the involved
machines). In this respect, the cognitive cycle introduced by
Mitola [10] can be changed according to Figure 1, in order to
include the "energy effciency" aspect. Here we include two
new modules in the cycle: (i) battery information module
and (ii) energy efciency module. The battery information
module is responsible for maintaining information regarding
the remaining capacity of the battery and to keep track record
of the average energy consumption at each spectrum band. The
energy efciency module is in direct communication with all
other modules of the cognitive cycle to consult them (and
command when in critical battery state) for taking decisions
and acting with regards to: (i) consume less energy when
sensing the spectrum (i.e. sense the spectrum less fequently),
(ii) analyse the spectrum with regards to the required energy to
transmit in the band under examination and (ii) decide to use a
spectrum band with low required energy consumption.
Receive QoS
requirements
f
Transmitted
Signal
Radio Environment
Spectrum Holes
Information
Spect ur Holes
Inf rration
RFStimuli
Figure 1. Energy efciency-based cognitive cycle
Taking into account the energy effciency-based cognitive
cycle, the internal structure of a CRSO is depicted in Figure 2.
Biased by the name, one would probably assume that
"Cognitive Radio" is only related to the PHY layer, but this is
not entirely true. CR affects multiple layers as it is related to all
access related functionalities, so it also affects functionalities
on the Link and Network layers (L2 and L3).
Figure 2. CR-inspired Smart Object (CRSO)
Traditional smart objects have only a default Medium
Access Control (MAC) module able to sense the channels and
transmit when the channel is idle (and there are data to
transmit). In a CRSO the MAC module comprises several
modules: (i) spectrum sensing module, (ii) spectrum analysis
module, (iii) history and prediction module, and (iv) spectrum
decision module. In addition to those, the Reconfguration
module is responsible for reconfguring the parameters of the
Sofware-Defned-Radio (SDR)-based Radio Frequency (R)
font-end according to the selected communication
technology/protocol. The parameters that are reconfgured are:
(i) fequency, (ii) bandwidth, (iii) modulation, (iv) channel
coding, (v) output power and (vi) other operational parameters,
i.e. receiver sensitivity, noise threshold, BER, etc.
Below we summarize the basic fnctionality and the
interconnections of each one of the main CRSO modules:
(i) Spectrum Sensing Module (SSM). This module is
responsible for monitoring the spectrum and identiting which
spectrum fequencies are used by either Primary Users (PUs)
or other Secondary Users (SUs). In order to do so, a number of
mechanisms can be used, i.e. energy detection, matched flter
detection, cyclostationary feature detection, etc. [11]. Aiming
to avoid misdetections, this module implements cooperative
sensing, exchanging the sensing results with other CRSOs for
taking joint decisions regarding the existence of PUs in the
examined fequencies. In a CRSO, the SSM takes direct input
fom the Radio Interface in order to perform the identifcation
of the spectrum usage. This information is given to the
Spectrum Analysis Module (SAM) for analyzing the sensing
results. The SSM also controls the sensing parameters
(spectrum fequencies to examine, sensing duration, how ofen
to sense, etc.) of the Radio Interface according to the input it
gets fom the History and Prediction Module.
(ii) Spectrum Analysis Module (SAM). This module is
responsible for analyzing the sensing results in order to identif
the characteristics of the examined spectrum fTequencies in
terms of capacity, condition, interference, occupancy, PU
presence and other link-layer related parameters. For
estimating the capacity the Shannon formula can be used:
5
C = Blog(l+-),
N+I
where B is the width of the spectrum that will be used, S is the
signal power, N is the noise power and 1 is the additive
interference caused by all other sources on those spectrum
fequencies. Since in CR there is no standard defnition for a
"channel", the SCRO can select its own central operating
fequency and bandwidth, according to its transmission
requirements, without being limited by the channel width of
i.e. 2MHz for IEEE 802.15.4. In this respect, the CRSOs can
use as much bandwidth as it is available for high resource
demanding applications. The output of the SAM goes both to
the Spectrum Decision Module for selecting the spectrum band
to use and to the History and Prediction Module.
(iii) History and Prediction Module (HPM). This module is
an optional module in CR nodes, but it is included in the
CRSOs in order to save energy in the spectrum sensing
process. The HPM receives input fom the SAM regarding the
occupancy in the examined fequencies and keeps a history of
the occupancy in each band. Then, it uses prediction models to
identif the access trends in each fequency in the near fture.
That way, the HPM can identif the frequencies that are
utilized by other transmissions most of the time and gives this
info to the SSM in order to avoid sensing those fequencies.
This will result in a shorter sensing duration and less sensing
calculations, due to the less fequencies that will be sensed,
decreasing at the same time the energy consumed in the
sensing process. Several prediction mechanisms can be applied
for estimating the fture occupancy of the fequencies, i.e.
Markov models [13], or probability-based schemes [14].
(iv) Spectrum Decision Module (SDM). This module is
responsible for selecting the spectrum that will be used and its
operating parameters, i.e. central fequency, bandwidth,
modulation, power, etc. This decision is taken according to the
input that the module receives by the SAM and the HPM
regarding the unoccupied frequencies and the probability that
the fequencies will be fee in the near fture. The SDM takes
also into account the remaining energy in the battery, the traffc
QoS requirements fom the upper layers according to the
application that the CRSO is running and the estimated energy
consumption at each fequency for this application. The signal
attenuation is directly proportional to the distance and the
operating fequency, thus for a specifc distance higher selected
fequency results in greater attenuation and higher required
transmission power. Thus, for long distances and in cases of
low remaining energy it is better to select low operating
fequencies for decreasing the required transmission power ..
(v) Spectrum-aware Routing Module (SRM). This module
belongs to the network layer and aims at combining the routing
algorithms with a spectrum-aware metric. In CR M2M
communications, the network topology depends heavily on the
selected fequency band at each smart object. A spectrum
aware routing metric considers the spectrum availability at
each machine and exploits paths that have higher availability
and can support higher traffc. Of course this metric should
also take into account the remaining battery of each CRSO in
order to avoid over-utilizing machines that have low battery. A
joint framework including spectrum-aware routing, spectrum
sensing and spectrum selection is an optimal solution for
achieving high spectrum utilization in M2M communications.
(vi) Spectrum Mobility Module (SMM). This is a cross-layer
module that aims to perform spectrum handovers. Spectrum
handover (or handoff is the process of changing spectrum
band when: (i) a PU activity is sensed in the current band, or
(ii) the current spectrum cannot meet the requirements of the
CRSO's application. This module receives information fom
several modules, i.e. (i) fom the SSM regarding PU activity,
(ii) fom the SRM regarding routing information (i.e. no
available route), and (iii) fom the application layer regarding
the application's QoS parameters.
Another cross-layer module is the Security and Privacy
Module (SPM), which ensures the secure and privacy
preserving operation of the CRSOs. With smart objects
continuously gaining more access in the everyday life of
people, the information they gather must be secured and not
disclosed to any third parties. Secure object confguration and
management, information security, privacy enhancing
technologies, trust modeling, CR-based security mechanisms
(for addressing i.e. PU emulation attacks) are a sample of some
key technologies that should be employed within a CRSO. This
will increase the trustworthiness of M2M communications,
giving incentives to both users and application providers for
utilizing this emerging technology.
The CR-inspired fnctions enable the CRSOs to be aware
of their environment and autonomously optimize network
performance by cognitively selecting the optimum resource
management techniques. In this respect, the CRSOs are able to
employ intelligent cross-layer interference mitigation
mechanisms and negotiation protocols for resource bargaining
for jointly achieving more fair usage of the wireless resources.
The cognition can also ensure seamless connectivity in M2M
communications under any network conditions, since even in
high load situations, the CRSOs will be able to identif
unoccupied fequencies in order to transmit the required data.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF CR-INSPIRD M2M
COMCA TIONS
Due to the inherent intelligence of CR technology there are
many potential areas in M2M communications that can beneft
greatly fom the use of CRSOs. Especially smart city
applications can utilize the CR technology in order to
interconnect seamlessly a large number of heterogeneous
devices without the need for complicated middleware
technologies. Below we summarize the most important
application areas of CR-inspired M2M communications.
(i) Smart Buildings: In the smart city domain, buildings will
be equipped with intelligence embracing a wide range of
technologies to improve the everyday life of the inhabitants.
Two basic smart building applications are: (a) building
automation and (b) building energy management. With the
wide adoption of wireless networks, a large number of Wi-Fi
access points are installed within buildings, creating severe
interference in the ISM bands. For implementing the smart
building applications, a large number of smart objects have to
be installed within building for monitoring the energy
consumption of devices (i.e. TVs, air conditioners, lights) and
for home automation (sensors and actuators in doors,
windows). Equipping these devices with cognition can allow
for a distributed self-confguration in non-ISM fequencies.
Since normally these types of objects do not require
transmitting large amounts of data, opportunistic usage of short
ti meslots of the ISM bands (even when they are congested by
the Wi-Fi users) will be sufcient for the applications. When
more resource-demanding applications are requested (i.e.
transferring video for surveillance) then fee spectrum in other
bands can be utilized without disturbing the Wi-Fi users.
Furthermore, CRSOs would be ideal for in-house multimedia
distribution and sharing between devices such as TVs, PCs and
Hi-Fi systems. For this type of applications high data rates are
required (9-30Mbps) which cannot be achieved in congested
Wi-Fi environment, but CRSOs can perform spectrum
aggregation in unused fequencies to utilize wider bandwidth
i.e. in TV bands for achieving high data rates.
(ii) Vehicular Communications: Intelligent Transportation
Systems (ITS) utilize road-based and vehicle-based sensors for
several applications, like electronic tolling and trafc
monitoring. In the 5.8 - 5.9 GHz band, 75MHz and 30MHz
have been assigned in the US and in Europe respectively for
Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC)
communications with a channel width of lOMHz. This is only
sufcient for delivering short amount of data in short distances
to vehicles for alarms and emergencies. This requires though a
wide deployment of many Road Side Units (RSUs) in order to
provide full coverage. When smart objects installed on vehicles
are also included in the network of road-side ITS sensors, then
the current DSRC technology won't be able to support the
huge amount of data that will be needed to be exchanged for
vehicular applications like traffc monitoring and management
and smart parking in congested roads. CR technology can
greatly assist in this direction, by allowing the opportunistic
utilization of more spectrum fequencies to enable higher data
rates or longer range. That way, a minimum deployment (or
even no deployment) of RSUs would be feasible and vehicles
will be able to communicate in long distances (in lower unused
fequencies) so that they will know the trafc long ahead either
by short messages or even by video multicast.
(iii) Smart Grid: Many interconnected heterogeneous
communicating systems form a smart grid aiming to provide
and make use of information to save energy and reduce costs in
electricity networks. The smart grid networks continuously
expand including more metering devices and it is estimated
that the amount of exchanged data will be several thousands of
terabytes in the near fture [15]. Current M2M wireless
networking technologies are not able to support this amount of
data effciently due to the limited spectrum bandwidth. With
CRSOs as the main nodes of the fture smart grid the spectrum
utilization will be optimized enabling efcient large scale data
transmissions, with concurrent lower energy consumption.
(iv) Environmental Monitoring: For monitoring the
environmental conditions in a smart city, a large number of
heterogeneous devices have to be installed in several key
locations (i.e. squares) monitoring humidity, air quality, noise,
temperature, CO and C02 emissions. Another option would be
to have dedicated vehicles (Le. buses or garbage collector
vehicles) moving on the city roads with sensors devices
performing measurements in many areas. For the second
approach, location determination devices (i.e. GPS) should also
exist on the vehicle. To ensure the reliable and energy-efcient
operation of the large number of devices, the CR technology
should be adopted to exploit dynamic spectrum management
techniques in an overcrowded spectrum that is sensed in
current large cities as identifed in [16][ 13]. Furthermore, the
heterogeneity of the devices will be concealed due to the
reconfguration capabilities of the CRSOs, so that their
interconnectivity of the devices will be easier and seamless,
allowing the transferring of data in long distances and in distant
areas with no network coverage.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have proposed a new paradigm of M2M
communications inspired by the Cognitive Radio technology.
Current M2M solutions are susceptible to interference by
various sources as they mainly utilize the fee ISM bands,
which are also used by a number of wireless technologies.
Thus, current M2M solutions have limited performance and
will not be able to support effciently the communication of a
very large number of machines in dense areas, as it is
envisaged for the fture loT networks. CR technology enables
the CRSOs to have knowledge of their operating environment
and to be able to sense and opportunistically use unoccupied
spectrum fequencies, according to their application
requirements. Furthermore, the proposed CRSO model enables
energy efciency by design, with specialized modules that
consider the energy consumption for all spectrum-related
decisions. However, current SDR solutions have signifcant
processing and computational requirements, which make the
real-world development of CRSOs rather difcult. As CR is an
emerging technology, it is expected that in the near future the
SDRs will be optimized and this issue will be resolved.
ACKNOWLEDGMNT
This work has been supported in part by the EC Marie Curie
projects MESH-WISE (FP7-PEOPLE-20I 2-IAPP: 324515)
and WiNDOW (FP7-PEOPLE-2012-IRSES: 318992).
REFERENCES
[1] "Machine-to-Machine (M2M) - The Rise of the Machines," Juniper
Networks Whitepaper, 2011.
[2] Y. Zhang, et aI., "Cognitive machine-to-machine communications:
visions and potentials for the smart grid," IEEE Network, vo1.26, no.3,
pp.6-13, May 2012.
[3] J. Wan, et aI., "M2M Communications for Smart City: An Event-Based
Architecture," in proc.1EEE I Computer and Information Technolog
(CIT), pp.S95,900, 27-29 Oct. 2012.
[4] L. S0rensen and K. E. Skouby (eds.), "User scenarios 2020 - a
worldwide wireless future," OUTLOOK - Visions and research
directions for the Wireless World, Wireless World Research Forum,
no.4, July 2009.
[5] O. Vermesan, etal., "Internet of Things Strategic Research Roadmap",
IERC Whitepaper, 2011.
[6] G. Santucci, "From Internet of Data to Internet of Things," in
International Conference on Future Trends of the Internet, Jan. 2009.
[7] P. Gupta and P.R Kumar "The Capacity of Wireless Networks", IEEE
Transactions on information theory vo1.46, no.2, March 2000.
[S] P. Cardieri , "Modeling Interference in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks,"
IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 12, no.4, 20 I O.
[9] D. Cabric, et aI., "A cognitive radio approach for usage of virtual
unlicensed spectrum," in proc. 1ST Mobile and Wireless
Communications Summit, June, 2005.
[10] J. Mitola III and G. Maguire Jr., "Cognitive radio: making sofware
radios more personal," IEEE Personal Communications, vol.6, no.4,
1999.
[11] l. F. Akyildiz, , et aI., "Spectrum management in cognitive radio ad hoc
networks," IEEE Network, vo1.23, no.4, pp.6-12, July 2009.
[12] O. B. Akan, O. Karli, O. Ergul, "Cognitive radio sensor networks,"
IEEE Network, vo1.23, no.4, pp.34-40, July- 2009.
[13] Y. Liu, Q. Du, P. Ren, "A Multi-Channel Sensing Order Optimization
Algorithm Based on Markov Prediction," in proc. WiCOM, 2012 pp.l-
4, Sept. 2012
[14] G. S. Uyanik, B. Canberk, S. Oktug, "Predictive spectrum decision
mechanisms in Cognitive Radio Networks," in proc. IEEE Globecom,
pp.943-947, Dec. 2012.
[15] https://www.sbireports.comlSmart-Grid-Utility-24966101
[16] E. Z. Tragos, et aI., "The Impact oflnterference on the Performance of a
Multi-path Metropolitan Wireless Mesh Network," in Prof of IEEE
ISCC, pp.199-204, 2011.