NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS CURRICULUM SUPPORT

Physics
Semiconductors and
Band Theory
Support Materia
!"I#"$R%
The Scottish Quai&ications Authority re'uary
re(ie)s the arran'ements &or Nationa
Quai&ications* Users o& a NQ support materias+
)hether pu,ished ,y Learnin' and Teachin'
Scotand or others+ are reminded that it is their
responsi,iity to chec- that the support materias
correspond to the re.uirements o& the current
arran'ements*
Acknowledgement
Learnin' and Teachin' Scotand 'rate&uy ac-no)ed'es this contri,ution to the
Nationa Quai&ications support pro'ramme &or Physics*
I 'rate&uy ac-no)ed'e the -ind 'uidance and ad(ice I ha(e recei(ed &rom Caro
Tra'er/Co)an o& the Uni(ersity o& Strathcyde*
0 Learnin' and Teachin' Scotand 1233
This resource may ,e reproduced in )hoe or in part &or educationa purposes ,y
educationa esta,ishments in Scotand pro(ided that no pro&it accrues at any sta'e*
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Contents
Electrical conductivity and band theory 8
Summary of band theory 9
Intrinsic semiconductors :
Extrinsic semiconductors 33
Student Activity 1 Thermistor investigation 3;
Summary of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors 38
n !unctions 3<
"hotovoltaic cells 3=
Student Activity # "hotovoltaic cells 39
$ight emitting diodes 39
Student Activity % $E& threshold voltage 12
'hy use $E&s( 13
Summary of n !unctions) $E&s and hotovoltaic cells 13
*eferences and further reading 11
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
Semiconductors and band theory
The purpose o& this document is to introduce the ne) approach that is ,ein'
,rou'ht to the "i'her Physics course+ in teachin' a,out semiconductors &rom
the perspecti(e o& ,and theory*
Electrical conductivity and band theory
A soids can ,e cassi&ied as conductors+ semiconductors or insuators
accordin' to the a(aia,iity o& conduction eectrons in their structures* Band
theory 'i(es an e>panation &or these di&&erences in eectrica properties and
accounts &or the a(aia,iity+ or not+ o& those conduction eectrons*
Athou'h indi(idua atoms ha(e certain permitted ener'y e(es &or their
eectrons+ as de&ined ,y .uantum theory+ )hen ar'e 'roups o& atoms are
incorporated into a soid mass those ener'y e(es ,ecome reor'anised in such
a )ay as to resut in ,ands o& possi,e ener'y e(es 6Fi'ure 37* This is -no)n
as the ti'ht ,indin' appro>imation*
2igure 1 4iscrete ener'y e(es )ithin an indi(idua atom 6e&t7 and ,ands o& permitted
ener'y e(es )ithin a soid 6ri'ht7
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Permitted energy
levels
Permitted energy
bands
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
There are such enormous num,ers o& eectrons in a soid mass that athou'h
the ,ands actuay consist o& (ery ar'e num,ers o& cosey pac-ed discrete
ener'y e(es+ the ,ands ,ecome essentiay continuous* There may ,e se(era
permitted ener'y e(e ,ands+ ,ut in particuar )e consider the t)o uppermost
,ands* These are -no)n as the (aence ,and and the conduction ,and 6Fi'ure
17*
2igure # Conduction and (aence ,ands in an insuator* These ,ands contain the ony
permitted ener'y e(es+ and since the (aence ,and is &u and the conduction ,and is empty+
no net mo(ement o& eectrons can occur )ithin the materia* Note the 'ap separatin' the
,ands*
The eectrons )ith o)er ener'y e(es are descri,ed as occupyin' the
(aence ,and* The innermost eectrons in an atom are much ess in&uenced ,y
nei'h,ourin' atoms+ and occupy discrete ener'y e(es* They are sometimes
considered to ,e ,ound* At hi'her e(es in the (aence ,and eectrons can+ in
&act+ mo(e &rom atom to atom+ ,ut ony up to the top o& the (aence ,and*
Since they are permitted ony to s)ap paces )ith other (aence eectrons in
nei'h,ourin' atoms+ they are e&&ecti(ey una(aia,e &or conduction*
$ectrons &i the (aence ,and &rom the o)est e(e to the hi'hest* The top o&
the (aence ,and &or a materia is the hi'hest e(e+ )hich )oud+ in theory+
,e &ied ,y a the a(aia,e eectrons )ithin an atom o& that materia at a
temperature o& 2 ?* In insuators and semiconductors+ the (aence ,and is
competey &ied )ith eectrons* The conduction ,and is empty 6Fi'ure 17*
S$MICON4UCTORS AN4 BAN4 T"$OR5 6"+ P"5SICS7 <
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Conduction band
(empty)
Valence band
(full)
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
The eectrons &i ener'y e(es in order ,ecause+ as &ermions+ they must o,ey
the Paui e>cusion principe and cannot occupy identica ener'y e(es* The
ony )ay that an eectron coud mo(e &rom one atom to another in an
insuator or semiconductor )oud ,e to occupy a si'hty di&&erent ener'y
e(e in a nei'h,ourin' atom* "o)e(er+ a those ener'y e(es are aready
&u* As discussed a,o(e+ the eectrons may e&&ecti(ey s)ap paces+ ,ut in
order to &aciitate conduction+ they must eap up to the conduction ,and* An
ener'y e(e ,and must ha(e some space )ithin it 6some (acant ener'y e(es7
in order &or there to ,e any net mo(ement o& eectrons )ithin the materia*
For a materia to ,e a,e to conduct eectricity it must ha(e eectrons in its
conduction ,and or spaces in its (aence ,and* There must ,e spaces &or
char'es to mo(e into@ a partiay &ied ,and*
http@AAphet*coorado*eduAenAsimuationAconducti(ity
The simuation demonstrates ho) ener'y e(es di&&er in conductors+
semiconductors and insuators+ and the impact the ener'y e(es ha(e on
conducti(ity*
A'ain+ as a resut o& the )a(ei-e ,eha(iour o& eectrons )ithin atoms+
materias may e>hi,it a certain ran'e o& B&or,iddenC ener'y e(es 6Fi'ure ;7*
It is simpy not possi,e &or an eectron to e>ist )ith an ener'y e(e that
)oud pace it in this ran'e* This ea(es insuators and semiconductors )ith a
'ap ,et)een the t)o ,ands*
2igure %@ Conduction ,ands 6,ue7 and (aence ,ands 6yeo)7 &or insuators+
semiconductors and conductors* Note the ener'y 'aps in insuators and semiconductors+ and
ho) in a conductor there is no 'ap+ simpy a continuous+ partiay &ied conduction ,and*
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Insulat
or
Semicondu
ctor
Conduc
tor
Gap of forbidden
energies
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
In insuators this Eone o& &or,idden ener'y e(es is (ery su,stantia+ and
separates the (aence ,and and the conduction ,and si'ni&icanty* The
&or,idden Eone is o& the order o& a &e) eectron (ots+ and is there&ore so ar'e
that it is not normay practica,e &or there to ,e su&&icient ener'y to mo(e
eectrons across it &rom the (aence ,and to the conduction ,and* For
e>ampe+ therma e>citations and con(entiona eectric circuit (ota'es )ithin
a materia pro(ide ener'ies that are smaer than 3 eF on an atomic scae* It
)oud ,e necessary to e>pose an insuator to eectric &ieds o& the order o&
3232 F m
G3
in order to 'i(e the (aence eectrons enou'h ener'y to Hump
across the 'ap to the conduction ,and+ since this coud pro(ide ener'y in the
order o& a &e) eectron (ots on an atomic scae* This is )hat happens )hen
there is dieectric ,rea-do)n*
Contrastin'y+ conductors ony ha(e one ,and+ and the top o& this ,and is ony
partiay &ied+ permittin' eectrica conduction* This means that there are
penty o& near,y ener'y e(es a(aia,e &or eectrons to mo(e into* They can
&o) easiy &rom one atom to another )hen a potentia di&&erence is appied
across the conductin' materia*
Li-e insuators+ semiconductors ha(e a competey &u (aence ,and and so
eectrons are not a,e to &aciitate conduction at o) temperatures* "o)e(er+
&or semiconductors+ the &or,idden ener'y e(e Eone ,et)een the t)o ,ands is
su&&icienty sma to ma-e it much easier &or si'ni&icant num,ers o& eectrons
to mo(e across this 'ap and 'o &rom the (aence ,and to the conduction ,and*
This can happen i& su&&icient ener'y is suppied+ &or e>ampe i& there is some
therma e>citation* As a resut+ semiconductors e>hi,it increased conducti(ity
)ith increasin' temperatures* In many semiconductors+ a temperature
increase o& 32 ? )i permit a dou,in' o& the num,ers o& eectrons in the
conduction ,and*
In order to increase the conducti(ity o& semiconductors+ sma amounts o&
dopin' materia can ,e used* This resuts in si'ni&icant increases in
conducti(ity as a resut o& the narro)in' o& the 'ap ,et)een the conduction
and (aence ,ands*
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
Summary of band theory
In soids+ permitted eectron ener'y e(es are or'anised as ,ands*
The valence band contains eectrons that can ,e considered to ,e ,ound to
the atom* In insuators and semiconductors the (aence ,and is &u*
The conduction band is a re'ion o& permitted ener'y e(es that is empty
in insuators and semiconductors+ ,ut partiay &ied in conductors*
Ony partiay &ied ,ands may permit conduction*
There is a &or,idden Eone that &orms an energy ga ,et)een the (aence
and conduction ,ands in insuators and semiconductors*
That ener'y 'ap must ,e Humped i& an eectron is to mo(e to the
conduction ,and+ and this is not normay possi,e in insuators ,ecause
the 'ap is too ar'e*
In semiconductors+ the &or,idden Eone is much smaer and eectrons can
Hump the 'ap to the conduction Eone as a resut o& therma e>citation*
&oing o& semiconductors can si'ni&icanty reduce the )idth o& the ener'y
'ap*
For &urther in&ormation on this topic+ try this hi'h/e(e simuation@
http@AAphet*coorado*eduAenAsimuationA,and/structure
There is aso &urther in&ormation &rom the "yperphysics )e,site@
http@AAhyperphysics*phy/astr*'su*eduAh,aseAsoidsA,and*htm
Many in-s ead &rom this+ athou'h it shoud ,e noted that some 6other)ise
(ery use&u7 resources descri,e an o(erap ,et)een (aence and conduction
,ands in metas* This is miseadin' and shoud ,e treated )ith caution*
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
Intrinsic semiconductors
Pure+ undoped siicon and 'ermanium are t)o simpe e>ampes o& intrinsic
semiconductors 6Fi'ure 87* They are ,oth in #roup IF o& the Periodic Ta,e+
and &orm a tetrahedra crystaine structure+ simiar to diamond* $ach atom o&
siicon and 'ermanium has &our eectrons in its outermost eectron she+ and
each o& these eectrons is used in a co(aent ,ond )ith one o& the atomCs &our
nei'h,ours*
2igure 3 T)o/dimensiona iustration o& a crysta o& pure undoped Si* I& any indi(idua atom
o& siicon is considered+ it can ,e seen that each o& its &our (aence eectrons is used in
maintainin' co(aent ,onds )ith the atomCs nei'h,ours* These eectrons are there&ore
una(aia,e &or conduction*
Since a (aence eectrons are in(o(ed in ,ondin'+ pure siicon and
'ermanium may ,e e>pected to ,e 'ood insuators* "o)e(er+ reati(ey sma
ener'ies are re.uired to mo(e a (aence eectron across the ener'y 'ap to the
conduction ,and* This is 3*3 eF &or siicon+ and ony 2*= eF &or 'ermanium*
This means that a si'ni&icant num,er o& eectrons are a(aia,e in the
conduction ,and+ e(en at room temperature 6Fi'ure <7*
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
2igure 4 It is possi,e &or si'ni&icant num,ers o& eectrons to cross the ener'y 'ap in
semiconductors*
It must ,e noted at this sta'e that athou'h most therma e>citation in(o(es
ener'ies much ess than e(en 2*= eF+ .uantum mechanics ceary sho)s that
there is a sma ,ut si'ni&icant pro,a,iity o& an eectron ,ein' a,e to Hump
the ener'y e(e 'ap+ e(en at reati(ey o) temperatures* As pre(iousy
discussed+ this pro,a,iity increases rapidy )ith temperature*
Once an eectron Humps up to the conduction ,and in the crysta attice+ it
ea(es ,ehind a BhoeC in the co(aent ,ond* This hoe can ena,e another
nei'h,ourin' (aence ,and eectron to mo(e into it* As such+ a hoe ,eha(es
rather i-e a positi(e char'e carrier+ e(en thou'h it is actuay a (acancy &or
an eectron* A hoe can tra(e throu'h the crysta attice o& the semiconductor*
A hep&u anao'y mi'ht ,e to consider a .ueue o& cars on a road* I& a space
appears at the &ront o& the .ueue+ cars may mo(e &or)ard in turn* $ach time a
car mo(es &or)ard+ it ea(es a space ,ehind it+ into )hich the ne>t car may
no) mo(e* An o,ser(er &rom a,o(e mi'ht consider that the cars are mo(in'
&or)ards or that the space is mo(in' ,ac-)ards*
Some semiconductors+ i-e pure siicon or 'ermanium+ are -no)n as intrinsic
semiconductors* Intrinsic semiconductors must a)ays contain e.ua num,ers
o& conduction eectrons and hoes* I& an eectron can mo(e &rom its pace then
it must ea(e ,ehind a hoe 6Fi'ure D7*
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Silic
on

Germaniu
m
Conduction
band
Valence
band
Electrons
moving
across
energy gap
due to
thermal
excitation
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
2igure 5 In intrinsic semiconductors i-e pure siicon or 'ermanium+ e(ery eectron that
mo(es up to the conduction ,and must ea(e a hoe in the (aence ,and* $ectrons and hoes
e>ist in e.ua num,ers and ,oth contri,ute to conduction* There are no maHority char'e
carriers in intrinsic semiconductors*
Extrinsic semiconductors
O&ten+ it is more use&u to contro the properties o& a #roup IF semiconductor
,y dei,eratey introducin' (ery sma proportions o& a #roup III or #roup F
eement* This is -no)n as dopin' and resuts in )hat is -no)n as an e>trinsic
semiconductor* $>trinsic semiconductors ha(e maHority char'e carriers that
may ,e either eectrons or hoes*
Consider a semiconductor that is doped )ith a #roup III eement 6Fi'ure =7*
$ach atom o& the dopin' a'ent )i ha(e ony three eectrons in its outer
she* This is insu&&icient to &orm the &our co(aent ,onds )ith its #roup IF
nei'h,ours and there&ore resuts in a hoe* Countess hoes are no) ,uit into
the semiconductorCs crysta attice* It may ,e re&erred to as a p/type
semiconductor as the maHority char'e carriers are positi(ey char'ed hoes* As
a resut o& the dopin' process+ it )i re.uire much ess ener'y to ao)
char'e to &o) throu'h the semiconductor and so its conducti(ity is 'reaty
enhanced* Uni-e metas+ a p/type semiconductorCs conduction occurs in the
(aence ,and* In e&&ect+ the dopin' a'ent adds an e>tra ener'y e(e Hust
a,o(e the (aence ,and+ sometimes caed an acceptor ,and*
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electro
ns
hole
s
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
2igure 6 Introducin' sma .uantities o& #roup III atoms into a siicon attice 6in practice
ony around one part in a miion7 ea(es hoes ,uit into the (aence ,and*
Technicay+ there )i aso sti ,e a sma de'ree o& intrinsic ,eha(iour+ as
eectrons ea(e ,ehind hoes+ ,ut this is not considered to ,e si'ni&icant in
comparison )ith the o(er)hemin' num,er o& maHority char'e carriers*
A simiar process is in(o(ed i& a #roup F eement is used &or dopin'* This
'i(es an e>tra eectron+ surpus to co(aent ,ondin' re.uirements+ &or each
atom o& the dopin' a'ent* These eectrons are ne'ati(ey char'ed and so an
n/type semiconductor has ,een produced* In an n/type semiconductor+ the
maHority char'e carriers are eectrons* The conducti(ity has ,een 'reaty
enhanced as ,e&ore+ ,ut this time conduction occurs in an e>tra ener'y e(e
Hust ,eo) the conduction ,and+ )hich is sometimes caed the donor ,and*
There&ore+ in p/type and n/type semiconductors conduction can occur easiy
,ecause there is e&&ecti(ey un&ied space )ithin either the (aence or the
conduction ,and+ respecti(ey*
Semiconductors are crucia to modern i&e* Accordin' to estimates 6She&&ied
Uni(ersity7 8;I o& a semiconductor production 'oes into computers+ 1;I
into consumer products+ 3;I into communication and 31I into
manu&acturin'*
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Electro
n
Hole
Silicon
Group

SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1

In Scotand+ Siicon #en 6)hich is a ar'e proportion o& the centra ,et7 has
,een pioneerin' eectronics production since the 3:82s+ empoyin' around <2
222 peope at its pea- in 1222* The name BSiicon #enC re&ects the
importance o& semiconductors to this sector o& Scottish industry+ )hist
ma-in' comparisons )ith Cai&orniaCs Siicon Faey*
One speciaist appication &or semiconductors is the detection o& ma'netic
&ieds usin' the "a e&&ect* 5ou may ,e uc-y enou'h to ha(e a "a e&&ect
pro,e in your schoo* I& not+ here are some simuations o& the e&&ect@
http@AA)))*youtu,e*comA)atchJ(KLAT4raCQtpQM&eatureKreated
http@AA)))*youtu,e*comA)atchJ(KFUNnEiMm'SQM&eatureKreated
Student Activity 1 Thermistor investigation
Thermistors use semiconductors in order to (ary resistance as a &unction o&
temperature* Ne'ati(e temperature coe&&icient 6NTC7 thermistors use therma
ener'y to &ree up more char'e carriers+ so an increase in temperature resuts
in a reduction in resistance*
Students can in(esti'ate the resistance (ariation )ith temperature &or an NTC
thermistor@
The thermistor can ,e immersed in a sma ,ea-er o& hot )ater 6)ith a
thermometer7 and the meter readin's used to cacuate resistance at <NC
inter(as as it coos* A pot o& resistance (ersus temperature can then ,e
produced ,y the students* A simiar procedure coud ,e used &or an Li'ht
4ependent Resistor*
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V
!
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
Summary of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Semiconductors ao) conduction ,y means o& ne'ati(e char'e carriers+
)hich are eectrons+ or positi(e char'e carriers+ )hich are hoes*
The ener'y ,and 'ap in semiconductors is sma enou'h that therma
e>citation is su&&icient &or si'ni&icant num,ers o& eectrons to ,e a,e to
mo(e up &rom the (aence to the conduction ,and*
Intrinsic semiconductors+ such as pure siicon+ )i a)ays ha(e e.ua
num,ers o& hoes and eectrons since each conduction eectron )i ea(e
,ehind a hoe*
Semiconductors may ,e doed )ith impurities that add either e>tra
eectrons or hoes to the attice*
These doped semiconductors no) ha(e a maHority char'e carrier present
and are -no)n as extrinsic semiconductors*
#roup III dopin' a'ents resut in p/type e>trinsic semiconductors+ )hich
contain e>tra hoes*
#roup F dopin' a'ents resut in n/type e>trinsic semiconductors+ )hich
contain e>tra eectrons*
This in- 'i(es you a simuation &or a semiconductor that you can adHust
yourse&@
http@AAphet*coorado*eduAenAsimuationAsemiconductor
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
n !unctions
I& a sin'e semiconductin' crysta is doped in such a )ay that one end is
p/type and the other n/type+ then some (ery use&u properties come into pay*
The inter&ace ,et)een the p/type and n/type sections is -no)n as a pGn
Hunction* In this ,oundary re'ion+ eectrons &rom the n/type materia may
di&&use across the ,oundary and com,ine )ith hoes &rom the p/type materia+
and (ice (ersa* This resuts in a ac- o& maHority char'e carriers in the
immediate (icinity o& the Hunction and as such the re'ion is -no)n as the
depetion Eone* The pGn Hunction 'reaty a&&ects the conducti(ity o& the
semiconductor as a )hoe* Ohen eectrons &rom the n/type materia di&&use
into the p/type materia+ they &orm ne'ati(e ions as they com,ine )ith hoes*
Positi(e ions are aso e&t ,ehind in the n/type materia* $(entuay+ this
process resuts in there ,ein' no &urther di&&usion o& eectrons or hoes as a
resut o& Couom, attraction and repusion 6Fi'ures 9a and 9,7*
2igure 7a In a pGn Hunction a depetion Eone is &ormed ,y the di&&usion o& eectrons &rom the
n/type materia into the p/type materia* As the eectrons com,ine )ith hoes+ ions are
&ormed in the depetion Eone*
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" " "
" " " " "
" " "
" " "
# #
#
# #
##
# #
#
p-
type
n-
type
$unctio
n
%epletion
&one
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
2igure 7b Band theory 'i(es us a mode &or e>painin' )hat happens at a pGn Hunction*
"oes and eectrons di&&use to)ards the Hunction in their di&&erent ,ands* At the Hunction they
com,ine+ producin' the depetion Eone* This pGn Hunction is &or)ard ,iased*
The pGn Hunction may ony ao) current to &o) i& it is &or)ard ,iased* By
connectin' the ne'ati(e termina o& a po)er suppy to the n/type materia+ the
Hunction ,ecomes &or)ard ,iased* $ectrons may ,e pushed across the
depetion Eone i& the suppy has a su&&icient potentia di&&erence to o(ercome
the Couom, repusion discussed a,o(e* This is typicay o& the order o& 2*=
F* Once the depetion Eone is crossed+ conduction is easiy &aciitated ,y the
maHority char'e carriers in each o& the semiconductin' materias*
I& the pGn Hunction is re(erse ,iased+ ie the n/type materia is connected to the
positi(e termina o& a po)er suppy+ the depetion Eone e&&ecti(ey ,ecomes a
'reater and 'reater ,arrier to conduction* One can ima'ine the depetion Eone
iustrated in Fi'ures 9a and 9, ,ecomin' a hi'her and hi'her ,arrier to
conduction as eectrons are dri(en &urther and &urther ,ac- &rom the depetion
Eone* The Hunction can ony ao) a tiny ea-a'e current to &o) ,ecause o&
the intrinsic semiconductorCs eectrons and hoes* Since this is usuay
undesira,e+ siicon is pre&era,e to 'ermanium ,ecause its ea-a'e current is
so much smaer as a resut o& it ha(in' a ar'er ener'y 'ap ,et)een its
(aence and conduction ,ands 6Fi'ure <7*
$(entuay+ i& the re(erse (ota'e continues to increase+ the semiconductor
)i ,rea- do)n and may resut in dama'e to the Hunction*
3D S$MICON4UCTORS AN4 BAN4 T"$OR5 6"+ P"5SICS7
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Conduction
band
Valence band
%epletion
&one
p-type n-type
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
"hotovoltaic cells
A photo(otaic ce consists o& a (ery thin ayer o& p/type semiconductor that
is in contact )ith a ayer o& n/type materia* The conduction eectrons are
&reed throu'h the action o& photons o& i'ht* The photons pro(ide su&&icient
ener'y to the eectrons to ena,e them to Hump up across the ener'y 'ap to the
conduction ,and+ ea(in' ,ehind a hoe* The ,and 'ap ener'y &or siicon is o&
the order o& 3*3 eF+ and so ony photons )ith at east 3*3 eF o& ener'y can
cause the reease o& conduction eectrons* The )a&er o& semiconductor is (ery
thin and so there is a 'ood chance that this process )i happen at or (ery
cose to the pGn Hunction* The eectric &ied produced ,y the depetion ayer at
this Hunction &orces the eectron and hoe apart+ creatin' a potentia
di&&erence+ and so a current can &o) i& the ce is connected to a circuit* The
p/type ayer must ,e (ery thin+ perhaps 3 m thic-+ to pre(ent conduction
eectrons &rom ,ein' captured and immo,iised ,y hoes*
This animation is use&u@
http@AAsoarhoriEon*com*auAFashALi'htCurrent*htm
2igure 8 Simpi&ied photo(otaic ce in cross/section*
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Photons interact
'ith electrons close
to p(n )unction
p"
type
n"type
Contac
ts
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
A soar ce must aso ha(e a ayer o& antire&ecti(e coatin' 6not sho)n in
Fi'ure :7 to impro(e e&&iciency ,ecause a siicon crysta is so shiny that
)ithout this ayer many o& the photons )oud ,e re&ected ,e&ore they coud
cause the reease o& an eectron* $(en so+ typica e&&iciencies o& soar ces
stand cose to 3<I and the 'reatest e&&iciencies rarey e>ceed 1<I* Finay+
the ce must ,e coated in 'ass to reduce dama'e &rom the eements*
A compromise must ,e reached in the choice o& materias used to optimise the
per&ormance o& the soar ce* By reducin' the ,and 'ap ener'y in the
semiconductin' materia+ photons )ith on'er )a(een'ths and o)er
&re.uencies may ,e harnessed to &ree eectrons and hoes* Athou'h this may
seem desira,e and )i reease more char'es+ it has the e&&ect o& reducin' the
stren'th o& the eectric &ied across the Hunction* It turns out that a ,and 'ap
ener'y o& a,out 3*8 eF is cose to idea+ ma>imisin' the current and (ota'e+
and there&ore the po)er+ o& the ce*
Student Activity # "hotovoltaic cells
Students can do in(esti'ations into the (ota'e produced ,y a photo(otaic
ce as a &unction o& one o& the &oo)in'@
Irradiance* This in(esti'ation may ,e ,etter suited to a .uaitati(e rather
than .uantitati(e approach ,ecause o& di&&icuties in measurin' irradiance
accuratey* One approach coud in(o(e a dimma,e i'ht source+ another
coud ,e to (ary the distance &rom source to ce*
Angle of incidence on the solar cell * Use one i'ht source -eep the distance
constant at+ say+ 3*2 m in order to -eep the test as &air as possi,e+ then
(ary the an'e*
Frequency of radiation* This coud empoy a ran'e o& hi'h/po)ered i'ht/
emittin' diodes 6L$4s7 or &iters on a )hite i'ht source* A'ain+ distance
and po)er must ,e -ept constant*
Turnin' this in(esti'ation into a oo- at the in(erse s.uare a) is another
possi,iity* Best resuts )i ,e achie(ed i& the a,oratory can ,e ,ac-ed out
&or this in(esti'ation*
$ight9emitting diodes
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
Ohen a diode is &or)ard ,iased+ eectrons &rom the n/type semiconductor may
mo(e across the Hunction and com,ine )ith hoes in the p/type materia* The
eectrons in the n/type semiconductor mo(e )ithin the hi'her ener'y
S$MICON4UCTORS AN4 BAN4 T"$OR5 6"+ P"5SICS7 3:
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
conduction ,and+ and as they cross the Hunction they mo(e ,rie&y into the
empty conduction ,and o& the p/type materia* Since the o)er ener'y p/type
(aence ,and is ony partiay &ied+ ho)e(er+ the eectrons rapidy &a into
an ener'y e(e )ithin that (aence ,and* In e&&ect+ eectrons &a into hoes+
and as this happens ener'y is reeased in the &orm o& emitted photons 6Fi'ure
327* For ordinary diodes+ these photons ha(e a reati(ey o) &re.uency and
on' )a(een'th+ )hich means that they &a outside the (isi,e spectrum*
"o)e(er+ in the construction o& L$4s the semiconductin' materias may ,e
en'ineered in such a )ay as to resut in the photons ha(in' su&&icienty hi'h
&re.uency that they &a )ithin the ran'e o& (isi,e i'ht*
The &re.uency o& the i'ht emitted &rom L$4s is controed ,y the siEe o& the
ener'y 'ap ,et)een the conduction and (aence ,ands* A ,i''er 'ap )i
resut in a ar'er ener'y chan'e and+ in accordance )ith the reationship E K
hf+ a hi'her &re.uency o& i'ht )i ,e emitted* So+ a sma ener'y 'ap )i
resut in red i'ht and a much ar'er ener'y 'ap is re.uired &or 'reen or ,ue
i'ht*
2igure 1: In an L$4 eectrons cross the Hunction &rom n to p in the conduction ,and* Once
on the p side o& the Hunction+ they &a ,ac- across the ener'y 'ap to the (aence ,and* This
reeases photons o& i'ht*
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n"
type
p"
type
Photons
emitted as
electrons drop
do'n to
valence band
$unctio
n
Conduction band
(partially *lled)
Valence
band
(partially
*lled)
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
Since eectrons usuay drop &rom the ,ottom o& the conduction ,and into the
top o& the (aence ,and+ i'ht &rom L$4s tends to ,e neary 6athou'h not
competey7 monochromatic+ )ith a narro) emission spectrum*
To ater the ener'y 'ap in an L$4+ di&&erent dopin' a'ents are used* They
may typicay incude indium+ 'aium and nitro'en to produce ,ue i'ht+
'aium and phosphorous &or 'reen i'ht+ and 'aium+ phosphorous and
arsenic &or red i'ht* By usin' com,inations o& red+ 'reen and ,ue it is
possi,e to produce any coour o& i'ht and this has ed to the ad(ent o& L$4
tee(isions* Furthermore+ ,y (aryin' the proportions o& the dopin' a'ents+
sin'e intermediate coours may aso ,e produced*
Student Activity % $E& threshold voltage
There is an appro>imate correation ,et)een the threshod (ota'e &or an L$4
and its coour+ since the ener'y returned in the &orm o& an emitted photon is
appro>imatey the same as the ener'y re.uired to raise an eectron across the
ener'y 'ap o& the materia* This can ,e in(esti'ated in a practica+ as
iustrated in Fi'ure 33*
2igure 11 A practica in(esti'ation into the correation ,et)een ener'y ,and 'aps and
coours o& L$4s can ,e carried out* 4i&&erent coours o& L$4s can ,e put into the circuit and
the potentia di&&erence re.uired to iuminate them noted* A 'raph o& &re.uency o& i'ht
(ersus potentia di&&erence may ,e potted*
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# Supply
(
V
SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
Or'anic i'ht emittin' diodes 6OL$4s7 use or'anic poymer ayers
sand)iched ,et)een t)o eectrodes* Ohen a (ota'e is appied across the
ayers+ eectrons and hoes are 'enerated+ )hich then recom,ine to emit
photons* The ayers may ,e put into a composite o& red/+ 'reen/ and ,ue/
emittin' sections so as to produce &u/coour dispays* Further in&ormation
on this topic can ,e &ound here@
http@AA)))*chemistry*)ust*eduAPcoursesA'enchemATutoriasAL$4A,andsL2D*h
tm
'hy use $E&s(
L$4s ha(e many ad(anta'es o(er other i'ht sources* An L$4 typicay has
an e&&iciency o& around 92I* This is &ar superior e(en to ener'y/sa(in'
compact i'hts ,ecause o& the )ay in )hich i'ht is produced* This ceary has
maHor impications &or reducin' car,on dio>ide emissions and &ue ,is*
Because o& the (ery o) e(es o& undesira,e therma ener'y produced+ L$4s
may aso ,e e>pected to ha(e much 'reater on'e(ity than con(entiona i'ht
sources* L$4 and OL$4 TFs are e>pensi(e ,ut )ith o) po)er usa'e and
hi'h reia,iity they are set to ,ecome more common in &uture*
In&rared L$4s are used in remote contros ,ecause o& their reia,iity and o)
po)er consumption* Utra(ioet L$4s can ,e used &or detectin' counter&eit
notes and e(en &or steriisation procedures*
L$4s ha(e e>tremey &ast s)itchin' speeds+ )hich means that they are
particuary use&u &or appications )here i'ht sources must ,e pused+
stro,ed or simpy s)itched on and o&& rapidy )ith reia,iity* Additionay+
they )or- )e at o) temperatures+ are shoc- resistant and contain &e)er
haEardous materias than ener'y/sa(in' i'ht ,u,s*
Summary of n !unctions) $E&s and hotovoltaic cells
The inter&ace ,et)een p/type and n/type materia is caed the pGn
Hunction*
MaHority char'e carriers di&&use to)ards the Hunction and eectrons
com,ine )ith hoes+ &ormin' ions*
This ac- o& char'e carriers resuts in a depetion Eone across the pGn
Hunction+ )ith positi(e ions on the n/type side and ne'ati(e ions on the p/
type side*
I& the p/type materia is connected to the positi(e termina o& a suppy and
the n/type to the ne'ati(e termina+ then the Hunction is forward biased*
11 S$MICON4UCTORS AN4 BAN4 T"$OR5 6"+ P"5SICS7
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SE+IC,-&.CT,*S A-& /A-& T0E,*1
I& the potentia di&&erence across the Hunction is su&&icient to &orce
eectrons to cross the depetion Eone+ then the Hunction )i conduct*
I& the terminas are re(ersed+ the Hunction is reverse biased and cannot
conduct*
L$4s emit photons o& i'ht as eectrons B&aC &rom the conduction ,and o&
the n/type materia into hoes in the (aence ,and o& the p/type materia*
The ,i''er the ener'y 'ap ,et)een the ,ands+ the 'reater the ener'y+ and
there&ore the &re.uency+ o& the emitted photons*
Photo(otaic ces use the ener'y o& a,sor,ed photons to separate eectrons
and hoes and thus produce a potentia di&&erence*
*eferences and further reading
5ou )i &ind a 'reat dea o& &urther readin' on the internet and in speciaist
eectronics ,oo-s* The &oo)in' sources are recommended@
http@AA)))*chemistrye>pained*comARu/SpASemiconductors*htm
http@AAhyperphysics*phy/astr*'su*eduAh,aseAsoidsA,and*htm
http@AA)))*educypedia*,eAeducationAsoarceanimations*htm
and many other in-ed pa'es associated )ith this topic &rom "yperphysics*
http@AAen*)i-ipedia*or'A)i-iAP/nLHunction
In addition+ &or those )ith a sense o& humour+ the some)hat eccentric
http@AA,ritneyspears*acAphysicsA,asicsA,asics*htm
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