Competency Based Learning

COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING
MATERIAL
ACCENT, CONVERSATION, GRAMMAR
Sector: INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Unit of Competency: Provide Intensive English Profciency
Module Title: Providing Intensive English
Profciency
JEL LEARNING CENTER
16B Friendship St. Doa VicentaVill.Davao City
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DAILY TRAINING REQUIRED ELEMENTS
TASK FOR
THE DAY
PREPARE
TO SPEAK
LEARNING
GRAMMAR
FUNCTIONS
APPLY THE
SKILLS
ASSESSMENT
THE
OBJECTIVES
COURSE TITLE : 2 MONTHS INTENSIVE COURSE FOR ENGLISH PROFIENCY (ICEP)
NOMINAL DURATION : 264 Hours
QUALIFICATION LEVEL : NC II
COURSE DESCRIPTION :
This course is designed to enhance the knowledge and skills of a trainee/student on core
competencies in English Language such as; Receiving and giving information with grammar
and long conversation focus,making the conversation going with long-turn and question
analysis focus,offering learning outcome with long conversation focus,onversation warm-
up, long-turn, !udgment, and opinion making with grammar focus"
#t also includes $asic competencies such as; %naly&e communication process communicates
and Listen actively, use communication cues, carry on a conversation from $eginning to end
using appropriate e'pressions, identify and e'plain using appropriate communication tools to
get desired information" ommunicate electronically in (riting"promotingenvironmental
protection and gender and development awareness through proper communication"
COURSE OUTCOMES:
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)pon completion of the course, the trainees/students must $e a$le to*
%naly&e communication process
ommunicate and listen actively
)se communication cues
ommunicate electronically in writing
#dentify and e'plain the grammar rules
COURSE STRUCTURE
UNIT OF
COMPETENCY
MODULE TITLE LEARNING OUTCOME
NO OF
HOURS
!ASIC
+" %naly&e
communication
process
+"+ %naly&ing
ommunication
,rocess
+"+"+ -$tain and convey
information effectively
+"+"+"+ )sage of English
grammar and
voca$ulary is
defined clearly to
have effective
communication
skills
+"+"+". ommunication
pathway availa$le
is identified in
accordance with
English Language
standards"
+"+"+"/ Elements of
communication in
each pathway are
identified"
+"+"+"0 1arriers to
communication in
appropriate
situation are
identified"
+"+"+"2 3trategies to reduce
$arriers to the
understanding of
4rammar Rules,
English
communication and
usage of the part of
3peech are
+55
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adopted"
+"+"+"6 7orms of
communication are
distinguished"
+"+"+"8 Role of
communication in
providing good
reading
comprehension are
provided
+"+"+"9 :aried
communication
issues in learning
English Language
are identified and
recogni&ed"

+"+". omplete relevant
work /assessment
related to given task
+"+"/ ,articipate in
workplace meeting and
discussion using learned
skills, in grammar
,voca$ulary, speaking,
reading and writing
. ommunicates and
Listen %ctively
."+ ommunicati
ng and (orking in
a team discussion
."+"+ ommunicate and
identify team role and
responsi$ility in a team
discussion /activities
.0
/ )se communication
ues
/"+ )sing
ommunication
cues in making
effective
communication
delivery
/"+"+ ommunicates
effectively and delivers
idea clearly
.0
0 arry on a conversation
from $eginning to
end using
appropriate
e'pressions
0"+ arrying
conversation from
the $eginning to
end in any situation
using appropriate
e'pressions
0"+"+ arries effective
conversation in any
place and situation
.0
2" ommunicate
electronically in
(riting
2"+ ;eveloping Effective
communication
through writing
2"+"+ ommunicates effectively
through (riting
.0
6" ,romoting
environmental
6"+ -$serving workplace
hygiene procedures
6"+"+ ,ractice personal
grooming and hygiene
,ractice safe and
.0
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protection and
gender and
development
awareness through
proper
communication
hygienic handling,
storage and disposal of
food, $everage and
materials
-<<-=
+"ommunicating
effectively for daily
activities
+"+" ommunicating
Effectively using
English
Language 3kills
+"+"+ #dentify and e'plain the
functions, general rules
in English Language
3kills"
+"+". ,repare and use
appropriate skills
according to task
requirement
+"+"/ )se appropriate
communication media
to transfer idea and
communicates
effective to others
+"+"0 ,roduce accurate and
complete data of
communication
according to the
requirements
.0
." )sage of orrect
4rammar Rules,
."+ ommunicate Listen
%ctively
."+"+ -$tained %ctive :er$al
and Listening 3kills
."+". :er$al communication
is translated to written
communication
accurately and
effectively
.0
CORE
+" %naly&e
ommunication
,rocess using
English
Language skills
+"+ ,art of 3peech
+"+"+)se the ,art of speech in
making communication
.0
." ommunicate
and Listen
%ctively using
correct usage of
."+ 4rammar Rules ."+"+ )se 3tandard 4rammar
Rules in writing
communication
.0
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grammar and
voca$ulary
/"ommunicate
written or
Electronically in
writing
/"+ 3tandard (riting
,rocedure
/"+"+ )se 3tandard in writing
written ommunication
.0
COURSE DELIVERY:
1. Trainee Entry Requirement
At least hih s!h""l #a$%ate
&' ( )) *ea#s "l$
Assesse$ at e+e Le,el - "# e.%i,ale/t
2. Methodoo!y
Le!t%#e0$is!%ssi"/
P#a!ti!al e1e#!ises
Si2%lati"/
". Re#our$e#:
E%UI&ME'T <%TER#%L3
C"23%te# 4ith 3e#i3he#als
3oftware applications
E#"/"2i! C"23%te# ta5les a/$
!hai#s
>ahoo <essenger with :oice ? or 3kype, etc"
to do data and voice communication@
I/te#/et s%5s!#i3ti"/
Tele3h"/e
3imulation we$ site
Hea$set
RA 02
UPS
)T, ca$le
Se#,e#
Tape ?audio/digital@
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H%5 ( 67 3"#t
B"/$ 3a3e#
Fa1 2a!hi/e
V"i!e sa23li/
V"i!e #e!"#$e#
PC Vi$e" !a2e#a
8hite5"a#$
C"/ta!t !lea/e#
" QUALIFICATION OF INSTRUCTOR:
TRAINERS QUALIFICATION (TQ II)
<ust $e computer literate
<ust $e physically and mentally fit
<ust $e rated e0e level 0 or its equivalent
<ust qualify in any . of the following**
o %1/13 ;egree holder
o +9 months call center e'perience
o +. months adult learning e'perience
o Teacher/training certification
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MODULE O( I'STRUCTIO'
MODULE TITLE 9 )nay*in! Communi$ation &ro$e##
MODULE DESCRIPTOR * This module covers the knowledge, skills, attitudes
and values needed to; analy&e communication process, communicate and listen
actively, )se communication cues and communicate electronically in writing"
NOMINAL DURATION * .0 hrs"
CERTIFICATE LEVEL * = ##
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES*
)pon completion of the module the trainees/students should $e a$le to*
LO&: A/al*;e !"22%/i!ati"/ 3#"!ess
LO6: C"22%/i!ate a/$ liste/ a!ti,el*
LO-: Use !"22%/i!ati"/ !%es
LO+: C"22%/i!ate ele!t#"/i!all* i/ 4#iti/:
LO# ANALY$E COMMUNICATION PROCESS
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%33E33<E=T R#TER#%*
+" )sage of English grammar and voca$ulary is defined clearly to have
effective communication skills
." ommunication pathway availa$le is identified in accordance with
English Language standards"
/" Elements of communication in each pathway are identified"
0" 1arriers to communication in appropriate situation are identified"
2" 3trategies to reduce $arriers to the understanding of 4rammar Rules,
English communication and usage of the part of 3peech are adopted"
6" 7orms of communication are distinguished"
8" Role of communication in providing good reading comprehension are
provided
9" :aried communication issues in learning English Language are identified
and recogni&ed"
-=TE=T3*
+" Learned %merican %ccent focus on BTC and ThC sound
6: #ntroduce others correctly
-: " )se formal and informal e'pression
+: 3peak using warm-up ,long turn and cross sentence analysis
): Role ,lay )sing a conversation
7: 3peak well using proper accent
<: orrect usage of the part of 3peech
': 4rammar Rules
=: ")se correct ver$-timeline
&>:Elements of communication
&&:ommunication models
&6:7orms of communication
&-:1arriers to communication
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-=;#T#-=3* 3tudents /trainees must $e provided with the following*
+" English Language <odule?Reference 1ook/(ork te't$ook@
." different communication pathway and materials
/" sources of elements of communications
0" sources of $arriers to communications
2" other learning modules/handouts
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MODULE CONTENT
MODULE DESCRIPTOR:
This module covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes in Learning
American Accent focus on T and Th services. It details the requirements
for handling guest in daily communicative activities like during arrivals and
departures, handling non English speaker for their queries and responding
to request for hotel reservation and other legal documentation assistance
Nominal Duration: 24 hours
1. Scope:
Students at this point will be able to learn the American accent rules but
will heavily focus on T and Th sound. Throughout the course of Session 1,
the teacher will be highly sensitive to the application of these sounds. On
other areas, students will learn the proper way of introducing others as well
as be able to correctly use verbs. In addition, it is but proper that they learn
how to appropriately use expressions in conversation where they are
expected to last for 15 minutes using three diferent stages, namely: warm
up, long turn, and cross examination. At this stage, students will be able to
learn how to quickly analyze a sentence and answer it according to its
nature. They will learn how to predict, create opinion, judge or combine
these elements and come up as a good conversationalist.
2. Strategies and approaches for this session:
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2.1 Discussion
2.2 Audio-visual for listening and speaking
2.3 Dyad, Triad, group
2.4 Simulation
2.5. Assessment
2.6. Memorization
2.7 Research/Take home task
2.8 Demonstration/Reporting
3. Tasks
1.1. Speak using correct T and Th sounds
4. OBJECTIVES
1.To introduce the correct T and Th sounds
2.)se of English grammar and voca$ulary is defined clearly to have
effective communication skills
3.ommunication pathway availa$le is identified in accordance with
English Language standards"
4.Elements of communication in each pathway are identified"
5.1arriers to communication in appropriate situation are identified"
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6.3trategies to reduce $arriers to the understanding of 4rammar
Rules, English communication and usage of the part of 3peech are
adopted"
7.7orms of communication are distinguished"
8.Role of communication in providing good reading comprehension
are provided
9.:aried communication issues in learning English Language are
identified and recogni&ed"
10. omplete relevant work /assessment related to given task
11. ,articipate in workplace meeting and discussion using learned
skills, in grammar ,voca$ulary, speaking, reading and writing
4. PREPARE TO SPEAK
4.1 Accent: The Th
(Play CD cf. CD#6)
Target:
The Th
Title: The Thessalonians
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The Thessalonians believers thank the Lord for thousands of people
thriving in their amphitheatre every Thursday at three. This must be due to
thematic theme about theism and hypothetical theory of Gods theocratical
throne which was made through thunderous preaching which thrilled the
throng especially Thomas and Thutmose of Thurgau. For three months every
Thursday, through persistent thrusting of efort and thundering voice, the
Thessalonians believers of Thurgau thought of the unthinkable by even
throwing themselves on the
foor of ice thaw.
1.1 Practice Link
www.youtube.com/watch?v=LwGQy9q2cH8
1.2 Worksheets for Students Assessment Speaking Activity
4. 2. Introduce others correctly
4.2.1 Introduction
2.1 To introduce oneself and others using formal or informal expressions
2.2 To carry on a conversation from beginning to end using appropriate
Expressions
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It is your orientation day as newly enrollees /the trainer instructed
you tointroduce yourselves to each other for the frst 1 hour. The trainer
divided you into groups. How would you introduce yourselves to each other?
-Now that you know each other,your task is to introduce your new
acquaintance to members of the other group
-How are you going to do it?
-How do you keep the conversation going?
-How do you end it?
C.Dialogue:
Introducing oneself/someone .Here pay attention to the speakers natural
way of communicating with each other
JIM:Excuse me, is anybody sitting here?
SHIELA:I dont think so. Have a seat.
JIM:Thank you. By the way, Im Jim. Im a CSR and I belong to Canadian
Immigration Consultancy
SHIELA:Im Sheila from ProdataNet account. Pleased to meet you.
JIM:Pleased to meet you, too.
SHIELA:Oh, thats my friend. Lucy over here!
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LUCY:Hi Sheila. How are you?
SHIELA:Im fne. Thank you, and you?
LUCY:Im fn too.
SHIELA:Why dont you sit here and meet a new friend. Lucy, this is Jim.
We all have diferent accounts because I represent CANU Intl English
Language for its IELTS. I just hope well all be in the same unit.
JIM &LUCY: Lets keep our fngers crossed.
SHIELA:Umm, the trainer is here. We better keep quiet now
4.2.2. Practice Link
444:*"%t%5e:!"204at!h?,@L4GQ*=.6!H'
4.2.3. Worksheets for Students Assessment Speaking Activity
Analysis: Recall your own dialogue in the introductions and the sample
dialogue above. Identify familiar expressions you used and the ones used in
this text. When are the expressions used? How are they used?
Expression used Function/s
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1.2. Use formal and informal expressions
Now look at the following expressions
Introducing of oneself
A.FORMAL
-Allow me to introduce myself. My
names___________________________________
-Im... (+ information)
-May I introduce myself? My names _______________________________________
-Im...(+ information)
B.INFORMAL
-Hello. Im ____________________________________________________________
-Hello. My names ______________________________________________________
Note: When introducing yourself to someone, you often need to give not only
your name, but also other relevant details about yourself or the situation
you presently are having. The same is true when introducing someone to
others
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Introducing Other
EXPRESSIONS ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
%"7ormal
Di" #Cd like you to meet """"
4ood morning" <ay # introduce"""
#Cd like to introduce"""
1" Informal
Can I introduce...
This is...
I want you to meet...
a colleague of mine.
...our sales manager.
...my old time friend.
"hes here for the week.
...my counterpart.
...from the IMI division
GREETINGS
POSSIBLE REPLY TO GRRETING
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A. FORMAL
How do you do?
B.INFORMAL
Hello. Nice to meet you
Hi
How do you do? Im fne/Im doing well.
How do you do? I
m very pleased/delighted to meet you
Its very nice to meet you, too.
Good to meet you.
Its very nice to meet you.
Nice/Good to meet you.
Nice to have you with us.
Pleased to meet you.
Note: when you meet people for the frst time on a personal or business
basis, its usual to shake hands. This is when the greeting How do you do?
is appropriate, but it is only used for the frst time.Other rules in
introducing others.
Younger to older
introduce the younger person to older person.
Example: Father,this is my friend, Annie. Annie, this is my father.
Male to female
introduce man to woman or boy to a girl.
Example: Ella, meet my friend, John.
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Lower rank to superior
Example: Sir Sam Jin , this is our new student, Mitch.
Any order
same rank, gender, age. When you introduce people of the same rank,
gender, or age, it doesnt matter whose name comes frst.
Pre-closing the conversation
A. FORMAL
Thanks for your time.
Thanks a lot for the information.
I really should be leaving.
No problem.
Welcome. Its been nice talking to
you.Sure. No problem. I have to get
going too.
B.INFORMAL
I have to run...
I must be going...
I have to rush of...
OK. See you again.
OK. Great talking to you.
Same here.
Same here"
Closing Conversation
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EXPRESSION POSSIBLE RESPONSE
AFor%&'
Talk to you later
Thank you for your time.
Youre welcome.
My pleasure.
B.INFORMAL
Informal
See you later.
Until next time...
Youre welcome.
My pleasure.
B.
Informal
See you later.
Until next time...
Bye.
Ok. Bye
Practice: Prepare a role play based on the following situations.
You want to introduce:
Your new acquaintance to your boss
A male friend to a female friend
For Accent Theory: Get your Training Kit for accent and try to know
the rules for
American/British accent
For Accent Practice: Get your Training Kit for accent and try to apply the
rules for American/British accent
1.3. Speak using warm- up, long-turn, and cross examination with
sentence analysis
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1.4.1. APPLY THE RULES IN YOUR SKILLS
A.Simulation/role play
After another orientation, the newly- hired agents and their
trainers held a welcome party for all departments. Introduce
yourselves to the others and introduce your new friends and trainers
to your new acquaintances. Practice using the appropriate strategy for
introducing yourselves and others, for keeping the conversation going.
Be conscious too of your vowel and consonant sounds.
Introducing oneself: Beginning-sustaining the conversation-pre-closing-
closing
Sample dialogue:
Listen to the conversation among the call center staf. Pay attention to
expressions
used and the spontaneous way of introducing oneself to another person.
Then practice the dialogue with a partner.
A:Hello.Im Anne. Im the new secretary.
B: Pleased to meet you, Anne. Im Jerry and work as a clerk at the
Accounting Ofce.
A: Small world. Ill work for Mr. Davis. Hes the Chief Accountant, right? By
the way, how long have you been working here?
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B: Not long enough. Ive been here for a month. So just like you. Im also a
Newcomer.
A: But not as a neophyte as I am. Oh, I think your workstation is next to
mine. Im glad you sit next to my place so youre within reach if I have
some questions
B: Yeah. Feel free to ask me anytime.
Role
-play presentation
Given the situation above, create your own situation in introducing
and greetings that are applicable and relevant to gatherings or interactions
in your unit.
Warm up: 5 Minutes
1.4. Role- play using a conversation
M()*&+' ,or-&.
3ep +. .5+0
#ntro
(henever people think a$out professional $asket$all, one name likely comes to
mind* <ichael Aordan" Aordan played +2 seasons in the =1% $etween +E90 and .55/,
earning awards and making records that have kept him popular even after he retired from
the sport"The shoe company =ike also capitali&ed on AordanCs success" (hen Aordan
started playing $asket$all in the =1%, =ike made a shoe for him" The ne't year in +E92,
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=ike decided to sell the shoe pu$licly, naming it the B%ir AordanF in honor of <ichael Aordan"
These shoes $ecame so popular among fans and athletes that new versions are still sold
todayG ;o 4ary and Rafael wear %ir AordansH 7ind out today in this English lesson a$out
$asket$all"
D(&'o/u+
Rafael* >ou know what $asket$all needs really $adly right nowH
4ary* <ichael AordanG
Rafael* -h, yeah"
4ary* De hasnCt $een playing for so many years, though" De retired"
Rafael* # know" De went and did golf or something"
4ary* >ep"
Rafael* 1ut =ike makes millions off of those %ir Aordans"
4ary* >esG There seem to $e new versions every year even though <ichael Aordan has left
the sport"
Rafael* ;o they really help you !ump higherH Dave you tried themH
4ary* <ay$e # could dunk if # put a pair on" # actually havenCt seen many friends wearing
them. But I have to say I hear Air Jordans being referenced in music. I hear it on TV.
Im not seeing people wear them, but apparently, its really popular still, which
blows my mind
!afael" Are you saying you cant dun# now$
%ary" &o, I cant. Im sad to say. 'ou$
!afael" Absolutely.
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%ary" (eriously$
!afael" )h, yeah.
%ary" )h, wow.
!afael" Air Jordans or no Air Jordans, I can dun# in my sleep.
%ary" Im going to have to go buy a pair of Air Jordans and see if I can #eep up with you
then.
!afael" I recommend it.
1.5. . Speak well nursing correct accent rules
Di#$u##ion
!afael and %ary are discussing *ichael Jordan, the greatest bas#etball player of all
time. %ary is ama+ed that he is still popular, even though he stopped playing bas#etball many
years ago. ,ven more ama+ing is the fact that the &i#e shoe, the Air Jordan, is still popular,
tooAir Jordans are supposed to help people be able to -ump higher and dun#, li#e *ichael
Jordan, so !afael as#s %ary if he can dun#. %ary cant, but !afael can. In order to #eep up
with his friend, %ary thin#s he should buy a pair of Air Jordans. If he wears them, maybe
hell be able to -ump high enough to dun# a bas#etball.Is *ichael Jordan still popular where
you live$ .o you thin# Air Jordans can help people -ump higher$
/arm up 0minutes
1.6.Corr+)0 us&/+ o1 0*+ 2&r0 o1 S2++)*
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1.6.1. Sentence Pattern
There are fve basic patterns around which most English
sentences are built.* They are as follows
S-V

(ub-ect1Verb

John sleeps.

Jill is eating.

Jac# will arrive ne2t wee#.
S-V-O

(ub-ect1Verb1)b-ect

I li#e rice.

(he loves her -ob.

3e4s eating an orange.
S-V-Adj

(ub-ect1Verb1Ad-ective

3e is funny.

The wor#ers are la+y.

5aren seems angry.
S-V-Adv

(ub-ect1Verb1Adverb

Jim is here.

6lowers are everywhere.

&o one was there.
S-V-N

(ub-ect1Verb1&oun

(he is my mom.

The men are doctors.
*r. Jones is the teacher.
At the heart of every ,nglish sentence is the (ub-ect1Verb relationship. )ther elements can be
added to ma#e a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.
1.6.1.1. The following sentences are e!amples of the S"
# pattern.
(he sleeps.

7ore sentence
(he sleeps soundly.

An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.
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(he sleeps on the sofa.

A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.
(he sleeps every afternoon.

A time e2pression is added to tell when she sleeps.
(he is sleeping right now.

Verb tense is changed, but (1V relationship remains the
same.
*ary will sleep later.

(ub-ect is named and another tense is used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage.

&ew sub-ect may re8uire a different form of the verb.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.
1.6.1.$. The following sentences are e!amples of the S"
#"% pattern.
They li#e rice.

7ore sentence
The people li#e rice.

(pecific sub-ect
The friendly people li#e rice.

(ub-ect modified with an ad-ective
The people in the restaurant li#e
rice.

(ub-ect modified with an ad-ective
The people li#e boiled rice.

)b-ect modified with an ad-ective
The people li#e hot, white rice.

)b-ect modified with more than one ad-ective
Note: )nly transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
1.6.1.&. The following sentences are e!amples of the S"
#"'d( pattern.
3e is fine.

Basic sentence with 9be9 verb
3e seems happy.

Basic sentence with another lin#ing verb
Jordan is tall, dar# and handsome.

(eries of ad-ectives
3e appears very comfortable.

Adverb or intensifier added
%eorge became sic# last night.

.ifferent tense and lin#ing verb
Note: )nly lin#ing verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
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1.6.1.). The following sentences are e!amples of the S"
#"'dv pattern.
The teacher is here.

Basic sentence
The teacher is over there.

:sing an adverb phrase
Teachers are everywhere.

;lural noun and verb used
The teachers are in the lobby.

;repositional phrase functioning as adverb
1.6.1.*. The following sentences are e!amples of the S"
#"+ pattern.
The man is a doctor.

Basic sentence
The women are doctors.

:sing plural noun and verb
*y father is a nice guy.

*odified sub-ect and complement
*y grandparents are senior citi+ens.

*odified plural sub-ect and complement
<)ther, less common structures are dealt with in another unit.
1.6.$. Part of Speech
ThePartsofSpeech
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There are nine +art# o, #+ee$h. They are arti$e#- noun#-
+ronoun#- ad.e$ti/e#- /er0#- ad/er0#- $on.un$tion#-
+re+o#ition#- and inter.e$tion#. ) 1ord o, $aution-
ho1e/er- a 1ord $an 0e more than one +art o, #+ee$h.
You $an 2nd out more in,ormation on the +art# o,
#+ee$h 0y $he$3in! the #our$e# i#ted at the 0ottom o,
thi# re/ie1.
'oun#
A noun is a word used to name something" a person=animal,
a place, a thing, or an idea. 6or e2ample, all of the following are nouns.
o LeahA I/a!i"A La/A Ma#eB
o Ja3a/A Ve/e;%elaA Atla/taA K#"e#A the Ga3
o 3e/!ilA st"#eA 2%si!A ai#
o 5i"l"*A the"#* "C Relati,it*A P*tha"#ea/ the"#*
4int: The* a#e s"2eti2es 3#e!e$e$ 5* /"%/ 2a#Be#s: N"%/ 2a#Be#s a#e als"
!alle$ $ete#2i/e#s a/$ .%a/tiDe#s: The* a#e 4"#$s liBe a, an, the, this, that,
these, those, each, some, any, every, no, numbers (,2,!,etc.", severa#, many, a
#ot, $ew, %ossessive %ronouns (his, her, etc". See $ete#2i/e#s C"# 2"#e
i/C"#2ati"/:
INouns are classified in several ways
&: 'oun# $an 0e #in!uar or +ura.

Singular nouns name only one person, place, thing or idea.
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One apple, a pencil, the book
Plural nouns name two or more persons, places, things or ideas. *ost singular nouns
>&ot A??@ are made plural by adding As. 6or e2ample, >pencil is a singular noun. The
word pencils is a plural noun.@
E5$e+tion 61" If a noun ends with the As, sh, ch, or 2 li#e the words, kiss,
church, ash or box, then they are made plural by adding Aes >kisses, churches, ashes,
and boxes).

E5$e+tion 62"There are also irregular nouns that do not follow any rules. 6or
e2ample, the plural form of the word child is children.

o 'oun# $an 0e &ro+er 'oun# or Common 'oun#
). &ro+er noun# #eCe# t" s3e!iD! 3e"3leA 3la!esA thi/s a/$ i$eas: A
3e#s"/Es /a2e FLeah G#aha2G is a 3#"3e# /"%/A C"# e1a23le: Othe#
e1a23les a#e /a2es "C 3la!es FAtla/taA Ge"#iaG a/$ /a2es "C thi/s Fthe
Na,*G: They are a1ay# $a+itai*ed7
o Pe"3leHs /a2es a/$ titlesI Ki/ He/#*A M#s: S2ith
o Na2es C"# $eit*A #elii"/sA #elii"%s C"ll"4e#sA a/$
sa!#e$ 5""BsI G"$A AllahA B%$$haA Isla2A Cath"li!is2A
Ch#istia/s
o Ra!esA /ati"/alitiesA t#i5esA a/$ la/%aesI &$rican
&merican, 'o#ish(&merican, )#ac*, +hinese, ,ussian
o S3e!iD! Pla!es liBe !"%/t#iesA !itiesA 5"$ies "C 4ate#A
st#eetsA 5%il$i/sA a/$ 3a#Bs
o S3e!iD! "#a/i;ati"/sI Ce/t#al I/tellie/!e Ae/!*
FCIAGA J:
o Da*s "C the 4eeBA 2"/thsA a/$ h"li$a*sA
o B#a/$ /a2es "C 3#"$%!ts
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o Hist"#i!al 3e#i"$sA 4ellIB/"4/ e,e/tsA a/$ $"!%2e/tsI
-i..#e a/es, )oston 0ea 'arty, -a/na +arta
o Titles "C 3%5li!ati"/s a/$ 4#itte/ $"!%2e/ts
0. Common noun# a#e all "the# /"%/s: F"# e1a23le9 cat, %enci#, %a%er, etc.
The* a#e /"t !a3itali;e$ %/less the* a#e the D#st 4"#$ i/ the se/te/!e:
'oun# $an a#o 0e $oe$ti/e.
C"lle!ti,e /"%/s a#e /"%/s that a#e #a22ati!all* !"/si$e#e$ si/%la#A
5%t i/!l%$e 2"#e tha/ "/e 3e#s"/A 3la!eA thi/A "# i$ea i/ its 2ea/i/:
8"#$s liBe team, /rou%, 1ury, committee, au.ience, crow., c#ass, troo%,
$ami#y, team, cou%#e, ban., her., quartet, an. society.
%enerally, collective nouns are treated as singular because they emphasi+e the group
as one unit.
The coittee is going to make a decision.

'oun# $an a#o 0e either $ount or non8$ount.
N"%/s that a#e /"/I!"%/t !a//"t 5e !"%/te$: (or e5am+eA
one cannot go outside to have two fresh airs. )ne goes outside for fresh air.
5. Nouns can be Abstract or concrete
C"/!#ete /"%/s a#e /"%/s that *"% !a/ t"%!h: The* a#e 3e"3leA 3la!esA
a/$ s"2e thi/s: 8"#$s liBe %erson, court, Geor/iaA %enci#, han., %a%er,
car, an. .oor a#e all e1a23les "C !"/!#ete /"%/s:
A5st#a!t /"%/s a#e /"%/s that !a//"t 5e 3h*si!all* hel$: F"# e1a23leA
thi/s liBe air, 1ustice, sa$ety, 2emocracy, $aith, re#i/ionA et!:
9. 'oun# $an 0e :erund#
A gerund is the Aing form of the verb and is used as a noun. 6or e2ample,
Runnin! is good for you.
Running is the noun=gerund and is is the verb.
y cr"in! upset !i".
Crying is the sub-ect and upset is the verb
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Note# A noun can fit into more than one of these categories. 6or e2ample, the noun
Angela is a singular, concrete, count, proper noun.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. They eliminate the need for repetition.
$or %&a"'le#
Instead of E# t#$%ed to E#&s c'i$d, you might say E# t#$%ed to 'er c'i$d.
(er is the pronoun. It renames the antecedent, Emma.
3 )!ere are several ty'es of 'ronouns.
Personal Pronouns refer to s'ecific 'ersons or t!ings. ;ersonal pronouns can act as
sub-ects, ob-ects, or possessives.
Singular# I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it
Plural# we, us, you, they, them
I, you, she, he, it, we, and they are used as sub-ects of sentences.
$or e&a"'le, he knew the grammar rules !ery well.
The personal pronouns that can be used as objects are"
e* you* !i"* !er* it* t!e"
$or %&a"'le#
The tea$her !a/e a o, them !ood !rade#.
Tommy !a/e hi# +oetry 0oo3 to her.
Then- )*ra !a/e it to me.
0hem, her a/$ me a#e 3e#s"/al 3#"/"%/s %se$ as "5Ke!ts: The* a#e 'EVER the
s%5Ke!ts "C the se/te/!es:
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&o##e##i/e &ronoun# i/$i!ate "4/e#shi3 "# 3"ssessi"/:
Sin!uar: my- mine- your- your#- her#- hi#- it#
Plural# yours* ours* t!eirs*
6or ,2ample" S!e returned my 'encil to "e because it was mine.

+. Refle&ive Pronouns name a receiver of an action who is identical to the doer of the action.
(ingular" myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
;lural" ourselves, yourselves, themselves
6or e2ample" anuela congratulated 'erse$( on !er good grades.
3ere, "anuela is both the doer and the receiver of the action.
,# So* w!o did anuela congratulate- A# (erself.

.. /ntensive Pronouns emphasi+e a noun or another pronoun.
Si/%la#9 2*selCA *"%#selCA hi2selCA he#selCA itselC
Pl%#al9 "%#sel,esA *"%#sel,esA the2sel,es
(or E5am+e: I #a1 ;rad &itt himself at the ma.
He#eA himse#$ e23hasi;es the a/te!e$e/tA B#a$$ Pitt:
5. Reci'rocal Pronouns e2press shared actions or feelings. They are"
Ea$h other One another
(or E5am+e:
0an 1o and )ai !el' e#c' ot'er wit! t!eir !o"ewor2.
3eon and !is girlfriend dance wit! one #not'er w!en t!ey go clubbing.
4. /ndefinite Pronouns refer to non1specific persons and things.
AllA a/"the#A a/*A a/*5"$*A a/*"/eA a/*thi/A 5"thA ea!hA eithe#A
e,e#*5"$*A e,e#*"/eA e,e#*thi/A Ce4A 2a/*A /eithe#A /"5"$*A /"/eA /"
"/eA /"thi/A "/eA se,e#alA s"2eA s"2e5"$*A s"2e"/eA s"2ethi/
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(or E5am+e:
"any )e$ie*e t'#t +FO,s exist- )ut nobody can pro!e it.
#o one c#n )e sure i( #$iens re#$$" exist- )ut on$" $ew wonder i$ El!is is still ali!e.
The underlined indefinite pronouns do not refer to any one person. They are referring to
people in general.
5. 6e"onstrative Pronouns are also considered noun mar#ers. They 9point9 towards nouns.
thi#- that- the#e tho#e
$or %&a"'le#
That .o#n #ttends /#ines*i$$e 0o$$e!e.
That points out which woman.
)!e wo"an attends 7ainesville 8ollege.
,# 9!ic! wo"an- A# T'#t wo"an.
<. Interro!ati/e &ronoun# i/t#"$%!e .%esti"/s:
8h"A 8h"2A 8h"seA 8hi!hA 8hat
$or %&a"'le#
%ho is !oin! on *#c#tion1 To whom .i$$ t'e te#c'er !i*e #n 2A21
%hat are you doing&
=. Reati/e &ronoun# i/t#"$%!e $e3e/$e/t !la%ses a/$ #eCe#s t" a 3e#s"/ "#
thi/ al#ea$* 2e/ti"/e$ i/ the se/te/!e Fi:e: the a/te!e$e/tG:
8h"A 4h"e,e#A 4h"2A 4h"2e,e#A 4h"seA 4hi!hA that
$or %&a"'le#
)!e %nglis! t'#t .e $e#rn in c$#ss will !el' us 'ass %nglis! ::;:.
that we learn in class is the ad-ective clause that describes English. And, that is the relative
pronoun.
," /hich ,nglish$
A# The ,nglish that we learn in classBas opposed to the ,nglish we learn around our friends.
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Note# Ad-ectives clauses modify nouns or pronouns, and usually answer one of the
following 8uestions" %hich one& %hat kind o$& They begin with a relative pronoun or a
relative adverb >when or where@.

Adjectives
An ad-ective modifies >describes@ a noun or pronoun.
&ormally in ,nglish, the ad-ective comes before the noun. $or e&a"'le#
)!e s#rt student earned an <A<.
They also come after lin#ing verbs. $or e&a"'le#
/ feel '#pp".
Adjectives can be used to "a2e co"'arisons.
F"# 2"st a$Ke!ti,es "C "/e "# t4" s*lla5lesA *"% !a/ a$$ (e#: F"# e1a23leA
#eate#A Caste#A st#"/e#:
F"# a$Ke!ti,es l"/e# tha/ t4" s*lla5lesA *"% sh"%l$ %se the 4"#$ more:
F"# e1a23leA He was more intelligent than his sister was.

Adjectives can also be used as su'erlatives.
This is %s%all* $"/e 5* a$$i/ 3est t" the e/$ "C a/ a$Ke!ti,e that is "/e "#
t4" s*lla5les:
F"# e1a23leA the #ou.est, the coo#est, the smartest.
IC a/ a$Ke!ti,e is th#ee s*lla5les "# l"/e#A *"% 2%st %se the 4"#$s the
most. F"# e1a23le9
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4atsu is the most intelligent %erson in the wor#.5
>)R'I':8 'e/er u#e 0oth an ,er endin! and the 1ord more or
an
3est ending and t!e word ost.
6or e2ample* I am the ost '#ppiest when my students learn. Instead, it should be" I
am the '#ppiest when my students learn.
There are some irregular ad-ective and adverb forms. 6or e2ample"
)d.e$ti/e )d/er0 Com+arin! t1o Com+arin! three or
more
Ba$ 5a$l* 8"#se 4"#st
G""$ 8ell Bette# Best
Little Less Least
M%!h Ma/* M"#e M"st

Punctuation Note" Ad-ectives are not usually capitali+ed unless they are the first word in
a sentence. =>)* nationalities are also ad-ectives and should be capitali+ed. 6or e2ample"
'icky "artin is Puerto Ric#n and "ichelle (eoh is 0'inese.
These are called proper ad-ectives. And, li#e proper nouns, 'ro'er adjectives are always
capitali+ed in ,nglish. They are derived from proper nouns and are words li#e" A$rican)
American, *ietnamese, +atino, Italian, ,apanese, -orean, etc. They can also include
ad-ectives li#e Catholic, ,ewish, 'epublican, .emocrat, etc.
/hen they are used together, they are arranged in a certain order.

Determin O+inion Si*e )!e Coor Ori!in Materi 'oun
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er? a
0he, 0his
ome
'retty
Tall
)i/
Thin
6ew
Old
)#ue
/urple
'uerto
,ican
Leather
%ood
7o$a
-y 89%ensiv
e
7ma## &ncient )#ac* +hines
e
7i#* 7car$
$or %&a"'le#
/ saw t'#t t#$$- t'in- o$d- )$ue- si$% scarf at t!e store and / boug!t it.
3eon drives an expensi*e o$d It#$i#n car.

0ou wouldn?t ordinarily use so "any adjectives in just one sentence.
@Note# .eterminers include articles, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns and
possessive pronouns.
Adverbs
A/ a$,e#5 is a 4"#$ that 2"$iDes a/ a!ti"/ ,e#5A a/ a$Ke!ti,e "# a/"the#
a$,e#5:
The tea!he# $are,uy #a$e$ the h"2e4"#B:
+are$u##y is a/ a$,e#5 that 2"$iDes the a!ti"/ ,e#5 to /ra.e:
T"22* 4as e5tremey e/th%siasti! a5"%t $"i/ his h"2e4"#B:
89treme#y is a/ a$,e#5 that 2"$iDes the a$Ke!ti,e enthusiastic:
Ya/ K" #a/ "%t "C the !lass#""2 /ery .%i!Bl*:
:ery is a/ a$,e#5 that 2"$iDes the a$,e#5 quic*#y:
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>arnin!: Y"% /ee$ a/ a$Ke!ti,e aCte# li/Bi/ ,e#5sJ'EVER a/ a$,e#5L
6or e2ample, Tai $eels )#d 4!ui$t"5 when he has to lea!e class.
3ere, bad is an ad-ective that modifies the proper noun Tai. It is an ad-ective because it
follows the lin#ing verb to $eel.

(O9%V%R* verbs li#e look, sound, smell, $eel, and taste can function as either an action
verb or a lin#ing verb.
Tai $eels )#d$" 4to t'e touc') a$ter swimming in a chlorinated pool. 0is skin is really dry.
3ere, bad is used in its adverbial form since it follows an action verb, to $eel.
)y'es of Adverbs#
Reati/e )d/er0# i/t#"$%!e .%esti"/s a/$ $e3e/$e/t a$,e#5ial !la%ses:
The* a/s4e# the .%esti"/s ;hen? a/$ ;here? The* a#e9
8he/ 8he#e
$or %&a"'le#
%hen I .#s "oun!- I $i%ed to p$#" outside.
,# /hen did I li#e to play outside$ A# /hen I was young.

)d/er0# o, (requen$y i/$i!ate a/s4e# the .%esti"/ how o$ten? The*
a#e9
Al4a*sA %s%all*A "Cte/A s"2eti2esA #a#el*A /e,e#
)!e students in %SO3 AB #$.#"s study very !ard.
)!ey r#re$" forget to do t!eir !o"ewor2.

NO)%# 7enerally* t!ese adverbs co"e before t!e verbC !owever t!ere is an
e&ce'tion. /n t!e case of t!e verb to be* t!e adverb of freDuency co"es after t!e verb.
$or e&a"'le#AEra is #$.#"s on ti"e for class.

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8onjunctions are the scotch tape of the grammatical world. They -oin together
words and phrases. There are three #inds of con-unctions" coordinating con-unctions,
correlative con-unctions, and subordinating con-unctions.

:. 8oordinating 8onjunctions
There are seven coordinating con-unctions in ,nglish. 'ou can use the mnemonic device
$anboys to remember them.
$or
And
Nor
=ut
Or
0et
So
They can be used with commas to create compound sentences. $or e&a"'le#
/gnacio loves to dance* )ut RocFo !as no r!yt!".
1yong ee wor2s !ard* "et s!e still earns low grades.
Note# A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two independent clauses. That is, a
compound sentence is simply two complete sentences -oined by a comma and a coordinating
con-unction >i.e. a fanboys@.
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6: Correati/e Con.un$tion# als" K"i/ i$easA 5%t the* 4"#B i/ 3ai#s: The*
a#e9
B"thJa/$
neitherCnor
whetherCor
eitherCor
not onlyCbut also
$or %&a"'le#
#ot only # I '#pp" #)out t'e !r#des- but I # #$so excited t'#t "ou #re $e#rnin!6
1. ubordinating Con2unctions -oin an independent clause to a subordinate clause. That is,
they -oin a clause that can stand alone with a clause that cannot stand alone. (ome fre8uently
used subordinating con-unctions are"
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, since, so that, though,
unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while.

$or %&a"'le#
Although t'e students .ere tired- t'e" sti$$ c#e to c$#ss.
/nterjections
Inter-ections are words used to e2press emotional states. They can usually be found in
narrative writing, interviews, and in spo#en ,nglish. They can stand alone. 6or e2ample"
Oh3, wow3, Ouch3 Oops3 0ey3
Punctuation Note# They are punctuated with either commas or e2clamation mar#s. *ild
inter-ections are followed by a comma, but stronger inter-ections are punctuated with an
e2clamation mar# >@ .
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Oh, .e,re $#te (or t'e o*ie.
%enerally, the movies is not an important destination. Therefore, the person ma#ing this
statement will sound less urgent than the ne2t e2ample.
Oh3 I, $#te (or .or%.
/or#, unli#e the movies, is generally considered a very important destination. If one doesnt
arrive on time, there is the possibility of being fired or of losing face. 3ere, the spea#er will
have a greater sense of urgency.

7enerally * you do not find interjections in acade"ic writing.

Pre'ositions
;repositions are words that, li#e con-unctions, connect a noun or pronoun to another word in
a sentence. (ome common prepositions"

A5"%t BeC"#e D"4/ I/t" Th#"%h
A5",e Behi/$ D%#i/ LiBe T"
A!#"ss Bel"4 E1!e3t OC T"4a#$
ACte# Be/eath F"# OM U/$e#
A2"/ Besi$e F#"2 O/ U3
A#"%/$ Bet4ee/ I/ O,e# 8ith
At B* I/stea$ "C Si/!e 8ith"%t
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A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a
noun or pronoun. They can act as ad-ectives or as adverbs.
*anuela, the student fro" 7er"any, wrote an e2cellent paper on t!e co"'uter.
Verbs
Verbs generally e2press action or a state of being. There are several classifications for verbs1
action verbs,=lin#ing verbs, main verbs=au2iliary verbs, transitive=intransitive and phrasal
verbs.
:. Action verbs show action.
3e runs. 3e p$#"s. They stud".
G. 3in2ing Verbs lin# the sub-ect to an ad-ective.
!ic#y *artin is beautiful.
The lin#ing verb is lin#s the ad-ective beauti$ul with the sub-ect 'icky "artin.
:. ain verbs can stand alone.
G. Au&iliary verbs, also called helping verbs, serve as support to the main verb.
The most common au2iliary verbs are"
3ave, has, had
.o, does, did
Be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been
(hould, could, will, would, might, can, may, must, shall, ought >to@

$or e&a"'le#
)ai '#s runeveryday.
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'un is an action verb. The sub-ect can actually 9do9 it.
0as is the helping verb. It helps the main verb run to be present perfect tense.
Verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Tran#iti/e Ver0# #e.%i#e a $i#e!t "5Ke!t i/ "#$e# t" 2aBe se/se:
(or E5am+e:
0olanda ta2e s as'irin for !er !eadac!es.
3ere, takes is a transitive verb since the sentence (olanda takes has no meaning
without its direct ob-ect aspirin.

Intran#iti/e Ver0# do not need dire$t o0.e$t# to ma3e them
meanin!,u. (or E5am+e:
@uio swims.
The ,e#5 swim has 2ea/i/ C"# the #ea$e# 4ith"%t a/ "5Ke!t:
Caution" A verb can be either transitive or intransitive depending on its conte2t. $or
%&a"'le#
)!e cars r#ce. A 3ere, raceis intransitive. It does not need an ob-ect.
y fat!er r#ces 'orses. A 3ere, races is transitive. It re8uires the ob-ect horses in order to
ma#e sense.
Verbs can be '!rasal.
&: Ph#asal ,e#5s a#e 2a$e %3 "C a ,e#5 a/$ a 3#e3"siti"/: The 3#e3"siti"/
i,es the ,e#5 a $iMe#e/t 2ea/i/ tha/ it 4"%l$ ha,e 5* itselC: F"#
e1a23leA the ,e#5 loo- has a $iMe#e/t 2ea/i/ C#"2 the 3h#asal ,e#5
loo- up Fi/ the $i!ti"/a#*G:
Some more e5am+e#:
call up, find out, hand in, ma#e up, put off, turn on, write up

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9ARN/N7# The base form of a verb is called the infinitive. It is to D verb. 6or
e2ample, to do, to win, to study, etc. :nder no circumstance can a verb preceded by to be
considered a verb. /nfinitives are not verbs.

Articlesare the, a, and an.

Q: What do articles do in a sentence?
A: Articles signal that a noun is going to
follow.
Example:
>ho in/ented the telephone? The wheel?
The refrigerator? The airplane?
A cat was chasing a mouse in my back yard.
Modifiers ad!ecti"es # ad"er$s% can appear $etween an article and a noun.
Examples:
A sunset.
A spectacular sunset.
An exceptionally spectacular sunset.
The indefinite article &a' can onl( appear $efore nouns that $egin with a consonant sound: a
hand, a book, a world, a computer
The indefinite article &an' can onl( appear $efore nouns that $egin with a "owel sound: an
apartment, an hour, an article

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)eneral *ules for the +se of Articles:
,. +se a-an with singular count nouns whose specific identit( is not .nown to the reader
either $ecause it is $eing mentioned for the first time/ or $ecause its specific identit( is
un.nown e"en to the writer.

,2amples"
Julia arrived in a limousine. (a one among many. !ot a specific one."
#e$re looking for an apartment. (an any one."
,,. 0o not use a%an with non&count nouns. 'nly use a%an with non&count nouns if you add a count
noun in front of the non&count noun.
(xample)
Anh asked her mother for an advice.
Anh asked her mother for apiece of
advice.

III. :se the with most nouns whose specific identity is known to the reader because"
E. the noun has been previously mentioned"
o *esterday + saw a group of (,- students. The students were playing with a ball.
The ball was white and blue. The ball rolled into a hole. The hole was small.
6: the /"%/ is 2a$e s3e!iD! 5* a s%3e#lati,e9
o + bought thefastest computer they had.
1. the noun descri$es a uni2ue person/ place/ or thing:
o .lease give this to themanager.
o Thesun is bright today.
o /ain is falling heavily in the!orth.
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3. the context or situation ma.es the noun's identit( clear:
o .lease don$t slam the door when you leave.
o 0ob warned me that the dog playing in his yard is very affectionate and 1umps on
every person it meets.
,4. 0o not use the with plural or non&count nouns meaning 2all2 or 2in general2 (i.e. generic
reference nouns". 3o not use the with most singular proper nouns.
4he fountains are an expensive element of landscape design.
+n some parts of the world, the rice is preferred to all other grains.
V: D" not %se a#ti!les 4ith "the# noun mar*ers or .eterminersA i:e: %ossessive
nouns FHele/HsG N a/$ some %ronouns FhisA he#A itsA "%#sA thei#A 4h"seA thisA thatA
theseA th"seA allA a/*A ea!hA eithe#A e,e#*A Ce4A 2a/*A 2"#eA 2"stA 2%!hA /eithe#A
se,e#alA s"2eG:
Exceptions4
All the5
A few5
The most5
,2amples"
The 4eenA# 0oo3 i# on the Boor.
' thi# 0oo3 0eon!# to Trun!.

) 2na $aution8 A word can be more than one part of
speech. $or e&a"'le#
I sat on the so$a.
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Above, so$a is used as a noun >ob-ect of the preposition@.
/ sle't on t!e so(# bed.
But, here so$a is used as an ad-ective to modify the noun bed.
And, native spea#ers often ta#e poetic license with words in conversation. 6or e2ample"
/t?s So(# city for youH
3ere, sofa acts as an ad-ective to describe the noun city. The meaning of the sentence is that
the person will have to sleep on the sofa, not a bed.

1.7.Gr&%%&r Ru'+s
Sentences
3entences are made of two parts* the su45+)0 and the 2r+-()&0+"
The su$!ect is the person or thing that acts or is descri$ed in the sentence" The
predicate, on the other hand, is that action or description"
omplete sentences need 4o0* the su$!ect and the predicate"
Clauses
3entences can $e $roken down into clauses"
7or e'ample* The boy is going to the school, and he is going to eat there.
This is a complete sentence composed of two clauses" There are mainly two types of
clauses* independent clauses and su$ordinate clauses"
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I.-+2+.-+.0 clauses act as complete sentences, while su4or-(.&0+ clauses cannot
stand alone and need another clause to complete their meaning" 7or e'ample*
#ndependent clause e'ample* The boy went to the school.
3u$ordinate clause e'ample* After the boy went to the school
Phrases
% group of two or more grammatically linked words that -o .o0 have su$!ect and
predicate is a phrase"
E'ample of a complete sentence* The girl is at home, and tomorrow she is going to
the amusement park.
E'ample of a clause* The girl is at home
E'ample of a phrase* The girl
>ou can see that Bthe girlF is a phrase located in the first clause of the complete
sentence a$ove"
,hrases act like parts of speech inside clauses" That is, they can act as nouns,
ad!ectives, adver$s and so on"
Parts of Speech
% word is a Bpart of speechF only when it is used in a sentence" The function the word
serves in a sentence is what makes it whatever part of speech it is"
7or e'ample, the word BrunF can $e used as more than one part of speech*"
Sammy hit a home run.
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Run is a noun, direct o$!ect of hit"
You mustnt run near the swimming pool.
Run is a ver$, part of the ver$ phrase must not! run"
Traditional grammar classifies words $ased on eight parts of speech* the .ou., the
2ro.ou., the &-5+)0(6+, the 6+r4, the &-6+r4, the 2r+2os(0(o., the )o.5u.)0(o.,
and the (.0+r5+)0(o." (e are going to cover them individually $elow"
Nouns
% .ou. is a word used to descri$e a person, place, thing, event, idea, and so on"
=ouns represent one of the main elements of sentences, along with ver$s,
ad!ectives, prepositions and articles"
=ouns usually function as su45+)0s or o45+)0s within sentences, although they can
also act as ad!ectives and adver$s"
Dere is a list with the different types of nouns*
+" Pro2+r .ou.s
)sed to descri$e a unique person or thing, proper nouns always start with a capital
letter" E'amples include "ary, #ndia, and "anchester $nited"
." Co%%o. .ou.s
ommon nouns are used to descri$e persons or things in general" E'amples include
girl, country, and team
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/" Co.)r+0+ .ou.s
=ouns that can $e perceived through the five senses are called concrete nouns"
E'amples include ball, rainbow and melody"
0" A4s0r&)0 .ou.s
=ouns that cannot $e perceived through the five senses are called a$stract nouns"
E'amples include lo%e, courage, and childhood"
2" Cou.0&4'+ .ou.s
ounta$le nouns can $e counted" They also have $oth a singular and a plural form"
E'amples include toys, children and books"
6" No.7)ou.0&4'+ .ou.s
These nouns ?usually@ can not $e counted, and they donCt have a plural form"
E'amples include sympathy, laughter and o&ygen"
8" Co''+)0(6+ .ou.s
ollective nouns are used to descri$e groups of things" E'amples include flock,
committee and murder"
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Plural Form of Nouns
The English language has $oth r+/u'&r and (rr+/u'&r plural forms of nouns" The
most common case is when you need to add -s to the noun" 7or e'ample one car
and two cars"
The other two cases of the regular plural form are*
+" nouns that end with s8 98 )* or s*, where you add 7+s ?e"g", one $o', two $o'es@
." nouns that end with )o.so.&.0 : ;, where you change the ; <(0* ( &.- &-- 7+s
?e"g", one enemy, two enemies@
-n the irregular plural form of nouns there are $asically eight cases*
+" nouns that end with 7o, where you add 7+s ?e"g", one potato, two potatoes@
." nouns ending with 7(s, where you change 7(s 0o 7+s ?e"g", one crisis, two crises@
/" nouns ending with 71, where you change -1 0o 76 &.- &-- 7+s ?e"g", one wolf, two
wolves@
0" nouns ending with 71+, where you change 71 0o 76 &.- &-- 7s ?e"g", one life, two lives@
2" nouns ending with 7us, where you change 7us 0o 7( ?e"g", one fungus, two fungi@
6" nouns that contain 7oo, change 7oo 0o 7++ ?e"g", one foot, two feet@
8" nouns that end with 7o., where you change 7o. <(0* 7& ?e"g", phenomenon,
phenomena@
9" nouns that donCt change ?e"g", sheep, offspring, series@
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#t might appear overwhelming, $ut after using these nouns a couple of times you will
$e a$le to memori&e their plural form easily"
Pronouns
Pro.ou.s are used to r+2'&)+ .ou.s within sentences, making them less repetitive
and mechanic" 7or e'ample, saying B"ary didnt go to school because "ary was
sickF doesnCt sound very good" #nstead, if you say B"ary didnt go to school because
she was sickF it will make the sentence flow $etter"
There are several types of pronouns, $elow you will find the most common ones*
+" Su45+)0(6+ 2+rso.&' 2ro.ou.s %s the name implies, su$!ective pronouns act as
su$!ects within sentences" They are* #, you, he, she, we, they, and it"
E'ample* # am going to the bank while he is going to the market.
." O45+)0(6+ 2+rso.&' 2ro.ou.s" These pronouns act as the o$!ect of ver$s within
sentences" They are* me, you, him, her, us, them and it"
E'ample* The ball was going to hit me in the face.
/" Poss+ss(6+ 2+rso.&' 2ro.ou.s" These pronouns are used to indicate
possession, and they are placed after the o$!ect in question ?as opposed to
possessive ad!ectives like my and your, which are placed $efore the o$!ect@" They
are* mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its"
E'ample of possessive ad!ective* This is my car.
E'ample of possessive pronoun* This car is mine.
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0" R+1'+9(6+ 2ro.ou.s" This special class of pronouns is used when the o$!ect is
the same as the su$!ect on the sentence" They are myself, yourself, himself, herself,
oursel%es, themsel%es and itself"
E'ample* # managed to cut myself in the kitchen.
2" I.0+rro/&0(6+ 2ro.ou.s" %s you pro$a$ly guessed these pronouns are used to
ask questions" They are what, which, who, whom and whose"
E'ample* 'hat are the odds(
6" D+%o.s0r&0(6+ 2ro.ou.s" These pronouns are used to indicate a noun and
distinguish it from other entities" =otice that demonstrative pronouns replace the
noun ?while demonstrative determiners modify them@" They are* this, that, these,
those"
E'ample of a demonstrative determiner* This house is ugly.
E'ample of a demonstrative pronoun* This is the right one.
8" I.-+1(.(0+ 2ro.ou.s" %s the name implies, indefinite pronouns do not refer to a
specific thing, place or person" There are many of them, including anyone,
anywhere, e%eryone, none, someone and so on"
E'ample* )%eryone is going to the party.
Adjectives
%n ad!ective is a word that descri$es a noun" There are two kinds* &00r(4u0(6+ and
2r+-()&0(6+"
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%n ad!ective is used &00r(4u0(6+'; when it stands ne't to a noun and descri$es it"
7or e'ample* The black cat climbed a tree.
=otice that the ver$ participle forms can $e used as ad!ectives*
The man felt a paralyzing fear.
Flavored oatmeal tastes better than plain oatmeal.
The usual place of the ad!ective in English is in front of the noun" >ou can have a
whole string of ad!ectives if you like* The tall thin evil-looking cowboy roped the
short fat inoffensive calf.
3ometimes, for rhetorical or poetic effect, the ad!ective can come after the noun*
Sarah Plain and !all ?$ook title@
This is the forest primeval.
%n ad!ective is used 2r+-()&0(6+'; when a ver$ separates it from the noun or
pronoun it descri$es*
The umpire was "rong.
The crowd was furious.
She seems tired today.
This soup tastes bad.
The dogs coat feels smooth.
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The ver$s that can $e completed $y 2r+-()&0+ &-5+)0(6+s are called 4+(./ 6+r4s or
)o2u'&0(6+ 6+r4s" They include all the forms of to be and sensing ver$s like seem,
feel, and taste"
Adjective Classifications
=u&'(0&0(6+* good, bad, happy, blue, *rench
2oss+ss(6+* my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their
r+'&0(6+ &.- (.0+rro/&0(6+* which, what, whate%er, etc"
.u%+r&'* one, two, second, single, etc"
(.-+1(.(0+* some, any, much, few, e%ery, etc"
-+%o.s0r&0(6+* this, that, the, a an!, such
The demonstrative ad!ectives 0*+ and & ?&.@ are so important in English that they
have a special name* &r0()'+s" They are discussed separately $elow"
Articles
The words &, &., and 0*+ are generally called &r0()'+s and sometimes classed as a
separate part of speech" #n function, however, they can $e grouped with the
demonstrative ad!ectives that are used to point things out rather than descri$e them"
D+1(.(0+ Ar0()'+
T*+ is called the definite &r0()'+ $ecause it points out a particular o$!ect or class"
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This is the book # was talking about.
The dodo bird is e&tinct.
I.-+1(.(0+ Ar0()'+
A is called the (.-+1(.(0+ &r0()'+ $ecause it points out an o$!ect, $ut not any
particular specimen"
a book, a dog, a lawn mower
The indefinite article has two forms*
A is used $efore words $eginning with a consonant sound or an aspirated h*
a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel
A. is used $efore words $eginning with a vowel sound*
an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man
#erbs
English has three kinds of :er$s* transitive, intransitive, and incomplete"
# Tr&.s(0(6+ V+r4s
% ver$ is 0r&.s(0(6+ when the action is carried &)ross to a receiver*
The farmer grows potatoes. )l%is sang ballads.
The receiver is called the direct o$!ect" #t answers the question B(hatHF or B(homH
after the ver$" 4rows whatH +otatoes" 3ang whatH ,allads"
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2 I.0r&.s(0(6+ V+r4s
% ver$ is (.0r&.s(0(6+ when the action stays with the ver$" #t is not carried across to a
receiver*
-orn grows. )l%is sang.
%dding a prepositional phrase to modify the ver$ does not change the fact that the
action remains with the su$!ect*
-orn grows in the fields. )l%is sang all o%er the world.
1oth transitive and intransitive ver$s are &)0(o. 6+r4s"
" I.)o%2'+0+ V+r4s
There are three types of incomplete ver$s*
i" 4+(./ 6+r4s J also called linking or copulative ver$s
to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel
T(2* 3ome of these ver$s can also $e used transitively" #f in dou$t, su$stitute a form
of to $e for the ver$" #f the sentence still makes sense, the ver$ is $eing used as a
copulative ver$*
.e feels depressed. .e is depressed.
.e feels the wall. .e is the wall.
(( &u9('(&r; 6+r4s J also called helping ver$s
be, ha%e, shall, will, do, and may"
.e could ha%e gone earlier.
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((( s+%(7&u9('(&r; 6+r4s
must, can, ought, dare, need"
You must not go. You dare not go.
#erbs #oice
English ver$s are said to have two voices* active and passive"
A)0(6+ Vo()+* the su$!ect of the sentence performs the action*
.is son catches fly balls. -reati%e children often dream in class.
No0+* :er$s in the active voice may $e either transitive or intransitive"
P&ss(6+ Vo()+* the su$!ect receives the action*
The ball was caught by the first baseman.
The duty is performed by the new recruits.
The dough was beaten by the mi&er.
The mailman was bitten by the dog.
-nly transitive ver$s can $e used in the passive voice" (hat would $e the direct
o$!ect of the ver$ in the active voice $ecomes the su$!ect of the ver$ in the passive
voice*
%ctive voice* The dog bit the mailman" B$itF is a transitive ver$" The receiver/direct
o$!ect is Bmailman"F
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,assive voice* The mailman was bitten by the dog" B$itF is now in the passive voice"
The BreceiverF has $ecome the su$!ect of the ver$"
% passive ver$ in either present or past tense will always have two parts* some form
of the ver$ to be ?am, is, are, was, were@, and a past participle ?ver$ form ending in
-ed, -en, or any form used with have when forming a perfect tense@"
No0+* The mere presence of the ver$ to be does not indicate that a ver$ is in the
passive voice" The test of a ver$ in the passive voice is the two-part question*
#s the su$!ect performing the action of the ver$ or is the su$!ect receiving the action
of the ver$H
#f the su$!ect is receiving the action, then the ver$ is in passive voice"
3ometimes the passive voice is the $est way to e'press a thought" )sed carelessly,
however, passive voice can produce a ponderous, ine'act writing style"
#erbs $ood
English ver$s have four moods* indicative, imperative, su$!unctive, and infinitive"
<ood is the form of the ver$ that shows the mode or manner in which a thought is
e'pressed"
+" I.-()&0(6+ Moo-* e'presses an assertion, denial, or question*
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/ittle Rock is the capital of Arkansas.
0striches cannot fly.
.a%e you finished your homework(
." I%2+r&0(6+ Moo-* e'presses command, prohi$ition, entreaty, or advice*
1ont smoke in this building.
,e careful2
1ont drown that puppy2
/" Su45u.)0(6+ Moo-* e'presses dou$t or something contrary to fact"
<odern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of
Bmi'ed su$!unctiveF that makes use of helping ver$s*
#f # should see him, # will tell him.
%mericans are more likely to say*
#f # see him, # will tell him.
The ver$ may can $e used to e'press a wish*
"ay you ha%e many more birthdays.
"ay you li%e long and prosper.
The ver$ were can also indicate the use of the su$!unctive*
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#f # were you, # wouldnt keep dri%ing on those tires.
#f he were go%ernor, wed be in better fiscal shape.
0" I.1(.(0(6+ Moo-* e'presses an action or state without reference to any su$!ect" #t
can $e the source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks the
infinitive form is a fully-functioning ver$"
(hen we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the $asic form of the ver$
with BtoF in front of it* to go, to sing, to walk, to speak.
:er$s said to $e in the infinitive mood can include participle forms ending in -ed and
-ing" :er$s in the infinitive mood are not $eing used as ver$s, $ut as other parts of
speech*
To err is human3 to forgi%e, di%ine" Dere, to err and to forgi%e are used as nouns"
De is a man to be admired" Dere, to be admired is an ad!ective, the equivalent of
admirable" #t descri$es the noun man"
.e came to see you" Dere, to see you is used as an adver$ to tell why he came"
#erbs !ense
<odern English has si' tenses, each of which has a corresponding continuous
tense"
The first three tenses, 2r+s+.0, 2&s0, and 1u0ur+, present few pro$lems" -nly third
person singular in the present tense differs in form*
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,resent tense of regular ?weak@ ver$s*
Today # walk. Today he walks.
Yesterday # walked.
Tomorrow # shall4will walk.
The dwindling class of irregular ?strong@ ver$s must $e learned individually"
Today # go. Today he goes.
Yesterday # went.
Tomorrow # shall4will go.
The other three tenses, 2+r1+)0, 2'u2+r1+)0, and 1u0ur+ 2+r1+)0, are formed with the
helping ver$s ha%e, has, and had"
2+r1+)0* used to e'press an event that has !ust finished, and to descri$e an event
which, although in the past, has effects that continue into the present"
5ueen )li6abeth has reigned for 78 years"
2'u2+r1+)0 ?past perfect@* used to e'press an event that took place $efore another
action, also in the past"
# had dri%en all the way to 0klahoma when # reali6ed my mistake.
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1u0ur+ 2+r1+)0* used to e'press an event that will have taken place at some time in
the future"
As of *ebruary 98, # shall ha%e been in this :ob si& years.
7or complete con!ugation ta$les of weak and strong English ver$s, see the
(ikipedia article"
Adverbs
%dver$s are used to -+s)r(4+ or %o-(1; a ver$, ad!ective, clause, or another
adver$" 1asically, they modify everything e'cept nouns and pronouns ?which are
modified $y ad!ectives@"
E'ample of an adver$ modifying a ver$* .e was running fast" ?fast modifies running@
E'ample of an adver$ modifying an ad!ective* She took a %ery small piece of the
cake. ?%ery modifies small@
E'ample of an adver$ modifying a sentence* Strangely, the man left the room.
?strangely modifies the whole sentence@
)sually adver$s answer to the questions B>*+.?F ?adver$s of time@, B>*+r+?F
?adver$s of place@, and BHo<?F ?adver$s of manner@"
%dver$s can also $e used to connect clauses and sentences ?in this case they are
called )o.5u.)0(6+ &-6+r4s@"
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7or e'ample* #t was dark. Therefore, we needed the torch" ?therefore connects the
two sentences@
Prepositions
,repositions are used to '(.@ .ou.s &.- 2ro.ou.s to other words within a
sentence" The words linked to are called o45+)0s"
)sually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship $etween the noun and
the o$!ect, like in the e'ample $elow*
The cat is under the table.
-at is the noun" $nder is the preposition" Table is the o$!ect"
Dere is a list with the most common prepositions* about, abo%e, after, among,
around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in, into,
like, near, of, off, on, out, o%er, through, to, up, upon, under, and with"
=otice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is formed $y the
preposition and its o$!ect" % preposition phrase can function as adver$, ad!ective or
noun" 7or e'ample*
The dog was running under the rain.
The prepositional phrase Bunder the rainF acts as an adver$, specifying where the
dog was running"
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Conjunctions
% )o.5u.)0(o. !oins words and groups of words"
There are two classes of con!unction* )o7or-(.&0+ or )oor-(.&0(./ and
su4or-(.&0+ or su4or-(.&0(./"
Co7or-(.&0+ )o.5u.)0(o.s* and, but, eitheror, neithernor"
Su4or-(.&0+ )o.5u.)0(o.s* that, as, after, before, since, when, where, unless, if"
"other and *ather are dri%ing me to ;ew 0rleans" ?&.- is a coordinate con!unction
!oining words of equal significance in the sentence"
# painted the walls but <ack painted the woodwork. ?4u0 is a coordinate con!unction
!oining clauses of equal significance in the sentence" Either clause could stand alone
as a sentence"@
Since you cant get away, well go without you.
?S(.)+ is a su$ordinate con!unction !oining a less important thought to a more
important thought" The main clause, well go without you, can stand alone as a
complete thought" The su$ordinate clause, Since you cant get away, is an
incomplete thought" #t is dependent upon the main clause for meaning"@
No0+* The relative pronouns who, whom, which, and that are used in the same way
that su$ordinate con!unctions are" The difference is that the relative pronouns serve
three purposes at once*
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+@ they stand for a noun in the main clause
.@ they connect the clauses
/@ they serve as a su$!ect or o$!ect word in the su$ordinate clause*
.e is the man who in%ented the hula hoop. ?<*o stands for man and is the su$!ect
of in%ented@
-harles is the boy whom the other children tease" ?<*o% stands for boy and is the
o$!ect of tease@
=i%e me the piece of string that is wa&ed. ?0*&0 stands for string and is the su$!ect of
is wa&ed@
There goes the horse which won the 1erby" ?<*()* refers to horse and is the su$!ect
of won@
The possessive ad!ective <*os+ can also $e used to !oin clauses*
Thats the bird whose plumage # admire. ?<*os+ refers to bird and descri$es
plumage@
%nterjections
#nter!ection comes from from a Latin word that means Bthrow $etween"F #tCs a word or
phrase that is thrown into a sentence to e'press an emotion*
&oodness, how you%e grown2
'arn, # forgot my lunch2
Alas, will he ne%er return(
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%ll the impolite e'pressions that we call e'pletives are inter!ections"
3trictly speaking, an inter!ection is not a part of speech" #t serves no grammatical
function $ut is rather Ba noisy utterance like the cry of an animalF ?7"A" Raht&@"
#nter!ections e'press feeling or emotion, not thought and have $een called Bthe
misera$le refuge of the speechless"F
asic /rinciple4 ingular sub2ects need singular !erbs5 plural sub2ects need plural !erbs. *y
brot!er is a nutritionist. *y sisters are mathematicians.
(ee the section on Plurals for additional help with sub-ect1verb agreement.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, e!eryone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular and,
therefore, re8uire singular verbs.
E,e#*"/e ha# $"/e his "# he# h"2e4"#B:
S"2e5"$* ha# e,t he# 3%#se:
(ome indefinite pronouns B such as all, some B are singular or plural depending on what
they4re referring to. >Is the thing referred to countable or not$@ Be careful choosing a verb to
accompany such pronouns.
S"2e "C the 5ea$s are 2issi/:
S"2e "C the 4ate# i# "/e:
)n the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or pluralF
it often doesn4t matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb B unless something else in
the sentence determines its number. >/riters generally thin# of none as meaning not any and
will choose a plural verb, as in 9&one of the engines are wor#ing,9 but when something else
ma#es us regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in 9&one of the food is
fresh.9@
N"/e "C *"% $aim# #es3"/si5ilit* C"# this i/!i$e/t?
N"/e "C *"% $aim #es3"/si5ilit* C"# this i/!i$e/t?
N"/e "C the st%$e/ts ha/e done thei# h"2e4"#B: FI/ this last e1a23leA
the 4"#$ thei# 3#e!l%$es the %se "C the si/%la# ,e#5:
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(ome indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome %veryone and everybody
>listed above, also@ certainly $eel li#e more than one person and, therefore, students
are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular,
though. %ac! is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word >,ach of the
cars@, thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and re8uires a singular
verb.
E,e#*"/e ha# D/ishe$ his "# he# h"2e4"#B:
'ou would always say, 9,verybody is here.9 This means that the word is singular and nothing
will change that.
Ea!h "C the st%$e/ts i# #es3"/si5le C"# $"i/ his "# he# 4"#B i/ the li5#a#*:
.on4t let the word 9students9 confuse youF the sub-ect is each and each is always singular B
,ach is responsible.
;hrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase
introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word >mayor in this case@, but it
does not compound the sub-ects >as the word and would do@.
The 2a*"# as 4ell as his 5#"the#s i# "i/ t" 3#is"/:
The 2a*"# a/$ his 5#"the#s are "i/ t" Kail:
The pronouns neither and either are singular and re8uire singular verbs even though they
seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.
Neithe# "C the t4" t#aO! lihts i# 4"#Bi/:
8hi!h shi#t $" *"% 4a/t C"# Ch#ist2as?
Eithe# i# D/e 4ith 2e:
In informal writing, neither and either sometimes ta#e a plural verb when these pronouns are
followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with o$. This is particularly true of interrogative
constructions" 93ave either of you two clowns read the assignment$9 9Are either of you
ta#ing this seriously$9 Burchfield calls this 9a clash between notional and actual
agreement.9<
The con-unction or does not con-oin >as and does@" when nor or or is used the sub-ect closer
to the verb determines the number of the verb. /hether the sub-ect comes before or after the
verb doesn4t matterF the pro2imity determines the number.
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Eithe# 2* Cathe# "# 2* 5#"the#s are "i/ t" sell the h"%se:
Neithe# 2* 5#"the#s /"# 2* Cathe# i# "i/ t" sell the h"%se:
)re eithe# 2* 5#"the#s "# 2* Cathe# #es3"/si5le?
I# eithe# 2* Cathe# "# 2* 5#"the#s #es3"/si5le?
Because a sentence li#e 9&either my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house9 sounds
peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural sub-ect closer to the verb whenever that is
possible.
The words there and here are never sub-ects.
The#e are t4" #eas"/s P3l%#al s%5Ke!tQ C"# this:
The#e i# /" #eas"/ C"# this:
He#e are t4" a33les:
/ith these constructions >called e2pletive constructions@, the sub-ect follows the verb but still
determines the number of the verb.
Verbs in the present tense for third1person, singular sub-ects >he, she, it and anything those
words can stand for@ have s1endings. )ther verbs do not add s1endings.
He l",es a/$ she l",es a/$ the* l",eR a/$ : : : :
(ometimes modifiers will get betwen a sub-ect and its verb, but these modifiers must not
confuse the agreement between the sub-ect and its verb.
The mayorA 4h" has 5ee/ !"/,i!te$ al"/ 4ith his C"%# 5#"the#s
"/ C"%# !"%/ts "C ,a#i"%s !#i2es 5%t 4h" als" see2sA liBe a !atA
t" ha,e se,e#al 3"liti!al li,esA i# D/all* "i/ t" Kail:
(ometimes nouns ta#e weird forms and can fool us into thin#ing they4re plural when they4re
really singular and vice1versa. 7onsult the section on the Plural $or"s of Nouns and the
section on 8ollective Nouns for additional help. /ords such as glasses, pants, pliers, and
scissors are regarded as plural >and re8uire plural verbs@ unless they4re preceded the phrase
pair o$ >in which case the word pair becomes the sub-ect@.
M* lasses 1ere "/ the 5e$:
M* 3a/ts 1ere t"#/:
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A 3ai# "C 3lai$ t#"%se#s i# i/ the !l"set:
(ome words end in )s and appear to be plural but are really singular and re8uire singular
verbs.
The /e4s C#"2 the C#"/t i# 5a$:
Measles i# a $a/e#"%s $isease C"# 3#e/a/t 4"2e/:
)n the other hand, some words ending in )s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural
and re8uire a plural verb.
M* assets 1ere 4i3e$ "%t i/ the $e3#essi"/:
The a,e#ae 4"#Be#Es ea#/i/s ha/e "/e %3 $#a2ati!all*:
O%# tha/Bs !o t" the 4"#Be#s 4h" s%33"#te$ the %/i"/:
The names of sports teams that do not end in 9s9 will ta#e a plural verb" the *iami 3eat have
been loo#ing C , The 7onnecticut (un are hoping that new talent C . (ee the section on
plurals for help with this problem.
6ractional e2pressions such as hal$ o$, a part o$, a percentage o$, a ma2ority o$ are sometimes
singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. >The same is true, of course, when
all, any, more, most and some act as sub-ects.@ (ums and products of mathematical processes
are e2pressed as singular and re8uire singular verbs. The e2pression 9more than one9 >oddly
enough@ ta#es a singular verb" 9*ore than one student has tried this.9
S"2e "C the ,"te#s are still a/#*:
A la#e 3e#!e/tae "C the "l$e# 3"3%lati"/ i# ,"ti/ aai/st he#:
T4"IDCths "C the t#""3s 1ere l"st i/ the 5attle:
T4"IDCths "C the ,i/e*a#$ 1a# $est#"*e$ 5* D#e:
F"#t* 3e#!e/t "C the st%$e/ts are i/ Ca,"# "C !ha/i/ the 3"li!*:
F"#t* 3e#!e/t "C the st%$e/t 5"$* i# i/ Ca,"# "C !ha/i/ the 3"li!*:
T4" a/$ t4" i# C"%#:
F"%# ti2es C"%# $i,i$e$ 5* t4" i# eiht:
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If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative sub-ect and one is plural, the other
singular, the verb should agree with the positive sub-ect.
The $e3a#t2e/t 2e25e#s 5%t /"t the !hai# ha/e de$ided /"t t"
tea!h "/ Vale/ti/eEs Da*:
It is /"t the Ca!%lt* 2e25e#s 5%t the 3#esi$e/t 4h" de$ide# this iss%e:
It 4as the s3eaBe#A /"t his i$easA that ha# +ro/o3ed the st%$e/ts t" #i"t:
1.8. Us+ )orr+)0 6+r470(%+'(.+
Sim+e Ten#e#:
(imple tenses are used whenever we are tal#ing about a point in time.
&a#t Sim+e
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that ha33e/e$ at
a 3"i/t i/ ti2e i/ the 3ast:
e:: I I ate 5#eaBCast this 2"#/i/:
&re#ent Sim+e
Use 4he/ 2aBi/ a e/e#al
state2e/t "C t#%th at the 3#ese/t
3"i/t i/ ti2e:
e:: I I eat 5#eaBCast e,e#* $a*:
(uture Sim+e
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that 4ill ha33e/
at a 3"i/t i/ ti2e i/ the C%t%#e:
e:: I I
Continuou# Ten#e#:
7ontinuous tenses are used whenever we are tal#ing about a length o$ time.
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&a#t Continuou#
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that 4as
ha33e/i/ C"# a le/th "C ti2e i/
the 3ast 4he/ a/"the# a!ti"/
ha33e/e$ i/ the 2i$$le "C it:
e:: I I 1a# eatin! 5#eaBCast 4he/
2* 5#"the# a##i,e$:
&re#ent Continuou#
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that is ha33e/i/
/"4:
e:: I Riht /"4A I am eatin!
5#eaBCast:
(uture Continuou#
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that 4ill 5e
the C%t%#e:
e:: I I
C#"2 =9>> t" =9->:
&er,e$t Ten#e#:
;erfect tenses are used whenever we are tal#ing about a point in time be$ore another point in
time.
&a#t &er,e$t
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that ha33e/e$ i/
the 3ast 5eC"#e a/"the# a!ti"/:
e:: I I had al#ea$* eaten
5#eaBCast 4he/ 2* 5#"the# a##i,e$:
&re#ent &er,e$t
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that ha33e/e$ i/
the 3ast 5eC"#e the 3#ese/t
2"2e/t:
e:: I I ha/e al#ea$* eaten
5#eaBCast:
(uture &er,e$t
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that 4ill ha33e/
i/ the C%t%#e 5eC"#e a/"the# a!ti"/:
e:: I I
5#eaBCast 5* the ti2e 2* 5#"the#s
a##i,es:
&er,e$t Continuou# Ten#e#:
;erfect continuous tenses are used whenever we are tal#ing about a length o$ time up to a
point in time.
&a#t &er,e$t Continuou#
the 3ast %3 t" the 2"2e/t 4he/
a/"the# a!ti"/ ha33e/e$:
&re#ent &er,e$t Continuou#
ha33e/i/ C"# a le/th "C ti2e %3
t" the 3#ese/t 2"2e/t:
(uture &er,e$t Continuou#
Use C"# a/ a!ti"/ that 4ill 5e
ha33e/i/ i/ the C%t%#e C"# a le/th
"C ti2e %3 t" the 2"2e/t 4he/
a/"the# a!ti"/ 4ill ha33e/:
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e:: I I had 0een eatin! 5#eaBCast
C"# -> 2i/%tes 4he/ 2* 5#"the#
a##i,e$:
e:: I I ha/e 0een eatin! 2*
5#eaBCast C"# -> 2i/%tes:
e:: I I
5#eaBCast C"# -> 2i/%tes 5* the
ti2e *"% a##i,e:
()ample* !he student attends to his subject
VERB FORM PAST 'O> ./T/0E
Simple
'ttended attends 1ill attend
Continuous/progressive
1as
attending
is attending 1ill be
attending
Perfect
had attended 2as attending 1ill have
attended
Perfect
continuous/
Progressive
had been
attending
2as been
attending
1ill have
been
attending
Sentence:
Below are verbs for you. Translate the following verbs using the table above:
1. ate
2.sing
3. gave
4. swim
5. write
6. participate
7. report
8. speak
9. come
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10. go
11. say
12. tell
Ass+ss%+.0
Gr&%%&r Po(.0
P!rasal Verbs
%ary thin#s that he could maybe dun# a bas#etball if he 'ut a pair of Air Jordans on.
3e uses a '!rasal verb.;hrasal verbs are composed of a verb D a 're'osition or adverb that
changes the original meaning of the verb.
6or instance, a lot of phrasal verbs ta#e the preposition Gout.H ,2amples include
brea# out Iget away fro"J* hand out Igive to 'eo'leJ* and* of course* ma#e out I2iss a lotJ.
(ome phrasal verbs are non)separable, meaning the preposition must directly $ollow the verb.
6or instance, you can say GI dropped by the bar,H but not GI dropped the bar byH because drop
by is non1separable.
)n the other hand, drop off is separable. 'ou can say, GI have to drop off my son at
school,H or, GI have to drop my son off at school.H %ary could say he wants to 'ut on a pair
of Air Jordans or that he wants to 'ut a pair of Air Jordans on.
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/hich sentence uses a phrasal verb, GI want to #ic# off this school year the right
way,H or, GI want to start this school year the right wayH
Qu(A
E. /hat are Air Jordans supposed to help people do$
o D%/B:
o J%23 hihe#:
o 8i/ a2es:
o L""B !""l:
I. /ho can dun# a bas#etball$
o Ga#*:
o RaCael:
o B"th:
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o Neithe#:
J. /hen people thin# of a word beginning with the letter KA, the word Kapple usually
LL.
o #eCe#e/!e$
o #eti#e$
o Bee3s %3
o !"2es t" 2i/$
M. /hich is not a phrasal verb$
o s3lit %3
o 3ass "/
o s4i2 a#"%/$
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1.9.E'+%+.0s o1 )o%%u.()&0(o.
F(6+ +'+%+.0s o1 +11+)0(6+ )o%%u.()&0(o.:
A )*+)@'(s0
# APPROACH
Timing of communication; choice of medium; tone and point of view
?perspective, attitude, and relationship regarding audience,
purpose, and material@; recognition of audience ?reader vs" writer
orientation@; direct vs" indirect presentation ?ordering of evidence
and conclusions@; persuasive strategies and rhetorical appeals
?logos, pathos, ethos@
-heckpoints>
KTiming and choice of medium are appropriate to the purpose,
audience, and material"
KTone is appropriate to the purpose, audience, and material"
K<aterial is made relevant to the reader ?readerCs interests and
concerns are recogni&ed@"
Konclusions are presented directly ?conclusion first, evidence last@
to a sympathetic audience, indirectly ?evidence first, conclusion
last@ to an unsympathetic or hostile audience"
K,ersuasive strategy incorporates a mi'ture of rhetorical
approaches ?appeals to logic, feelings, and ethics or credi$ility@"
2 DEVELOPMENT
-rgani&ation ?logical arrangement and sequence@; evidence and
support ?relevance, specificity, accuracy and sufficiency of detail@;
knowledge of su$!ect and material; quality of perception, analysis,
and insight
-heckpoints>
K<aterial is arranged in a logical and coherent sequence"
Konclusion or closing restates the argument and identifies the
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action to $e taken"
KE'amples are relevant, specific, detailed, sufficient, and
persuasive"
KLuotations support the argument"
KDandling of material demonstrates knowledge and insight"
" CLARITY
,resentation of thesis or central argument ?statement of purpose,
delineation or narrowing of topic, relevance of su$ordinate or
secondary arguments@; word choice; technical language and
!argon; structure ?sentence, paragraph, document@; coherence
devices ?organi&ational statement, repetition of words and phrases,
progression from familiar to unfamiliar, topic and transitional
sentences@; te'tual markers ?headings, highlighting, formatting
features@
-heckpoints>
K,urpose or central idea is sufficiently limited for meaningful
discussion"
K,urpose or central idea is stated clearly, usually in the opening"
K-rgani&ational statement is offered, usually at the end of the
opening"
K3u$ordinate ideas are effectively identified and related clearly to
the main purpose or central idea"
KLanguage is clear, specific, accurate, and appropriate to the
audience, purpose, and material"
K(ord choice is clear, specific, accurate, unassuming, and free of
clichMs and misused !argon"
KTechnical language and terms are defined and e'plained as
needed ?depending on knowledge of the audience@"
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K3entences are free of am$iguity"
KTe't is coherent, with new information linked to previously
discussed information ?ordered within sentences as Bsomething
old/something newF@"
KTransitions $etween paragraphs are clear and helpful"
KTe't is appropriately highlighted ?$ullets, paragraphing, $oldface,
italics, underlining, etc"@ to engage the reader and reinforce the
main points"
4 STYLE
(ord choice ?economy, precision, and specificity of language and
detail; a$stract vs" concrete language; action ver$s vs" linking or
weak ver$s with nominali&ations; figures of speech* schemes and
tropes@; tone ?personality and humor@; active vs" passive voice;
sentence variety
-heckpoints>
K(ord choice is economical, clear, specific, accurate, unassuming,
and free of clichMs and misused !argon"
K%ction ver$s are preferred over weak ver$s with nominali&ations
?as in recommend over make a recommendation@"
KLanguage is appropriately concrete or a$stract ?signifying or not
signifying things that can $e perceived $y the senses@"
K7igurative language ?metaphors and similes, as well as other
tropes and schemes@ enrich and deepen the argument"
K%ctive voice is preferred over passive voice ?active voice is used
to emphasi&e the performer of the action; passive voice is used to
emphasi&e the receiver of the action@"
K3entences are free of wordiness and unnecessarily comple'
constructions"
K:ariety in sentence structure and sentence length creates
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emphasis"
K%uthorCs values, personality and J when appropriate J humor are
conveyed in a way that reinforces the message"
B CORRECTNESS
Rules and conventions of spelling, grammar, punctuation, usage,
and idiom; style ?appropriateness of word choice and level of
formality to audience, purpose, and material@; social and cultural
appropriateness; accuracy in proofreading
-heckpoints>
K3pelling ?including technical terms and proper names@ is correct"
Korrect words are used to convey the intended meaning"
KRules of grammar and synta' are followed, including pronoun-
noun agreement, su$!ect-ver$ agreement, appropriate ver$ tense,
pronoun case, possessive forms, parallel construction, etc"
K,unctuation ?particularly comma placement@ reflects standard
usage"
Kopy is free of mechanical errors and lapses in proofreading"
1.10.Co%%u.()&0(o. %o-+'s
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MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
In this section, you will learn about three models of communication"
a: Li/ea# 2"$el
5: I/te#a!ti,e 2"$el
!: T#a/sa!ti"/al 2"$el
#2# L(.+&r Mo-+'
The li/ea# 2"$el ,ie4s !"22%/i!ati"/ as a "/eI4a* "# li/ea# 3#"!ess i/ 4hi!h
the s3eaBe# s3eaBs a/$ the liste/e# liste/s: Las4ellHs F&=+'G 2"$el 4as 5ase$ "/
the D,e .%esti"/s 5el"4A 4hi!h eMe!ti,el* $es!#i5e h"4 !"22%/i!ati"/ 4"#Bs9
(hannon and /eavers >ENMN@ model includes noise or interference that distorts understanding
between the spea#er and the listener. 6igure E.J shows a linear model of communication"
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$igure :.+" A linear model of communication
Source" /ood, J. T. >IOON@. Communication in our li!es >Mth ed.@. Belmont, 7A" Thomson1
/adsworth
Top
#22 I.0+r&)0(6+ Mo-+'
The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one1way process where
spea#ers only spea# and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never spea# or send
messages.
(chramm >EN00@ in /ood >IOON@ came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or
listener providing feedbac# to the sender or spea#er. The spea#er or sender of the message also listens
to the feedbac# given by the receiver or listener. Both the spea#er and the listener ta#e turns to spea#
and listen to each other. 6eedbac# is given either verbally or non1verbally, or in both ways.
This model also indicates that the spea#er and listener communicate better if they have common fields
of e2perience, or fields which overlap >please refer to 6igure E.M@"
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$igure :.." An interactive model of communication
/adsworth
Top
#2" Tr&.s&)0(o.&' Mo-+'
The main drawbac# in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both
send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is a
dynamic process which changes over time.
The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. ,ach person
in the communication act is both a spea#er and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and
receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model"
i: STran#a$tionaT 2ea/s that !"22%/i!ati"/ is a/ "/"i/ a/$
!"/ti/%"%sl* !ha/i/ 3#"!ess: Y"% a#e !ha/i/A the 3e"3le 4ith 4h"2
*"% a#e!"22%/i!ati/a#e !ha/i/A a/$ *"%# e/,i#"/2e/t is als"
!"/ti/%all* !ha/i/ as 4ell:
ii: I/ a/* t#a/sa!ti"/al 3#"!essA ea!h ele2e/t e1ists i/ #elati"/ t" all the
"the# ele2e/ts: The#e is this i/te#$e3e/$e/!e 4he#e the#e !a/ 5e /"
s"%#!e 4ith"%t a #e!ei,e# a/$ /" 2essae 4ith"%t a s"%#!e:
iii: Ea!h 3e#s"/ i/ the !"22%/i!ati"/ 3#"!ess #ea!ts $e3e/$i/ "/ Ca!t"#s
s%!h as thei# 5a!B#"%/$A 3#i"# e13e#ie/!esA attit%$esA !%lt%#al 5elieCs a/$
selCIestee2:
6igure E.0 shows a transactional model of communication that ta#es into account GnoiseH or
interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that
communication happens within systems that both communicators share >e.g., a common campus,
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hometown, and culture@ or personal systems >e.g., family, religion, friends, etc@. It also ta#es into
account changes that happen in the communicators fields of personal and common e2periences. The
model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver simultaneously.

$igure :.5" A transactional model of communication
/adsworth.
1.11.For%s o1 )o%%u.()&0(o.
7ommunication involves the imparting or interchanging thoughts, opinions, or information among
people by speech, writing, or signs. ;eople communicate in different ways. 3ow effective is your
communication style$ Are you giving away thoughts you don4t mean to$
Ver0a
Verbal communication entails the use of words in delivering the intended message. The two ma-or
forms of verbal communication include written and oral communication.
9ritten co""unication includes traditional pen and paper letters and documents, typed electronic
documents, e1mails, te2t chats, (*( and anything else conveyed through written symbols such as
language. This type of communication is indispensable for formal business communications and
issuing legal instructions. 7ommunication forms that predominantly use written communication
include handboo#s, brochures, contracts, memos, press releases, formal business proposals, and the
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li#e. The effectiveness of written communication depends on the writing style, grammar, vocabulary,
and clarity.
Ora Communi$ation
The other form of verbal communication is the spo#en word, either face1to1face, or through phone,
voice chat, video conferencing or any other medium. Various forms of informal communications such
as the grapevine or informal rumor mill, and formal communications such as lectures, conferences are
forms of oral communication. )ral communication finds use in discussions and causal and informal
conversations. The effectiveness of oral conversations depends on the clarity of speech, voice
modulation, pitch, volume, speed, and even non1verbal communications such as body language and
visual cues.
Verbal communication ma#es the process of communication easier and faster, and remains the most
successful form of communication. 'et this ma#es up only seven percent of all human
communication
'on/er0a Communi$ation
&on verbal communication entails communicating by sending and receiving wordless messages. They
usually reinforce verbal communication, though it can also stand alone and convey messages on its
own.
P!ysical non verbal co""unication* or body language, includes facial e2pressions, eye contact,
body posture, gestures such as a wave, pointed finger and the li#e, overall body movements, tone of
voice, touch, and others. 6acial e2pressions are the most common among all nonverbal
communication. 6or instance, a smile or a frown conveys distinct emotions hard to e2press through
verbal communication. !esearch estimates that body language, including facial e2pressions, account
for 00 percent of all communication.
&araan!ua!e
The way something is said, rather than what is actually said, is an important component of non verbal
communication. It includes voice 8uality, intonation, pitch, stress, emotion, tone, and style of
spea#ing, and communicates approval, interest or the lac# of it. !esearch estimates that tone of the
voice accounts for JP percent of all communications.
)ther forms of non1verbal communication usually communicate ones personality. These include"
o )e#theti$ $ommuni$ation "# !#eati,e e13#essi"/s s%!h as
$a/!i/A 3ai/ti/A a/$ the liBe
o )++earan$e "# the st*le "C $#essi/A !"25i/ hai# a/$ the liBe
4hi!h !"22%/i!ates "C "/eHs 3e#s"/alit*
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o S+a$e an!ua!e s%!h as 3ai/ti/sA la/$s!a3es a/$ "the#s
!"22%/i!ate s"!ial stat%s a/$ taste
o Sym0o# s%!h as #elii"%sA stat%sA "# e"I5%il$i/ s*25"ls
Vi#ua Communi$ation
A third type of communication is visual communication through visual aids such as signs, typography,
drawing, graphic design, illustration, color and other electronic resources.
Visual communication such as graphs and charts usually reinforce written communication, and can in
many case replace written communication altogether. As the adage goes Ga picture is worth a thousand
wordsHF such visual communication is more powerful than verbal and non verbal communication on
many occasion.
1.12. !&rr(+rs o1 Co%%u.()&0(o.
The Seven 3arriers of 4ommunication
O/ && Ja/A 6>&- B* Ch#is S2ith
*ost people would agree that communication between two individuals should be simple. Its
important to remember that there are differences between tal#ing and communicating. /hen
you communicate, you are successful in getting your point across to the person youre tal#ing
to. /hen we tal#, we tend to erect barriers that hinder our ability to communicate. There are
seven of these types of barriers to effective communication.
:. P!ysical barriers are easy to spot A doors that are closed, walls that are erected, and
distance between people all wor# against the goal of effective communication. /hile most
agree that people need their own personal areas in the wor#place, setting up an office to
remove physical barriers is the first step towards opening communication. *any
professionals who wor# in industries that thrive on collaborative communication, such as
architecture, purposefully design their wor#spaces around an Gopen officeH plan. This layout
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eschews cubicles in favor of des#s grouped around a central meeting space. /hile each
individual has their own dedicated wor# space, there are no visible barriers to prevent
collaboration with their co1wor#ers. This encourages greater openness and fre8uently creates
closer wor#ing bonds.
G. Perce'tual barriers, in contrast, are internal. If you go into a situation thin#ing that the
person you are tal#ing to isnt going to understand or be interested in what you have to say,
you may end up subconsciously sabotaging your effort to ma#e your point. 'ou will employ
language that is sarcastic, dismissive, or even obtuse, thereby alienating your conversational
partner. Thin# of movie scenarios in which someone yells clipped phrases at a person they
believe is deaf. The person yelling ends up loo#ing ridiculous while failing to communicate
anything of substance.
+. %"otional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important to put aside to engage in
conversations. /e are often taught to fear the words coming out of our own mouths, as in the
phrase Ganything you say can and will be used against you.H )vercoming this fear is difficult,
but necessary. The tric# is to have full confidence in what you are saying and your
8ualifications in saying it. ;eople often pic# up on insecurity. By believing in yourself and
what you have to say, you will be able to communicate clearly without becoming overly
involved in your emotions.
.. 8ultural barriers are a result of living in an ever shrin#ing world. .ifferent
cultures, whether they be a societal culture of a race or simply the wor# culture of a
company, can hinder developed communication if two different cultures clash. In
these cases, it is important to find a common ground to wor# from. In wor# situations,
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identifying a problem and coming up with a highly efficient way to solve it can
8uic#ly topple any cultural or institutional barriers. Quite simply, people li#e results.
5. 3anguage barriers seem pretty self1inherent, but there are often hidden language barriers
that we arent always aware of. If you wor# in an industry that is heavy in -argon or technical
language, care should be ta#en to avoid these words when spea#ing with someone from
outside the industry. /ithout being patroni+ing, imagine e2plaining a situation in your
industry to a child. 3ow would you convey these concepts without relying on -argon$ A clear,
direct narrative is preferable to an incomprehensible slew of specialty terms.
4. 7ender barriers have become less of an issue in recent years, but there is still the
possibility for a man to misconstrue the words of a woman, or vice versa. *en and women
tend to form their thoughts differently, and this must be ta#en into account when
communicating. This difference has to do with how the brain of each se2 is formed during
gestation. In general, men are better at spatial visuali+ation and abstract concepts such as
math, while women e2cel at language1based thin#ing and emotional identification. 3owever,
successful professionals in highly competitive fields tend to have similar thought processes
regardless of their gender.
5. /nter'ersonal barriers are what ultimately #eep us from reaching out to each other and
opening ourselves up, not -ust to be heard, but to hear others. )ddly enough, this can be the
most difficult area to change. (ome people spend their entire lives attempting to overcome a
poor self1image or a series of deeply rooted pre-udices about their place in the world. They
are unable to form genuine connections with people because they have too many false
perceptions bloc#ing the way. ?uc#ily, the cure for this is more communication. By engaging
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with others, we learn what our actual strengths and wea#nesses are. This allows us to put
forth our ideas in a clear, straightforward manner.
7ommunication is not a one1way street. To have others open up to you, you must be open
yourself. By overcoming these barriers to communication, you can ensure that the statement
you are ma#ing is not -ust heard, but also understood, by the person you are spea#ing with. In
this way, you can be confident that your point has been e2pressed.
LO2 COMMUNICATE AND LISTEN ACTIVELY
%33E33<E=T R#TER#%*
+" #nformation are obtained and con%eyed in accordance with accepted
conventions"
." :er$al and other types of communication are distinguished"
/" %ctive listening techniques to enhance the message reception are used"
0" orrect vocal techniques to enhance the transmission of message are
used"
2" The rate, pitch, volume and tone of voice are ad!usted according to
conte't and meaning"""
6" ,roper vocal dynamic is applied when speaking over the phone"
8" 3tandard %merican accent is applied when speaking English"
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9" :er$al communication is translated into written or electronics
communication accurately and efficiently"
-=TE=T3*
?. Sub:ect@%erb agreement
9. Aerb tenses and aspect
B. The uses of preposition
0" 3entence sense achieving clarity,
2" modifiers
6" Element of speech
8" Types of stress
9" Essential of good pronunciation
E" 1lending, ,hrasing and #ntonation
+5" 4ood sentence construction
++" Effective e'pression
-=;#T#-=3* 3tudents /trainees must $e provided with the follow
+" Learning <odules and Dand outs
." computer with peripherals
/" internet su$scription
0" voice recorder
+(SS,N ,-.(C!%#( N,/0- $,'1+( ,F %NS!21C!%,N
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3/3 Subject-verb agreement
E. B#sic Ru$e. A singular sub-ect >she, 6ill, car@ ta#es a singular verb >is, goes,
shines@, whereas a plural sub-ect ta#es a plural verb.
Ex#p$e: The list o$ items is7are on the desk.
If you #now that list is the sub-ect, then you will choose is for the verb.
I. Ru$e 7. A sub-ect will come before a phrase beginning with o$. This is a #ey rule
for understanding sub-ects. The word o$ is the culprit in many, perhaps most,
sub-ect1verb mista#es.
3asty writers, spea#ers, readers, and listeners might miss the all1too1common
mista#e in the following sentence"
Incorrect: A bou8uet o$ yellow roses lend color and $ragrance to the room.
0orrect: A bou8uet o$ yellow roses lends . . . >bou8uet lends, not roses lend@
J. Ru$e 8. Two singular sub-ects connected by or, either7or, or neither7nor re8uire a
singular verb.
Ex#p$es:
"y aunt or my uncle is arri!ing by train today.
#either ,uan nor Carmen is a!ailable.
Either -iana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
M. Ru$e 9. The verb in an or, either7or, or neither7nor sentence agrees with the noun
or pronoun closest to it.
Ex#p$es:
#either the plates nor the ser!ing bowl goes on that shel$.
#either the ser!ing bowl nor the plates go on that shel$.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. 6or e2ample, if I is one of two >or more@
sub-ects, it could lead to this odd sentence"
A.%.#rd: #either she, my $riends, nor I am going to the $esti!al.
If possible, it4s best to reword such grammatically correct but aw#ward sentences.
Better:
#either she, I, nor my $riends are going to the $esti!al.
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OR
he, my $riends, and I are not going to the $esti!al.
0. Ru$e :. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more sub-ects when they
are connected by and.
Ex#p$e: A car and a bike are my means o$ transportation.
But note these e2ceptions"
Exceptions:
6reaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and break$ast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and break$ast are compound
nouns.
R. Ru$e ;. (ometimes the sub-ect is separated from the verb by such words as along
with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the
sub-ect. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the sub-ect is singular.
Ex#p$es:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as ner!ousness, is the cause o$ her shaking.
S. Ru$e <. /ith words that indicate portionsBpercent, a lot, ma2ority, some, all, etc.
B!ule E given earlier is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after o$. If the
noun after o$ is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Ex#p$e:
9i$ty percent o$ the pie has disappeared.
9i$ty percent o$ the pies ha!e disappeared.
A third o$ the cit" is unemployed.
A third o$ the peop$e are unemployed.
All o$ the pie is gone.
All o$ the pies are gone.
ome o$ the pie is missing.
ome o$ the pies are missing.
NO)%
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In recent years, the (AT testing service has considered none to be strictly
singular. 3owever, according to "erriam)%ebster:s .ictionary o$ English ;sage"
97learly none has been both singular and plural since )ld ,nglish and still is. The
notion that it is singular only is a myth of un#nown origin that appears to have
arisen in the ENth century. If in conte2t it seems li#e a singular to you, use a
singular verbF if it seems li#e a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable
beyond serious criticism.9 /hen none is clearly intended to mean 9not one,9 it is
followed by a singular verb.
P. Ru$e =. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true sub-ect follows the
verb.
Ex#p$es:
There are $our hurdles to 2ump.
There is a high hurdle to 2ump.
0ere are the keys.
NO)%#
The word there:s, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal
sentences li#e There:s a lot o$ people here today, because it4s easier to say
9there4s9 than 9there are.9 Ta#e care never to use there:s with a plural sub-ect.
N. Ru$e >. :se a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc.,
when considered as a unit.
Ex#p$es:
Three miles is too $ar to walk.
9i!e years is the maximum sentence $or that o$$ense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
=>)
Ten dollars <i.e., dollar bills) .ere scattered on the $loor.
EO. Ru$e ?. (ome collective nouns, such as $amily, couple, sta$$, audience, etc., may
ta#e either a singular or a plural verb, depending on their use in the sentence.
Ex#p$es:
The sta$$ is in a meeting.
ta$$ is acting as a unit.
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The couple disagree about disciplining their child.
The couple refers to two people who are acting as individuals.
NO)%
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must ta#e care to be
accurateBand also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the
sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days"
The sta$$ is deciding how they want to !ote.
7areful spea#ers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural
they to sta$$ in the same sentence.
0onsistent: The sta$$ #re deciding how t'e" want to !ote.
!ewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding
sentence would read even better as"
The sta$$ members are deciding how they want to !ote.
EE. Ru$e 7@. The word were replaces was in sentences that e2press a wish or are
contrary to fact"
Ex#p$e: I$ ,oe .ere here, you:d be sorry.
(houldn4t ,oe be followed by was, not were, given that ,oe is singular$ But Joe
isn4t actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the
subjunctive "ood, which is used to e2press things that are hypothetical, wishful,
imaginary, or factually contradictory. The sub-unctive mood pairs singular
sub-ects with what we usually thin# of as plural verbs.
Ex#p$es:
I wish it .ere 9riday.
he re8uested that he r#ise his hand.
In the first e2ample, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being e2pressedF therefore,
were, which we usually thin# of as a plural verb, is used with the singular sub-ect
I.
&ormally, he raise would sound terrible to us. 3owever, in the second e2ample,
where a re8uest is being e2pressed, the sub-unctive mood is correct.
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Note# The sub-unctive mood is losing ground in spo#en ,nglish but should still
be used in formal speech and writing.
9.?. Aerb tenses and aspect
!ense and Aspect
TE=3E refers to the a$solute location of an event or action in time, either the present or
the past" #t is marked $y an inflection of the ver$*
;avid walks to school ?present tense@
;avid walked to school ?past tense@
Reference to other times -- the future, for instance -- can $e made in a num$er of
ways, $y using the modal au'iliary will, or the semi-au'iliary be going to*
;avid will walk to school tomorrow
;avid is going to walk to school tomorrow"
3ince the e'pression of future time does not involve any inflecton of the ver$, we
do not refer to a Nfuture tenseN" 3trictly speaking, there are only two tenses in
English* present and past"
%3,ET refers to how an event or action is to $e viewed with respect to time,
rather than to its actual location in time" (e can illustrate this using the following
e'amples*
O+P ;avid fell in love on his eighteenth $irthday
O.P ;avid has fallen in love
O/P ;avid is falling in love
#n O+P, the ver$ fell tells us that ;avid fell in love in the past, and specifically on his
eighteenth $irthday" This is a simple past tense ver$"
#n O.P also, the action took place in the past, $ut it is implied that it took place
quite recently" 7urthermore, it is implied that is still relevant at the time of
speaking -- ;avid has fallen in love, and thatQs why heQs $ehaving strangely" #t is
worth noting that we cannot say R1a%id has fallen in lo%e on his eighteenth
birthday" The au'iliary has here encodes what is known as ,ER7ET#:E
%3,ET, and the au'iliary itself is known as the ,ER7ET#:E %)S#L#%R>"
#n O/P, the action of falling in love is still in progress -- ;avid is falling in love at the
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time of speaking" 7or this reason, we call it ,R-4RE33#:E %3,ET, and the
au'iliary is called the ,R-4RE33#:E %)S#L#%R>"
%spect always includes tense" #n O.P and O/P a$ove, the aspectual au'iliaries are
in the present tense, $ut they could also $e in the past tense*
;avid had fallen in love -- ,erfective %spect, ,ast Tense
;avid was falling in love -- ,rogressive %spect, ,ast Tense
The perfective au'iliary is always followed $y a main ver$ in the -ed form, while
the progressive au'iliary is followed $y a main ver$ in the -ing form" (e
e'emplify these points in the ta$le $elow*

P+r1+)0(6+ As2+)0 Pro/r+ss(6+ As2+)0
Pr+s+.0 T+.s+ has fallen is falling
P&s0 T+.s+ had fallen was falling

(hile aspect always includes tense, tense can occur without aspect ?;avid falls
in love, ;avid fell in love@
0/0/ !he uses of Preposition
;repositions are short words >on, in, to@ that usually stand in front of nouns >sometimes also
in front of gerund verbs@.
,ven advanced learners of ,nglish find prepositions difficult, as a E"E translation is usually
not possible. )ne preposition in your native language might have several translations
depending on the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is loo#ing them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in ,nglish >literature@ and
learning useful phrases off by heart >study tips@.
The following table contains rules for some of the most fre8uently used prepositions in
,nglish"
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Prepositions , Time
En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
"/ $a*s "C the 4eeB "/ M"/$a*
i/
2"/ths 0 seas"/s
ti2e "C $a*
*ea#
aCte# a !e#tai/ 3e#i"$ "C
ti2e (when?"
i/ A%%st 0 i/ 4i/te#
i/ the 2"#/i/
i/ 6>>7
i/ a/ h"%#
at
C"# ni/ht
C"# wee*en.
a !e#tai/ 3"i/t "C ti2e
(when?"
at /iht
at the 4eeBe/$
at halC 3ast /i/e
si/!e
C#"2 a !e#tai/ 3"i/t "C
ti2e F3ast till /"4G
si/!e &='>
C"#
",e# a !e#tai/ 3e#i"$ "C
ti2e F3ast till /"4G
C"# 6 *ea#s
a"
a !e#tai/ ti2e i/ the
3ast
6 *ea#s a"
5eC"#e
ea#lie# tha/ a !e#tai/
3"i/t "C ti2e
5eC"#e 6>>+
t" telli/ the ti2e te/ t" si1 F)9)>G
3ast telli/ the ti2e te/ 3ast si1 F79&>G
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En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
t" 0 till 0
%/til
2a#Bi/ the 5ei//i/
a/$ e/$ "C a 3e#i"$ "C
ti2e
C#"2 M"/$a* t"0till
F#i$a*
till 0
%/til
i/ the se/se "C how
#on/ somethin/ is /oin/
to #ast
He is "/ h"li$a* %/til
F#i$a*:
5*
i/ the se/se "C at the
#atest
%3 t" a !e#tai/ ti2e
I 4ill 5e 5a!B 5* 7
"H!l"!B:
B* && "E!l"!BA I ha$
#ea$ D,e 3aes:
Prepositions , Place 5Position and 6irection7
En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
i/
#""2A 5%il$i/A st#eetA
t"4/A !"%/t#*
5""BA 3a3e# et!:
!a#A ta1i
3i!t%#eA 4"#l$
i/ the Bit!he/A i/
L"/$"/
i/ the 5""B
i/ the !a#A i/ a ta1i
i/ the 3i!t%#eA i/ the
4"#l$
at
2ea/i/ ne9t to, by an
ob1ect
C"# tab#e
C"# e,e/ts
at the $""#A at the
stati"/
at the ta5le
at a !"/!e#tA at the
3a#t*
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En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
3la!e 4he#e *"% a#e t"
$" s"2ethi/ t*3i!al
F4at!h a Dl2A st%$*A
4"#BG
at the !i/e2aA at
s!h""lA at 4"#B
"/
atta!he$
C"# a 3la!e 4ith a #i,e#
5ei/ "/ a s%#Ca!e
C"# a !e#tai/ si$e FleCtA
#ihtG
C"# a U""# i/ a h"%se
C"# 3%5li! t#a/s3"#t
C"# te#evision, ra.io
the 3i!t%#e "/ the 4all
L"/$"/ lies "/ the
Tha2es:
"/ the ta5le
"/ the leCt
"/ the D#st U""#
"/ the 5%sA "/ a 3la/e
"/ TVA "/ the #a$i"
5*A /e1t
t"A
5esi$e
leCt "# #iht "C
s"2e5"$* "#
s"2ethi/
Ja/e is sta/$i/ 5* 0
/e1t t" 0 5esi$e the !a#:
%/$e#
"/ the #"%/$A l"4e#
tha/ F"# !",e#e$ 5*G
s"2ethi/ else
the 5a is %/$e# the
ta5le
5el"4
l"4e# tha/ s"2ethi/
else 5%t a5",e #"%/$
the Dsh a#e 5el"4 the
s%#Ca!e
",e#
!",e#e$ 5* s"2ethi/
else
2ea/i/ more than
etti/ t" the "the#
si$e Fals" acrossG
3%t a Ka!Bet ",e# *"%#
shi#t
",e# &7 *ea#s "C ae
4alB ",e# the 5#i$e
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En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
",e#!"2i/ a/
"5sta!le
!li25 ",e# the 4all
a5",e
hihe# tha/ s"2ethi/
elseA 5%t /"t $i#e!tl*
",e# it
a 3ath a5",e the laBe
a!#"ss
etti/ t" the "the#
si$e Fals" overG
etti/ t" the "the#
si$e
4alB a!#"ss the 5#i$e
s4i2 a!#"ss the laBe
th#"%h
s"2ethi/ 4ith li2its
"/ t"3A 5"tt"2 a/$ the
si$es
$#i,e th#"%h the
t%//el
t"
2",e2e/t t" 3e#s"/ "#
5%il$i/
2",e2e/t t" a 3la!e
"# !"%/t#*
C"# be.
" t" the !i/e2a
" t" L"/$"/ 0 I#ela/$
" t" 5e$
i/t"
e/te# a #""2 0 a
5%il$i/
" i/t" the Bit!he/ 0
the h"%se
t"4a#$s
2",e2e/t i/ the
$i#e!ti"/ "C s"2ethi/
F5%t /"t $i#e!tl* t" itG
" ) ste3s t"4a#$s the
h"%se
"/t"
2",e2e/t t" the t"3
"C s"2ethi/
K%23 "/t" the ta5le
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En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
C#"2
i/ the se/se "C where
$rom
a U"4e# C#"2 the
a#$e/
%ther important Prepositions
En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
C#"2 4h" a,e it a 3#ese/t C#"2 Ja/e
"C
4h"04hat $"es it 5el"/
t"
4hat $"es it sh"4
a 3ae "C the 5""B
the 3i!t%#e "C a 3ala!e
5* 4h" 2a$e it a 5""B 5* Ma#B T4ai/
"/
4alBi/ "# #i$i/ "/
h"#se5a!B
e/te#i/ a 3%5li!
t#a/s3"#t ,ehi!le
"/ C""tA "/ h"#se5a!B
et "/ the 5%s
i/ e/te#i/ a !a# 0 Ta1i et i/ the !a#
"M
lea,i/ a 3%5li!
t#a/s3"#t ,ehi!le
et "M the t#ai/
"%t "C lea,i/ a !a# 0 Ta1i et "%t "C the ta1i
5*
#ise "# Call "C s"2ethi/
t#a,elli/ F"the# tha/
4alBi/ "# h"#se#i$i/G
3#i!es ha,e #ise/ 5* &>
3e#!e/t
5* !a#A 5* 5%s
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En!i#h U#a!e E5am+e
at C"# a/e
she lea#/e$ R%ssia/ at
+)
a5"%t
C"# t"3i!sA 2ea/i/
what about
4e 4e#e talBi/ a5"%t
*"%
0/4/ S+.0+.)+ s+.s+ &)*(+6(./ )'&r(0;
U#e to+i$ #enten$e#
6ew techni8ues add more clarity to your writing than well1formed topic sentences. Topic
sentences usually appear at or near the beginning of each paragraph and tell the reader what
the topic of the paragraph will be. :sing topic sentences to 9signpost9 your meaning will
orient the reader and help him or her follow comfortably along your path of thought.
'ou will discover that when a writer uses topic sentences, you can s#im the entire essay and
still understand the main points. The ne2t time you read a long essay, try reading only the first
one or two sentences of each paragraph. 'ou will rarely be lost or confused if the topic
sentences ma#e clear what the purpose of each paragraph is.
F"ll"4 al"/ this sa23le essa* t" see a/ e1a23le "C t"3i!
se/te/!es:
The/A P#a!ti!e 4ith t"3i! se/te/!es
*a#e clear transitions
Transitions act as bridges between your paragraphs. (ince each paragraph offers a distinct
thought, you need to connect these two distinct thoughts in some logical way for the reader.
The transitions supply the logic of how two paragraphs connect, how one idea leads to the
ne2t, or how the two are related. .on4t ma#e the reader guess how one paragraph relates to
the other. The following are some common patterns for transitions"
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N"t "/l* is ,eeta#ia/is2 %/health* C"# the h%2a/ 5"$*A
,eeta#ia#is2 als" !#eates a/ e1!ess "C 3esti!i$es i/ the
e/,i#"/2e/t: (Here <=m transitionin/ $rom hea#th ha>ar.s to
environmenta# ha>ar.s."
I/ a$$iti"/ t" 3#"5le2s "C "5esit*A A2e#i!aEs *"%th als" s%Me# C#"2
i/!#easi/ a2"%/ts "C 3s*!h"l"i!al st#ess: (Here <=m transitionin/
$rom obesity to %sycho#o/ica# stress."
Besi$es ,i"lati/ the #iht t" 3#i,a!*A the 2i!#"!hi3 als" 3%ts
!hil$#e/ at $a/e# i/ the e,e/ "C i/C"#2ati"/Iha!Bi/: (Here <=m
transitionin/ $rom %rivacy to in$ormation(hac*in/."
)mit needless words
9)mit needless words9 9)mit needless words9 This was the constant advice, says ,.B.
/hite, of his former professor, /illiam (trun#. /hite says (trun# would occasionally grab a
student by the lapels and shout this phrase several times, but then be almost restricted from
elaborating more for fear of violating the very principle he was teaching. Omit needless
words, write with concision, make your sentences succinct, cut out the $at, remo!e the
deadwood, make e!ery word pull its own weight 11 these common phrases are all intended to
convince students to streamline their prose with more efficiency and power by removing
unnecessary words.
In (trun#4s own words, 9Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no
unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing
should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.9 In other words, if you
bought a new car and loo#ed under the hood, you would be appalled to see unnecessary,
functionless parts. (imilarly in an essay, all sentences and paragraphs must have an essential
function and purpose.
7oncision can also be understood through the metaphor of dilution. A word by itself has a
sense of power, but when combined with other words, the power of that word is diluted by
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the presence of the other words, each of which is fighting for the reader4s attention. If you
want to focus the reader4s attention, don4t dilute your best words with unnecessary phrases
and elaborations. In this way, more can be less.
Nee$less 8"#$s9A ""$ 5asBet5all 3la*e# is /"t /e!essa#il* "/e 4h"
is tall a/$ $"2i/ati/ "/ the U""#A "# 4h" has 2"#e heiht tha/ the
"the# 3la*e#s Fe::A 7E<V a/$ a5",eGA 5%t #athe# "/e 4h" is Bee/
e/"%h t" 3e#!ei,e st#e/ths a/$ 4eaB/esses "/ the !"%#tA !a/ see
2is2at!hesA lia5ilitiesA 4eaB s3"tsA a/$ B/"4s as 4ell h"4 t"
!a3itali;e "/ his "# he# "4/ st#e/thsA 5e the* s3ee$A .%i!B/essA "#
e13l"si,e $#i,i/ 3"4e#:
C"/!ise9 A ""$ 5asBet5all 3la*e# is /"t /e!essa#il* "/e 4h" is tall
a/$ $"2i/ati/A 5%t #athe# "/e 4h" !a/ 3e#!ei,e st#e/ths a/$
4eaB/esses "/ the !"%#tA !a/ see 2is2at!hesA lia5ilitiesA 4eaB
s3"tsA a/$ B/"4s as 4ell h"4 t" !a3itali;e "/ his "# he# "4/
st#e/thsA 5e the* s3ee$A .%i!B/essA "# e13l"si,e $#i,i/ 3"4e#:
S%3e# C"/!ise9 A ""$ 5asBet5all 3la*e# /ee$s 3#%$e/!e 2"#e tha/
heiht:
Nee$less 8"#$s9 R%5* 3la*e#s 2%st 5e C%ll* 3#e3a#e$ a/$ al4a*s
#ea$* t" i22"late thei# al2"st al#ea$* 4a#It"#/ 5"$ies i/ sa!#iD!eA
i/ $i,i/ #%thlessl* C"# the leathe# 5allA 5l"!Bi/ 4ith thei# a#2s
e1te/$e$ a/$ thei# les D#2l* 3la/te$ "/ the #"%/$A al4a*s
2",i/ 4ith te/a!it* a/$ ,i"# a/$ e/th%sias2 a!#"ss the
e13a/si,e #ee/ la4/A C"# the ""$ "C the tea2 a/$ the h"/"# "C the
s3"#t itselC: L"/ li,e the Q%ee/L
C"/!ise9 R%5* 3la*e#s 2%st 5e C%ll* 3#e3a#e$ t" i22"late thei#
5"$ies i/ sa!#iD!eA i/ $i,i/ #%thlessl* C"# the 5allA 5l"!Bi/ 4ith
thei# a#2s e1te/$e$ a/$ thei# les D#2l* 3la/te$A al4a*s 2",i/
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4ith te/a!it* a/$ ,i"# a!#"ss the e13a/si,e #ee/ la4/A C"# the
""$ "C the tea2 a/$ the h"/"# "C the s3"#t itselC:
S%3e# C"/!ise9 R%5* 3la*e#s sa!#iD!e thei# 5"$ies C"# the a2e:
%stablis! e"'!asis
(ubordination and coordination allow you to emphasi=e different parts of the sentence, so that
the more important phrase is clear. 7hoosing between subordinate or coordinate clauses alerts
you to the hierarchical relationships between information in your sentences and allows you to
stress or emphasi+e certain ideas more than others.
7oordination involves combining clauses in a way that puts them on e8ual footing, where
neither clause is more emphasi+ed than the other. 7oordinate clauses are -oined with one of
the seven coordinating con-unctions 11 and, but, or, for, so, nor, yet. )n the other hand,
subordination >li#e it4s root, subordinate@ involves designating one clause to be more
important than the other. (ubordinate clauses usually begin with although, while, or because.
S%5"#$i/ati/ Cla%ses9 Alth"%h the t#ai/ i23#",e$ 2"5ilit* a/$
eO!ie/!* "C t#a,elA it 3%t 2a/* !"45"*s "%t "C 4"#B: (0he re.
c#ause is subor.inate? it .oes not have as much em%hasis as the
cowboy c#ause."
C""#$i/ati/ Cla%ses9 The t#ai/ i23#",e$ the 2"5ilit* a/$ eO!ie/!*
"C t#a,elA a/$ it 3%t 2a/* !"45"*s "%t "C 4"#B: ()oth c#auses have
equa# em%hasis."
S%5"#$i/ati/ Cla%ses9 E,e/ th"%h 2a/* !"45"*s 4e#e "%t "C
4"#BA the* 5ea/ a /e4 !%lt%#e "C !it* $4elli/ that $#e4 the2
t"ethe# 4ith s"!ial st#e/th: (0he re. c#ause has #ess em%hasis."
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C""#$i/ati/ Cla%ses9 Ma/* !"45"*s 4e#e "%t "C 4"#BA 5%t the*
5ea/ a /e4 !%lt%#e "C !it* $4elli/ that $#e4 the2 t"ethe# 4ith
s"!ial st#e/th:
S%5"#$i/ati/ Cla%ses9 8hile 2a/* th"%ht the !"45"* e#a 4as
",e#A the /e4 !it* !"45"*s 3#",e$ t" 5e a ,italA 3"4e#C%l C"#!e i/
A2e#i!a/ %/3"3%la# !%lt%#e: (0he re. c#ause has #ess em%hasis."
C""#$i/ati/ Cla%ses9 Ma/* th"%ht the !"45"* e#a 4as ",e#A *et
the /e4 !it* !"45"*s 3#",e$ t" 5e a ,italA 3"4e#C%l C"#!e i/
A2e#i!a/ %/3"3%la# !%lt%#e:
:se !hythm
If you really want to get fancy with emphasis, you can e2periment with periodic and
cumulative sentences. ;eriodic and cumulative sentences are two advanced options for
creating a strong sense of rhythm and emphasis in your sentence. The periodic sentence is
one in which the main clause is considerably delayed, whereas the cumulative sentence opens
8uic#ly with the main clause, and then adds on multiple nonrestrictive clauses after it.
Pe#i"$i! se/te/!e9 Si2%/$ F#e%$A a Ge#2a/ 3s*!h"l"ist 5"#/ i/
the late /i/etee/th !e/t%#*A a/$ Ca2"%s C"# his !"/t#",e#sial
the"#ies a5"%t ea#l*I!hil$h""$ 3s*!h"l"i!al C"#2ati"/ a/$ "the#
a$%lt $is"#$e#sA i/!l%$i/ s%i!i$eA 3at#i!i$eA a/$ 2at#i!i$eA "2itte$
esse/tial $ata C"#2%lati/ his the"#ies:
C%2%lati,e se/te/!e9 Si2%/$ F#e%$ "2itte$ esse/tial $ata 4he/
C"#2%lati/ his the"#iesA 4hi!h i/,"l,e$ e13la/ati"/s C"# ea#l*I
!hil$h""$ 3s*!h"l"i!al C"#2ati"/ a/$ "the# a$%lt $is"#$e#sA
i/!l%$i/ s%i!i$eA 3at#i!i$eA a/$ 2at#i!i$eA 4hi!h he $e,el"3e$ i/
the ea#l* t4e/tieth !e/t%#* i/ Ge#2a/*A 4he#e he 4as 5"#/:
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Pe#i"$i! se/te/!e9 A33a#e/tl* C"!aIC"laA 4hi!h is !%##e/tl* %se$ 5*
its "4/ 2a/%Ca!t%#e#s t" !lea/ "%t the e/i/es "C thei# t#%!BsA as
4ell as #e2",e t"ilet stai/sA 3%#iC* the st"2a!h "C .%esti"/a5le
5a!te#iaA a/$ 2a#i/ate steaB i/ se,e#al h"%#s FC#ihte/i/ Ca!ts
a5"%t a s%5sta/!e ha#2lessl* a/$ th"%htlessl* !"/s%2e$ 5*
2illi"/s "C 3e"3le a#"%/$ the 4"#l$GA "#ii/all* it 4as la!e$ 4ith
!"!ai/e:
C%2%lati,e se/te/!e9 A33a#e/tl* C"!aIC"la "/!e !"/tai/e$ !"!ai/eA
4hi!h i/ the ea#l* t4e/tieth !e/t%#* 4as /"t th"%ht t" 5e ha#2C%l
taBe/ i/ s2all $"sesA es3e!iall* 4he/ the $"se 4as "/l* &0&+>> "C a
#ai/ 3e# 5"ttleA ha#$l* s"2ethi/ t" i,e "/e a hea,* a$$i!ti"/A *et
still st#"/ e/"%h t" 2il$l* l%#e "/e t" !"/s%2i/ the s"$aA 4hi!h
4as /"t s" $iMe#e/t C#"2 ,a#i"%s 2e$i!i/es at the ti2eA als"
!"/tai/i/ sliht t#a!e a2"%/ts "C !"!ai/eA 3#a!ti!all* %/a,"i$a5le
5*3#"$%!ts C#"2 !"!"a lea,es:
C%2%lati,e9 VI 4ish I !"%l$ i,e *"% C#esh 2ate#ialA 5%t I !a/EtAV sai$
Ma1 Ki/A a/"the# !lass2ateA 4h" 4e/t "/ t" e$it The Phila$el3hia
I/.%i#e# a/$ /"4A 5* !"i/!i$e/!eA is 3#esi$e/t "C the Hei/;
E/$"42e/tsA the 4ealth* Pitts5%#h !ha#it* "C 4hi!h M#: Ke##*Es
4iCeA Te#esaA is the !hai#4"2a/: F0he 6ew @or* 0imes, &7 Ma* 6>>+A
VP#e3 S!h""l Pee#s F"%/$ Ke##* Tale/te$A A25iti"%sA a/$ A3a#t:VG
=e straig!tforward
Beyond any of the above techni8ues, you can increase the clarity of your writing by
practicing a general straightforwardness in the e2pression of your ideas. ?oo# over your
sentences and as# yourself whether they communicate their ideas in the clearest way possible.
'ou may want to pretend that a twelve1year1old will be reading your te2t. /ill he understand
what you4re tal#ing about$ !emember that while your reader may possess more
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sophistication than a young child, you don4t want to ma#e the reader struggle to follow your
ideas. 5eep your meaning simple and easy to understand.
To really be clear, you might try tal#ing out your sentences. Imagine yourself saying what
you4ve written to a friend sitting beside you. If you can imagine yourself spea#ing to your
friend with the same sentences you4ve written, chances are your writing is probably clear and
easy to follow. )n the other hand, if you can4t see yourself saying what you4ve written to
anyone, consider revising it to ma#e it more readable. %o bac# and revise your sentences to
ma#e them friendlier, clearer, more straightforward.
Style
'our style is the fingerprint of your writing and consists of a number of comprising elements.
As you edit your essay for style, pay attention to these si2 areas"
Pe#s"/al #eCe#e/!es
Di!ti"/
Se/te/!e le/th
Se1ist 3#"/"%/s
F"#2alit*
E2"ti"/alis2
Avoid ;ersonal !eferences
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Avoid using personal references such as 9I9 or 9In my opinion.9 It is very easy to say 9I feel9
or 9I thin#,9 but this adds little to your essay e2cept a wea# argument. If your sentence reads,
9I thin# the Internet is a great source of information,9 what do the words 9I thin#9 add$
!ather than supplying a reason for the Internet being a great source of information, the reason
given here is 9because I thin# so.9
In addition to providing a wea# argument, using 9I9 also ta#es the focus off the sub-ect and
places it on you, the writer, which is sometimes desired in creative writing, but undesirable in
an academic essay where the focus is supposed to be on a specific topic. 'ou can usually
recast your sentence in a way that omits personal references, but if the sentence -ust doesn4t
sound right without 9I,9 then leave it in. It4s better to be self1centered than unreadable.
Pe#s"/al ReCe#e/!es9 I/ 2* "3i/i"/A a* 2a##iae th#eate/s the
i/stit%ti"/ "C 2a##iae a/$ the esse/tial st#%!t%#e "C the Ca2il*A
4hi!h is the Ca5#i! "C s"!iet*:
Re,ise$9 Ga* 2a##iae th#eate/s the i/stit%ti"/ "C 2a##iae a/$ the
esse/tial st#%!t%#e "C the Ca2il*A 4hi!h is the Ca5#i! "C s"!iet*:
Pe#s"/al ReCe#e/!es9 I thi/B that s"!iet* is hel$ t"ethe# 5* all"4i/
i/$i,i$%als t" li,e as the* 4hi!hA /"t 5* !"/st#i!ti/ la4s:
Re,ise$9 S"!iet* is hel$ t"ethe# 5* all"4i/ i/$i,i$%als t" li,e as
the* 4hi!hA /"t 5* !"/st#i!ti/ la4s:
.iction" 7hoose the right words
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(tudents learning to use a thesaurus often use it e2cessively and incorrectly in their selection
of words. 5nowing that all synonyms do not mean the same thing 11 that each synonym has a
subtle nuance of meaning ma#ing it distinct from the other words 11 will help you avoid
random substitutions of words that merely seem to loo# better. :sing good diction in your
essay involves choosing e2actly the right word for the meaning you want. If you4re unsure of
a word4s meaning, loo# it up in an online dictionary or download a dictionary to your
computer.
P""# Di!ti"/9 De,li/Es essa* 3#e$i!ates that a s"!iet* !"/sists "C a
#"%3 "C 3e"3le 5#"%ht t"ethe# 5* a !"22"/ set "C 2"#als a/$
ass%#a/!es:
Bette# Di!ti"/9 De,li/Es essa* asse#ts that a s"!iet* !"/sists "C a
#"%3 "C 3e"3le 5#"%ht t"ethe# 5* a !"22"/ set "C 2"#als a/$
5elieCs:
P""# Di!ti"/9 Ha#t #es3"/$s that De,li/Es essa* is /"thi/ 2"#e tha/
a 5a55le a/$ 2ale/te/$% "C 4hat a s"!iet* is:
Bette# Di!ti"/9 Ha#t #es3"/$s that De,li/Es essa* is /"thi/ 2"#e
tha/ a !"/C%si"/ a/$ 2is%/$e#sta/$i/ "C 4hat a s"!iet* is:
Vary your sentence length
97hoppiness9 is the effect of multiple short sentences in a row giving a sense of
breathlessness and childli#e simplicity. 7ontrastingly, the opposite 11 multiple, successive
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elongated sentences one after another 11 gives a sense of never1ending lung power and
pompous sophistication. A short sentence can be a good option for the content you4re writing,
-ust as a long one can as well. The #ey is to mix them up so that you have some short
sentences and some long alternating with each other. This variety will give rhythm to your
prose.
Ch"33* se/te/!es9 J"h/ t%#/e$ "/ the !"23%te#: He "3e/e$
F#a2e2aBe#: He sele!te$ a /e4 $"!%2e/t: The $"!%2e/t 4as
5la/B: He "3e/e$ the #a3hi!s 3a/el: He !h"se the sha3e t""l: It
4as a 3"l*"/: He Dlle$ the 3"l*"/ 4ith #e$ sha$i/: He 3%t a
5la!B 5"#$e# "/ it: It 4as a /i!e $a*: His 2"the# 5#"%ht hi2
sa/$4i!hes: The sa/$4i!hes taste$ ""$: (Ho#y 7mo*es5 < cou#. not
ta*e more than about ha#$ a %a/e o$ this be$ore < wou#. /o cra>y5"
O,e#Iel"/ate$ se/te/!es9 T%#/i/ "/ the !"23%te#A J"h/ "3e/e$
F#a2e2aBe# a/$A aCte# sele!ti/ a 5la/B $"!%2e/t a/$ "3e/i/ the
#a3hi!s 3a/elA !h"se a 3"l*"/al sha3e t""l 4hi!h he Dlle$ 4ith #e$
sha$i/ a/$ a 5la!B 5"#$e# 4hile his 2"the# 5#"%ht hi2
sa/$4i!hesA all "C 4hi!h !"/t#i5%te$ t" hi2 ha,i/ a /i!e $a*: The/A
$eli5e#ati/ 5et4ee/ a 5la!B a/$ 4hite "# a !"l"# la*"%tA J"h/
$e!i$e$ that C"# a 3%5li!ati"/ that 4"%l$ 5e "/ the 4e5 as 4ell as i/
3#i/tA he 4"%l$ /ee$ t" !#eate 5"th t*3es "C $"!%2e/tsA 5e!a%se
the 3#i/t 4"%l$ 5e t"" !"stl* C"# !"l"# 3h"t"sA 4hile the 4e5 4"%l$
5e t"" $%ll C"# 2e#el* 5la!B a/$ 4hiteA 5%t this !"l"# ,s: /"/I!"l"#
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$ile22a 4as "/l* the ti3 "C the i!e5e# C"# J"h/ i/ F#a2e2aBe#A C"#
he B/e4 /eithe# h"4 t" !#eate a/!h"#e$ C#a2es C"# his #a3hi!sA /"#
h"4 t" 2a/i3%late the si;es a/$ #es"l%ti"/s "C the 3h"t"s he
4a/te$ t" i23"#tA 4hi!h 4as i,i/ hi2 a hea$a!heA $es3ite his
2"the#Es /i!e sa/$4i!hes: (+ombinin/ sentences is $un u% to a
%oint, an. then it /ets ri.icu#ous."
Pe#Ce!t 2i1 "C sh"#t a/$ l"/9 ACte# t%#/i/ "/ the !"23%te#A J"h/
"3e/e$ F#a2e2aBe# a/$ sele!te$ a 5la/B $"!%2e/t: He the/
"3e/e$ the #a3hi!s 3a/elA !h"se a 3"l*"/al sha3e t""lA a/$ Dlle$
it 4ith #e$ sha$i/ a/$ a 5la!B 5"#$e#: His 2"the# 5#"%ht hi2
sa/$4i!hesA 4hi!h 2a$e his $a* /i!e: The/A $eli5e#ati/ 5et4ee/ a
5la!B a/$ 4hite "# a !"l"# la*"%tA J"h/ $e!i$e$ that C"# a 3%5li!ati"/
that 4"%l$ 5e "/ the 4e5 as 4ell as i/ 3#i/tA he 4"%l$ /ee$ t"
!#eate 5"th t*3es "C $"!%2e/ts: The 3#i/t 4"%l$ 5e t"" !"stl* C"#
!"l"# 3h"t"sA 4hile the 4e5 4"%l$ 5e t"" $%ll C"# 2e#el* 5la!B a/$
4hite: B%t this !"l"# : : : (@ou /et the %oint by now((variety #ea.s to
a %#easin/ rhythm."
Avoid se2ist pronouns
Although in the past it was acceptable to use 9he9 when referring to both men and women, it
is no longer acceptable to do so now. /hy$ Because linguists found that language use
actually does have an impact on the way people thin# and act. If pronouns are always 9he,9
and certain professions are always fireman, policeman, chairman, congressmen, etc, then it is
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more li#ely that men 11 by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun use 11
will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not belong in them. Avoiding
se2ist pronouns will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.
E,e/ iC *"% $isa#ee 4ith the a5",e the"#*A %si/ VheV "/l* 3#"/"%/s is a
3#a!ti!e that is /" l"/e# t"le#ate$ i/ MLA st*le: Y"% sh"%l$ i/stea$
!h""se t" 3l%#ali;e *"%# s%5Ke!t a/$ %se Vthe*V "# Vthei#V 4he/ #eCe##i/
5a!B t" that s%5Ke!t: O# *"% !a/ !h""se Vhe "# sheAV 5%t iC *"% /ee$ t"
4#ite Vhe "# sheV 2"#e tha/ t4i!e i/ the se/te/!eA *"% 2iht i,e *"%#
#ea$e# a hea$a!he: T#* t" a,"i$ Vs0heV "# Vhe0sheV si23l* 5e!a%se it is
%/sihtl*: Reall* the 5est s"l%ti"/ is 3l%#ali;ati"/: F8he/ i23le2e/ti/ the
3l%#al s"l%ti"/A #e2e25e# the 3#i/!i3le "C a#ee2e/t: VE,e#*"/e /ee$s
thei# %25#ellaV is /"t #a22ati!alA 5e!a%se Ve,e#*"/eV is a si/%la#
s%5Ke!t:G
o Se1ist9 IC a 2e$i!al st%$e/t 4a/ts t" s%!!ee$A he has t" lea#/
t" 5%$et his ti2e 4isel*:
o Li5e#ate$9 IC 2e$i!al st%$e/ts 4a/t t" s%!!ee$A the* ha,e t"
lea#/ t" 5%$et his ti2e 4isel*:
o Se1ist9 IC "/e 4a/ts t" 5e!"2e a DJA he has t" 5e Ca2ilia# 4ith
the !%##e/t 2%si! st*les a/$ ha,e a st#"/ se/se "C i/te#/al
#h*th2 a/$ 2%si!al U"4:
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o Li5e#ate$9 IC "/e 4a/ts t" 5e!"2e a DJA he "# she has t" 5e
Ca2ilia# 4ith the !%##e/t 2%si! st*les a/$ ha,e a st#"/ se/se
"C i/te#/al #h*th2 a/$ 2%si!al U"4:
o Se1ist9 A ""$ !"23%te# 3#"#a22e# has t" #""t his
B/"4le$e i/ 3#a!ti!al e13e#ie/!e:
o Li5e#ate$9 G""$ !"23%te# 3#"#a22e#s ha,e t" #""t thei#
B/"4le$e i/ 3#a!ti!al e13e#ie/!e:
*aintain a level of formality
Just as in in daily life, in writing you naturally ad-ust the level of formality of your writing
style to the situation and audience. 'ou may use one level of formality with your teacher, and
another level with your best friend. In an academic essay, be sure to maintain a formal voice.
)ne way to ad-ust your level of formality is by avoiding contractions >i.e., using 9do not9
instead of 9don4t9@. 3owever, it is acceptable to use contractions if you desire to.
H*3e#IC"#2al9 The $e#ee t" 4hi!h 3#i,ate !"/t#",e#sial 2"#alities
a#e $e!#i2i/ali;e$ 5* the Ce$e#al ",e#/2e/t $e3e/$s "/ the
e1te/t "C thei# i/K%#i"%s #e3e#!%ssi"/s "/ a/ "the#4ise 5e/i/
s"!iet*:
T"" i/C"#2al9 The Ce$s 4ill sta#t 3%tti/ 3e#,s a/$ 4h"#es i/ the
sla22e# iC the* Ceel thei# s2%tt* a!ti"/s a#e 2i1i/E %3 ""$ 2e/
a/$ 4"2e/:
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J%st #iht9 8hethe# 3#i,ate i22"#alities a#e "%tla4e$ 5* the
",e#/2e/t "# /"t $e3e/$s "/ the ha#2 the* i/Ui!t "/ 3%5li!
s"!iet*:
Avoid emotionalism
In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool1headed, ob-ective tone. Tone
usually becomes an issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about 11
religion, for e2ample, or cultural values. ,ven when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid
getting 9emotional9 in your e2pression. Avoid seeming angry, or condescending, or rude.
5eep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to portray yourself as one who is ob-ectively
assessing the situation.
E2"ti"/al9 8e must $" e,e#*thi/ 4e !a/ t" leali;e a* 2a##iae:
F"# the saBe "C e.%alit*A the #ihts "C li5e#t* a/$ C#ee$"2 that "%#
C"#eCathe#s C"%ht C"#IIit is esse/tialLLL D"/Et let !"/se#,ati,es taBe
",e# your ",e#/2e/t a/$ i23"se thei# 3%#ita/i!al 2"#al ,al%es "/
e,e#*"/e: This is "/l* "i/ t" lea$ t" $";e/s "C 2"#e #est#i!ti"/s
that th"se 4hiteIhai#e$ !"/se#,ati,es 4ill i23"se i/ thei# !";*
!"/#ess seatsL
O5Ke!ti,e9 Kee3i/ a* 2a##iae illeal 3"ses si/iD!a/t .%esti"/s
a5"%t the !"/stit%ti"/alit* "C s%!h la4s: The C"#eCathe#s 4h" 4#"te
the C"/stit%ti"/ 5elie,e$ a/ i/$i,i$%alEs C#ee$"2 4as ,itall*
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i23"#ta/tA a/$ that as l"/ as the a!ti"/s $i$ /"t !a%se $i#e!tl*
ha#2 t" s"!iet*A the a!ti"/s sh"%l$ /"t 5e $e!#i2i/ali;e$:
(tep EOc" %rammar
As you edit the grammar of your essay, you should particularly focus on the grammar
concepts that your teacher has previously mar#ed on your papers. 6or e2ample, if
your teacher has written 9run1on9 on your previous papers, especially loo# at the
following instruction on run1ons and then loo# carefully over your essay to ma#e sure
you4re avoiding them. 'ou should also be familiar with all the rest of the grammar
concepts here and be sure that your essay is grammatically correct. If a term below
loo#s unfamiliar, learn it. Although a grammatically perfect essay won4t mean that the
essay is also perfect, a teacher is less apt to give you a poor grade if he or she is
unable to -ustify that grade with grammatical errors. In the minds of many old
fashioned teachers, perfect grammar e8uals a perfect essay. /hen you4re done editing
for grammar, and you4ve proofread your essay a do+en times, you4re done.
7ongratulations
F#a2e/ts P#"/"%/ A#ee2e/t
R%/I"/s Mis3la!e$ M"$iDe#s
Ca3itali;ati"/ C"22as
P"ssessi,es Se2iI!"l"/s
Te/se shiCts Dashes
S%5Ke!tI,e#5 A#ee2e/t C"l"/s
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0/5/ Mo-(1(+rs
T*+ Mo-(1(+r
<odifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that provide description in sentences"
<odifiers allow writers to take the picture that they have in their heads and transfer it
accurately to the heads of their readers" Essentially, modifiers $reathe life into
sentences" Take a look at this NdeadN sentence*
3tephen dropped his fork"
=ow read what several well placed modifiers can do*
,oor 3tephen, who !ust wanted a quick meal to get through his three-hour $iology
la$, quickly dropped his fork on the cafeteria tray, gagging with disgust as a tarantula
wiggled out of his cheese omelet, a sight requiring a year of therapy $efore 3tephen
could eat eggs again"
<odifiers can $e ad!ectives, ad!ective clauses, adver$s, adver$ clauses, a$solute
phrases, infinitive phrases, participle phrases, and prepositional phrases" The
sentence a$ove contains at least one e'ample of each*
%d!ective T poor"
%d!ective clause T who !ust wanted a quick meal"
%dver$ T quickly"
%dver$ clause T as a tarantula wiggled out of his cheese omelet"
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%$solute phrase T a sight requiring a year of therapy $efore 3tephen could eat eggs
again"
#nfinitive phrase T to get through his three-hour $iology la$"
,articiple phrase T gagging with disgust"
,repositional phrase T on the cafeteria tray"
(ithout modifiers, sentences would $e no fun to read" arefully chosen, well-placed
modifiers allow you to depict situations with as much accuracy as words will allow"
0/6/ E'+%+.0 o1 s2++)*
The Eement# o, S+ee$h

8E ha,e 2"#e tha/ "/!e #eCe##e$ t" the Sele2e/ts "C s3ee!hAT 5* 4hi!h 4e
%/$e#st""$A #"%hl* s3eaBi/A 4hat a#e "#$i/a#il* !alle$ S4"#$s:T 8e 2%st
/"4 l""B 2"#e !l"sel* at these ele2e/ts a/$ a!.%ai/t "%#sel,es 4ith the st%M
"C la/%ae: The ,e#* si23lest ele2e/t "C s3ee!hWa/$ 5* Ss3ee!hT 4e shall
he/!eC"#th 2ea/ the a%$it"#* s*ste2 "C s3ee!h s*25"lis2A the U"4 "C
s3"Be/ 4"#$sWis the i/$i,i$%al s"%/$A th"%hA as 4e shall see late# "/A the
s"%/$ is /"t itselC a si23le st#%!t%#e 5%t the #es%lta/t "C a se#ies "C
i/$e3e/$e/tA *et !l"sel* !"##elate$A a$K%st2e/ts i/ the "#a/s "C s3ee!h: A/$
*et the i/$i,i$%al s"%/$ is /"tA 3#"3e#l* !"/si$e#e$A a/ ele2e/t "C s3ee!h at
allA C"# s3ee!h is a si/iD!a/t C%/!ti"/ a/$ the s"%/$ as s%!h has /"
si/iD!a/!e: It ha33e/s "!!asi"/all* that the si/le s"%/$ is a/ i/$e3e/$e/tl*

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si/iD!a/t ele2e/t Fs%!h as F#e/!h a ShasT a/$ X St"T "# Lati/ i S"LTGA 5%t
s%!h !ases a#e C"#t%it"%s !"i/!i$e/!es 5et4ee/ i/$i,i$%al s"%/$ a/$
si/iD!a/t 4"#$: The !"i/!i$e/!e is a3t t" 5e C"#t%it"%s /"t "/l* i/ the"#* 5%t
i/ 3"i/t "C a!t%al hist"#i! Ca!tN th%sA the i/sta/!es !ite$ a#e 2e#el* #e$%!e$
C"#2s "C "#ii/all* C%lle# 3h"/eti! #"%3sWLati/ habet a/$ a. a/$ I/$"I
E%#"3ea/ ei #es3e!ti,el*: IC la/%ae is a st#%!t%#e a/$ iC the si/iD!a/t
ele2e/ts "C la/%ae a#e the 5#i!Bs "C the st#%!t%#eA the/ the s"%/$s "C
s3ee!h !a/ "/l* 5e !"23a#e$ t" the %/C"#2e$ a/$ %/5%#/t !la* "C 4hi!h the
5#i!Bs a#e Cashi"/e$: I/ this !ha3te# 4e shall ha,e /"thi/ C%#the# t" $" 4ith
s"%/$s as s"%/$s:
The t#%eA si/iD!a/t ele2e/ts "C la/%ae a#e e/e#all* se.%e/!es "C
s"%/$s that a#e eithe# 4"#$sA si/iD!a/t 3a#ts "C 4"#$sA "# 4"#$ #"%3i/s:
8hat $isti/%ishes ea!h "C these ele2e/ts is that it is the "%t4a#$ si/ "C a
s3e!iD! i$eaA 4hethe# "C a si/le !"/!e3t "# i2ae "# "C a /%25e# "C s%!h
!"/!e3ts "# i2aes $eD/itel* !"//e!te$ i/t" a 4h"le: The si/le 4"#$ 2a* "#
2a* /"t 5e the si23lest si/iD!a/t ele2e/t 4e ha,e t" $eal 4ith: The E/lish
4"#$s sin/, sin/s, sin/in/, sin/er ea!h !"/,e*s a 3e#Ce!tl* $eD/ite a/$
i/tellii5le i$eaA th"%h the i$ea is $is!"//e!te$ a/$ is the#eC"#e C%/!ti"/all*
"C /" 3#a!ti!al ,al%e: 8e #e!"/i;e i22e$iatel* that these 4"#$s a#e "C t4"
s"#ts: The D#st 4"#$A sin/, is a/ i/$i,isi5le 3h"/eti! e/tit* !"/,e*i/ the
/"ti"/ "C a !e#tai/ s3e!iD! a!ti,it*: The "the# 4"#$s all i/,"l,e the sa2e
C%/$a2e/tal /"ti"/ 5%tA "4i/ t" the a$$iti"/ "C "the# 3h"/eti! ele2e/tsA this
/"ti"/ is i,e/ a 3a#ti!%la# t4ist that 2"$iDes "# 2"#e !l"sel* $eD/es it: The*
#e3#ese/tA i/ a se/seA !"23"%/$e$ !"/!e3ts that ha,e U"4e#e$ C#"2 the
C%/$a2e/tal "/e: 8e 2a*A the#eC"#eA a/al*;e the 4"#$s sin/s, sin/in/, a/$
sin/er as 5i/a#* e13#essi"/s i/,"l,i/ a C%/$a2e/tal !"/!e3tA a !"/!e3t "C
2
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s%5Ke!t 2atte# Fsin/GA a/$ a C%#the# !"/!e3t "C 2"#e a5st#a!t "#$e#W"/e "C
3e#s"/A /%25e#A ti2eA !"/$iti"/A C%/!ti"/A "# "C se,e#al "C these !"25i/e$:
IC 4e s*25"li;e s%!h a te#2 as sin/ 5* the ale5#ai! C"#2%la &, 4e shall
ha,e t" s*25"li;e s%!h te#2s as sin/s a/$ sin/er 5* the C"#2%la & A b. &The
ele2e/t & 2a* 5e eithe# a !"23lete a/$ i/$e3e/$e/t 4"#$ Fsin/G "# the
C%/$a2e/tal s%5sta/!eA the s"I!alle$ #""t "# ste2 6 "# S#a$i!al ele2e/tT
Fsin/(G "C a 4"#$: The ele2e/t b F(s, (in/, (erG is the i/$i!at"# "C a s%5si$ia#*
a/$A as a #%leA a 2"#e a5st#a!t !"/!e3tN i/ the 4i$est se/se "C the 4"#$
SC"#2AT it 3%ts %3"/ the C%/$a2e/tal !"/!e3t a C"#2al li2itati"/: 8e 2a*
te#2 it a S#a22ati!al ele2e/tT "# aO1: As 4e shall see late# "/A the
#a22ati!al ele2e/t "# the #a22ati!al i/!#e2e/tA as 4e ha$ 5ette# 3%t itA
/ee$ /"t 5e s%O1e$ t" the #a$i!al ele2e/t: It 2a* 5e a 3#eD1e$ ele2e/t FliBe
the un( "C unsin/ab#eGA it 2a* 5e i/se#te$ i/t" the ,e#* 5"$* "C the ste2 FliBe
the n "C the Lati/ vinco SI !"/.%e#T as !"/t#aste$ 4ith its a5se/!e i/ vici SI
ha,e !"/.%e#e$TGA it 2a* 5e the !"23lete "# 3a#tial #e3etiti"/ "C the ste2A "#
it 2a* !"/sist "C s"2e 2"$iD!ati"/ "C the i//e# C"#2 "C the ste2 F!ha/e "C
,"4elA as i/ sun/ a/$ son/N !ha/e "C !"/s"/a/t as i/ .ea. a/$ .eathN
!ha/e "C a!!e/tN a!t%al a55#e,iati"/G: Ea!h a/$ e,e#* "/e "C these t*3es "C
#a22ati!al ele2e/t "# 2"$iD!ati"/ has this 3e!%lia#it*A that it 2a* /"tA i/
the ,ast 2aK"#it* "C !asesA 5e %se$ i/$e3e/$e/tl* 5%t /ee$s t" 5e s"2eh"4
atta!he$ t" "# 4el$e$ 4ith a #a$i!al ele2e/t i/ "#$e# t" !"/,e* a/ i/tellii5le
/"ti"/: 8e ha$ 5ette#A the#eC"#eA 2"$iC* "%# C"#2%laA & Y b, t" & Y FbGA the
#"%/$ 5#a!Bets s*25"li;i/ the i/!a3a!it* "C a/ ele2e/t t" sta/$ al"/e: The
#a22ati!al ele2e/tA 2"#e",e#A is /"t "/l* /"/Ie1iste/t e1!e3t as ass"!iate$
4ith a #a$i!al "/eA it $"es /"t e,e/A as a #%leA "5tai/ its 2eas%#e "C
si/iD!a/!e %/less it is ass"!iate$ 4ith a 3a#ti!%la# !lass "C #a$i!al ele2e/ts:
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Th%sA the (s "C E/lish he hits s*25"li;es a/ %tte#l* $iMe#e/t /"ti"/ C#"2 the
(s "C boo*s, 2e#el* 5e!a%se hit a/$ boo* a#e $iMe#e/tl* !lassiDe$ as t"
C%/!ti"/: 8e 2%st haste/ t" "5se#,eA h"4e,e#A that 4hile the #a$i!al ele2e/t
2a*A "/ "!!asi"/A 5e i$e/ti!al 4ith the 4"#$A it $"es /"t C"ll"4 that it 2a*
al4a*sA "# e,e/ !%st"2a#il*A 5e %se$ as a 4"#$: Th%sA the hort( Sa#$e/T "C
s%!h Lati/ C"#2s as hortus, hortiA a/$ horto is as 2%!h "C a/ a5st#a!ti"/A
th"%h "/e *iel$i/ a 2"#e easil* a33#ehe/$e$ si/iD!a/!eA tha/ the (in/ "C
sin/in/. Neithe# e1ists as a/ i/$e3e/$e/tl* i/tellii5le a/$ satisC*i/ ele2e/t
"C s3ee!h: B"th the #a$i!al ele2e/tA as s%!hA a/$ the #a22ati!al ele2e/tA
the#eC"#eA a#e #ea!he$ "/l* 5* a 3#"!ess "C a5st#a!ti"/: It see2e$ 3#"3e# t"
s*25"li;e sin/(er as & Y FbGN hort(us 2%st 5e s*25"li;e$ as F&G Y FbG:
S" Ca#A the D#st s3ee!h ele2e/t that 4e ha,e C"%/$ 4hi!h 4e !a/ sa*
a!t%all* Se1istsT is the 4"#$: BeC"#e $eD/i/ the 4"#$A h"4e,e#A 4e 2%st l""B
a little 2"#e !l"sel* at the t*3e "C 4"#$ that is ill%st#ate$ 5* sin/: A#e 4eA aCte#
allA K%stiDe$ i/ i$e/tiC*i/ it 4ith a #a$i!al ele2e/t? D"es it #e3#ese/t a si23le
!"##es3"/$e/!e 5et4ee/ !"/!e3t a/$ li/%isti! e13#essi"/? Is the ele2e/t
sin/(A that 4e ha,e a5st#a!te$ C#"2 sin/s, sin/in/, a/$ sin/er a/$ t" 4hi!h 4e
2a* K%stl* as!#i5e a e/e#al %/2"$iDe$ !"/!e3t%al ,al%eA a!t%all* the sa2e
li/%isti! Ca!t as the 4"#$ sin/? It 4"%l$ al2"st see2 a5s%#$ t" $"%5t itA *et a
little #eUe!ti"/ "/l* is /ee$e$ t" !"/,i/!e %s that the $"%5t is e/ti#el*
leiti2ate: The 4"#$ sin/ !a//"tA as a 2atte# "C Ca!tA 5e C#eel* %se$ t" #eCe# t"
its "4/ !"/!e3t%al !"/te/t: The e1iste/!e "C s%!h e,i$e/tl* #elate$ C"#2s as
san/ a/$ sun/ at "/!e sh"4s that it !a//"t #eCe# t" 3ast ti2eA 5%t thatA C"# at
least a/ i23"#ta/t 3a#t "C its #a/e "C %saeA it is li2ite$ t" the 3#ese/t: O/
the "the# ha/$A the %se "C sin/ as a/ Si/D/iti,eT Fi/ s%!h l"!%ti"/s as to sin/
a/$ he wi## sin/G $"es i/$i!ate that the#e is a Cai#l* st#"/ te/$e/!* C"# the
B
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4"#$ sin/ t" #e3#ese/t the C%llA %/t#a22ele$ a23lit%$e "C a s3e!iD! !"/!e3t:
Yet iC sin/ 4e#eA i/ a/* a$e.%ate se/seA the D1e$ e13#essi"/ "C the %/2"$iDe$
!"/!e3tA the#e sh"%l$ 5e /" #""2 C"# s%!h ,"!ali! a5e##ati"/s as 4e D/$ i/
san/ a/$ sun/ a/$ son/, /"# sh"%l$ 4e D/$ sin/ s3e!iD!all* %se$ t" i/$i!ate
3#ese/t ti2e C"# all 3e#s"/s 5%t "/e Fthi#$ 3e#s"/ si/%la# sin/sG:
The t#%th "C the 2atte# is that sin/ is a Bi/$ "C t4iliht 4"#$A t#e25li/
5et4ee/ the stat%s "C a t#%e #a$i!al ele2e/t a/$ that "C a 2"$iDe$ 4"#$ "C
the t*3e "C sin/in/. Th"%h it has /" "%t4a#$ si/ t" i/$i!ate that it !"/,e*s
2"#e tha/ a e/e#ali;e$ i$eaA 4e $" Ceel that the#e ha/s a5"%t it a ,a#ia5le
2ist "C a$$e$ ,al%e: The C"#2%la & $"es /"t see2 t" #e3#ese/t it s" 4ell as &
Y F>G: 8e 2iht s%s3e!t sin/ "C 5el"/i/ t" the & Y FbG t*3eA 4ith the
#ese#,ati"/ that the FbG ha$ ,a/ishe$: This #e3"#t "C the SCeelT "C the 4"#$ is
Ca# C#"2 Ca/!iC%lA C"# hist"#i!al e,i$e/!e $"esA i/ all ea#/estA sh"4 that sin/ is
i/ "#ii/ a /%25e# "C .%ite $isti/!t 4"#$sA "C t*3e & Y FbGA that ha,e 3""le$
thei# se3a#ate ,al%es: The FbG "C ea!h "C these has "/e as a ta/i5le 3h"/eti!
ele2e/tN its C"#!eA h"4e,e#A li/e#s "/ i/ 4eaBe/e$ 2eas%#e: The sin/ "C <
sin/ is the !"##es3"/$e/t "C the A/l"ISa1"/ sin/e? the i/D/iti,e sin/, "C
sin/an? the i23e#ati,e sin/ "C sin/. E,e# si/!e the 5#eaB$"4/ "C E/lish C"#2s
that set i/ a5"%t the ti2e "C the N"#2a/ C"/.%estA "%# la/%ae has 5ee/
st#ai/i/ t"4a#$s the !#eati"/ "C si23le !"/!e3tI4"#$sA %/all"*e$ 5* C"#2al
!"//"tati"/sA 5%t it has /"t *et s%!!ee$e$ i/ thisA a3a#tA 3"ssi5l*A C#"2
is"late$ a$,e#5s a/$ "the# ele2e/ts "C that s"#t: 8e#e the t*3i!al
%/a/al*;a5le 4"#$ "C the la/%ae t#%l* a 3%#e !"/!e3tI4"#$ Ft*3e &G i/stea$
"C 5ei/ "C a st#a/el* t#a/siti"/al t*3e Ft*3e & Y P>QGA "%# sin/ a/$ wor* a/$
house a/$ th"%sa/$s "C "the#s 4"%l$ !"23a#e 4ith the e/%i/e #a$i!al 4"#$s
"C /%2e#"%s "the# la/%aes: - S%!h a #a$i!alI4"#$A t" taBe a #a/$"2
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e1a23leA is the N""tBa + 4"#$ hamot S5"/e:T O%# E/lish !"##es3"/$e/t is
"/l* s%3e#D!iall* !"23a#a5le: Hamot means S5"/eT i/ a .%ite i/$eD/ite
se/seN t" "%# E/lish 4"#$ !li/s the /"ti"/ "C si/%la#it*: The N""tBa I/$ia/
!a/ !"/,e* the i$ea "C 3l%#alit*A i/ "/e "C se,e#al 4a*sA iC he s" $esi#esA 5%t
he $"es /"t /ee$ t"N hamot 2a* $" C"# eithe# si/%la# "# 3l%#alA sh"%l$ /"
i/te#est ha33e/ t" atta!h t" the $isti/!ti"/: As s""/ as 4e sa* S5"/eT Fasi$e
C#"2 its se!"/$a#* %sae t" i/$i!ate 2ate#ialGA 4e /"t 2e#el* s3e!iC* the
/at%#e "C the "5Ke!t 5%t 4e i23l*A 4hethe# 4e 4ill "# /"A that the#e is 5%t "/e
"C these "5Ke!ts t" 5e !"/si$e#e$: A/$ this i/!#e2e/t "C ,al%e 2aBes all the
$iMe#e/!e:
8e /"4 B/"4 "C C"%# $isti/!t C"#2al t*3es "C 4"#$9 & FN""tBa hamotGN & Y F>G
Fsin/,boneGN & Y FbG Fsin/in/GN F&G Y FbG FLati/ hortusG: The#e is 5%t "/e "the#
t*3e that is C%/$a2e/tall* 3"ssi5le9 & Y ), the %/i"/ "C t4" F"# 2"#eG
i/$e3e/$e/tl* "!!%##i/ #a$i!al ele2e/ts i/t" a si/le te#2: S%!h a 4"#$ is
the !"23"%/$ Dre(en/ine "# a Si"%1 C"#2 e.%i,ale/t t" eat(stan. Fi: e:A St"
eat 4hile sta/$i/TG: It C#e.%e/tl* ha33e/sA h"4e,e#A that "/e "C the #a$i!al
ele2e/ts 5e!"2es C%/!ti"/all* s" s%5"#$i/ate$ t" the "the# that it taBes "/
the !ha#a!te# "C a #a22ati!al ele2e/t: 8e 2a* s*25"li;e this 5* & Y b, a
t*3e that 2a* #a$%all*A 5* l"ss "C e1te#/al !"//e!ti"/ 5et4ee/ the
s%5"#$i/ate$ ele2e/t b a/$ its i/$e3e/$e/t !"%/te#3a#t ) 2e#e 4ith the
!"22"/e# t*3e & Y FbG: A 4"#$ liBe beauti$u# is a/ e1a23le "C & Y b, the ($u#
5a#el* 3#ese#,i/ the i23#ess "C its li/eae: & 4"#$ liBe home#y, "/ the "the#
ha/$A is !lea#l* "C the t*3e & Y FbGA C"# /" "/e 5%t a li/%isti! st%$e/t is a4a#e
"C the !"//e!ti"/ 5et4ee/ the (#y a/$ the i/$e3e/$e/t 4"#$ #i*e.
E
I/ a!t%al %seA "C !"%#seA these D,e F"# si1G C%/$a2e/tal t*3es 2a* 5e
i/$eD/itel* !"23li!ate$ i/ a /%25e# "C 4a*s: The F>G 2a* ha,e a 2%lti3le
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,al%eN i/ "the# 4"#$sA the i/he#e/t C"#2al 2"$iD!ati"/ "C the 5asi! /"ti"/ "C
the 4"#$ 2a* aMe!t 2"#e tha/ "/e !ate"#*: I/ s%!h a Lati/ 4"#$ as cor
Shea#tAT C"# i/sta/!eA /"t "/l* is a !"/!#ete !"/!e3t !"/,e*e$A 5%t the#e !li/
t" the C"#2A 4hi!h is a!t%all* sh"#te# tha/ its "4/ #a$i!al ele2e/t Fcor.(GA the
th#ee $isti/!tA *et i/te#t4i/e$A C"#2al !"/!e3ts "C si/%la#it*A e/$e#
!lassiD!ati"/ F/e%te#GA a/$ !ase Fs%5Ke!ti,eI"5Ke!ti,eG: The !"23lete
#a22ati!al C"#2%la C"# cor isA the/A & Y F>G Y F>G Y F>GA th"%h the 2e#el*
e1te#/alA 3h"/eti! C"#2%la 4"%l$ 5e F&G (A F&G i/$i!ati/ the a5st#a!te$ Sste2T
cor.(, the 2i/%s si/ a l"ss "C 2ate#ial: The si/iD!a/t thi/ a5"%t s%!h a
4"#$ as cor is that the th#ee !"/!e3t%al li2itati"/s a#e /"t 2e#el* e13#esse$
5* i23li!ati"/ as the 4"#$ si/Bs i/t" 3la!e i/ a se/te/!eN the* a#e tie$ %3A C"#
""$ a/$ allA 4ithi/ the ,e#* ,itals "C the 4"#$ a/$ !a//"t 5e eli2i/ate$ 5*
a/* 3"ssi5ilit* "C %sae:
Othe# !"23li!ati"/s #es%lt C#"2 a 2a/iC"l$i/ "C 3a#ts: I/ a i,e/ 4"#$ the#e
2a* 5e se,e#al ele2e/ts "C the "#$e# & F4e ha,e al#ea$* s*25"li;e$ this 5*
the t*3e & Y )GA "C the "#$e# F&GA "C the "#$e# b, a/$ "C the "#$e# FbG: Fi/all*A
the ,a#i"%s t*3es 2a* 5e !"25i/e$ a2"/ the2sel,es i/ e/$less 4a*s: &
!"23a#ati,el* si23le la/%ae liBe E/lishA "# e,e/ Lati/A ill%st#ates 5%t a
2"$est 3#"3"#ti"/ "C these the"#eti!al 3"ssi5ilities: B%t iC 4e taBe "%#
e1a23les C#eel* C#"2 the ,ast st"#eh"%se "C la/%aeA C#"2 la/%aes e1"ti!
as 4ell as C#"2 th"se that 4e a#e 2"#e Ca2ilia# 4ithA 4e shall D/$ that the#e is
ha#$l* a 3"ssi5ilit* that is /"t #eali;e$ i/ a!t%al %sae: O/e e1a23le 4ill $" C"#
th"%sa/$sA "/e !"23le1 t*3e C"# h%/$#e$s "C 3"ssi5le t*3es: I sele!t it C#"2
Pai%teA the la/%ae "C the I/$ia/s "C the a#i$ 3latea%s "C s"%th4este#/ Utah:
The 4"#$ wii(to(*uchum(%un*u(rG/ani(yu/wi(va(ntG(m FGG is "C %/%s%al le/th
e,e/ C"# its "4/ la/%aeA 5%t it is /" 3s*!h"l"i!al 2"/ste# C"# all that: It
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2ea/s Sthe* 4h" a#e "i/ t" sit a/$ !%t %3 4ith a B/iCe a 5la!B !"4 For
5%llGAT "#A i/ the "#$e# "C the I/$ia/ ele2e/tsA SB/iCeI5la!BI5%Mal"I3etI!%t %3I
sitF3l%#:GIC%t%#eI3a#ti!i3leIa/i2ate 3l%#:T The C"#2%la C"# this 4"#$A i/
a!!"#$a/!e 4ith "%# s*25"lis2A 4"%l$ 5e FHG Y F8G Y + Y . Y & Y ) Y F/G Y
FhG Y FiG Y F>G: It is the 3l%#al "C the C%t%#e 3a#ti!i3le "C a !"23"%/$ ,e#5 St"
sit a/$ !%t %3T I& A ). The ele2e/ts F/GW4hi!h $e/"tes C%t%#it*WA FhGWa
3a#ti!i3ial s%O1WA a/$ FiGWi/$i!ati/ the a/i2ate 3l%#alWa#e #a22ati!al
ele2e/ts 4hi!h !"/,e* /"thi/ 4he/ $eta!he$: The C"#2%la F>G is i/te/$e$ t"
i23l* that the D/ishe$ 4"#$ !"/,e*sA i/ a$$iti"/ t" 4hat is $eD/itel*
e13#esse$A a C%#the# #elati"/al i$eaA that "C s%5Ke!ti,it*N i/ "the# 4"#$sA the
C"#2 !a/ "/l* 5e %se$ as the s%5Ke!t "C a se/te/!eA /"t i/ a/ "5Ke!ti,e "#
"the# s*/ta!ti! #elati"/: The #a$i!al ele2e/t & FSt" !%t %3TGA 5eC"#e e/te#i/
i/t" !"25i/ati"/ 4ith the !"Z#$i/ate ele2e/t B FSt" sitTGA is itselC
!"23"%/$e$ 4ith t4" /"2i/al ele2e/ts "# ele2e/tI#"%3sWa/
i/st#%2e/tall* %se$ ste2 FHG FSB/iCeTGA 4hi!h 2a* 5e C#eel* %se$ as the
#a$i!al ele2e/t "C /"%/ C"#2s 5%t !a//"t 5e e23l"*e$ as a/ a5s"l%te /"%/ i/
its i,e/ C"#2A a/$ a/ "5Ke!ti,el* %se$ #"%3WF8G Y + Y . FS5la!B !"4 or
5%llTG: This #"%3 i/ t%#/ !"/sists "C a/ a$Ke!ti,al #a$i!al ele2e/t F8G FS5la!BTGA
4hi!h !a//"t 5e i/$e3e/$e/tl* e23l"*e$ Fthe a5s"l%te /"ti"/ "C S5la!BT !a/
5e #e/$e#e$ "/l* as the 3a#ti!i3le "C a ,e#59 S5la!BI5eIi/TGA a/$ the
!"23"%/$ /"%/ + Y . FS5%Mal"I3etTG: The #a$i!al ele2e/t + 3#"3e#l* 2ea/s
S5%Mal"AT 5%t the ele2e/t ., 3#"3e#l* a/ i/$e3e/$e/tl* "!!%##i/ /"%/
2ea/i/ Sh"#seT F"#ii/all* S$"T "# S$"2esti!ate$ a/i2alT i/ e/e#alGA is
#e%la#l* %se$ as a .%asiIs%5"#$i/ate ele2e/t i/$i!ati/ that the a/i2al
$e/"te$ 5* the ste2 t" 4hi!h it is aO1e$ is "4/e$ 5* a h%2a/ 5ei/: It 4ill
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5e "5se#,e$ that the 4h"le !"23le1 FHG Y F8G Y + Y . Y & Y ) is C%/!ti"/all*
/" 2"#e tha/ a ,e#5al 5aseA !"##es3"/$i/ t" the sin/( "C a/ E/lish C"#2 liBe
sin/in/? that this !"23le1 #e2ai/s ,e#5al i/ C"#!e "/ the a$$iti"/ "C the
te23"#al ele2e/t F/GWthis F/GA 5* the 4a*A 2%st /"t 5e %/$e#st""$ as
a33e/$e$ t" ) al"/eA 5%t t" the 4h"le 5asi! !"23le1 as a %/itWN a/$ that the
ele2e/ts FhG Y FiG Y F>G t#a/sC"#2 the ,e#5al e13#essi"/ i/t" a C"#2all* 4ellI
$eD/e$ /"%/:
It is hih ti2e that 4e $e!i$e$ K%st 4hat is 2ea/t 5* a 4"#$: O%# D#st
i23%lseA /" $"%5tA 4"%l$ ha,e 5ee/ t" $eD/e the 4"#$ as the s*25"li!A
li/%isti! !"%/te#3a#t "C a si/le !"/!e3t: 8e /"4 B/"4 that s%!h a $eD/iti"/
is i23"ssi5le: I/ t#%th it is i23"ssi5le t" $eD/e the 4"#$ C#"2 a C%/!ti"/al
sta/$3"i/t at allA C"# the 4"#$ 2a* 5e a/*thi/ C#"2 the e13#essi"/ "C a si/le
!"/!e3tW!"/!#ete "# a5st#a!t "# 3%#el* #elati"/al Fas i/ o$ "# by "# an.GWt"
the e13#essi"/ "C a !"23lete th"%ht Fas i/ Lati/ .ico SI sa*T "#A 4ith #eate#
ela5"#ate/ess "C C"#2A i/ a N""tBa ,e#5 C"#2 $e/"ti/ SI ha,e 5ee/
a!!%st"2e$ t" eat t4e/t* #"%/$ "5Ke!ts Pe::A a33lesQ 4hile e/ae$ i/ P$"i/
s" a/$ s"QTG: I/ the latte# !ase the 4"#$ 5e!"2es i$e/ti!al 4ith the se/te/!e:
The 4"#$ is 2e#el* a C"#2A a $eD/itel* 2"l$e$ e/tit* that taBes i/ as 2%!h "#
as little "C the !"/!e3t%al 2ate#ial "C the 4h"le th"%ht as the e/i%s "C the
la/%ae !a#es t" all"4: Th%s it is that 4hile the si/le #a$i!al ele2e/ts a/$
#a22ati!al ele2e/tsA the !a##ie#s "C is"late$ !"/!e3tsA a#e !"23a#a5le as
4e 3ass C#"2 la/%ae t" la/%aeA the D/ishe$ 4"#$s a#e /"t: Ra$i!al F"#
#a22ati!alG ele2e/t a/$ se/te/!eWthese a#e the 3#i2a#* $unctiona# %/its "C
s3ee!hA the C"#2e# as a/ a5st#a!te$ 2i/i2%2A the latte# as the estheti!all*
satisC*i/ e25"$i2e/t "C a %/iDe$ th"%ht: The a!t%al $orma# %/its "C s3ee!hA
the 4"#$sA 2a* "/ "!!asi"/ i$e/tiC* the2sel,es 4ith eithe# "C the t4"
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C%/!ti"/al %/itsN 2"#e "Cte/ the* 2e$iate 5et4ee/ the t4" e1t#e2esA
e25"$*i/ "/e "# 2"#e #a$i!al /"ti"/s a/$ als" "/e "# 2"#e s%5si$ia#* "/es:
8e 2a* 3%t the 4h"le 2atte# i/ a /%tshell 5* sa*i/ that the #a$i!al a/$
#a22ati!al ele2e/ts "C la/%aeA a5st#a!te$ as the* a#e C#"2 the #ealities
"C s3ee!hA #es3"/$ t" the !"/!e3t%al 4"#l$ "C s!ie/!eA a5st#a!te$ as it is C#"2
the #ealities "C e13e#ie/!eA a/$ that the 4"#$A the e1iste/t %/it "C li,i/
s3ee!hA #es3"/$s t" the %/it "C a!t%all* a33#ehe/$e$ e13e#ie/!eA "C hist"#*A
"C a#t: The se/te/!e is the l"i!al !"%/te#3a#t "C the !"23lete th"%ht "/l* iC
it 5e Celt as 2a$e %3 "C the #a$i!al a/$ #a22ati!al ele2e/ts that l%#B i/ the
#e!esses "C its 4"#$s: It is the 3s*!h"l"i!al !"%/te#3a#t "C e13e#ie/!eA "C a#tA
4he/ it is CeltA as i/$ee$ it /"#2all* isA as the D/ishe$ 3la* "C 4"#$ 4ith 4"#$:
As the /e!essit* "C $eD/i/ th"%ht s"lel* a/$ e1!l%si,el* C"# its "4/ saBe
5e!"2es 2"#e %#e/tA the 4"#$ 5e!"2es i/!#easi/l* i##ele,a/t as a 2ea/s:
8e !a/ the#eC"#e easil* %/$e#sta/$ 4h* the 2athe2ati!ia/ a/$ the s*25"li!
l"i!ia/ a#e $#i,e/ t" $is!a#$ the 4"#$ a/$ t" 5%il$ %3 thei# th"%ht 4ith the
hel3 "C s*25"ls 4hi!h ha,eA ea!h "C the2A a #ii$l* %/ita#* ,al%e:
B%t is /"t the 4"#$A "/e 2a* "5Ke!tA as 2%!h "C a/ a5st#a!ti"/ as the #a$i!al
ele2e/t? Is it /"t as a#5it#a#il* liCte$ "%t "C the li,i/ se/te/!e as is the
2i/i2%2 !"/!e3t%al ele2e/t "%t "C the 4"#$? S"2e st%$e/ts "C la/%ae
ha,eA i/$ee$A l""Be$ %3"/ the 4"#$ as s%!h a/ a5st#a!ti"/A th"%h 4ith ,e#*
$"%5tC%l 4a##a/tA it see2s t" 2e: It is t#%e that i/ 3a#ti!%la# !asesA es3e!iall*
i/ s"2e "C the hihl* s*/theti! la/%aes "C a5"#ii/al A2e#i!aA it is /"t
al4a*s eas* t" sa* 4hethe# a 3a#ti!%la# ele2e/t "C la/%ae is t" 5e
i/te#3#ete$ as a/ i/$e3e/$e/t 4"#$ "# as 3a#t "C a la#e# 4"#$: These
t#a/siti"/al !asesA 3%;;li/ as the* 2a* 5e "/ "!!asi"/A $" /"tA h"4e,e#A
2ate#iall* 4eaBe/ the !ase C"# the 3s*!h"l"i!al ,ali$it* "C the 4"#$:

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Li/%isti! e13e#ie/!eA 5"th as e13#esse$ i/ sta/$a#$i;e$A 4#itte/ C"#2 a/$ as
teste$ i/ $ail* %saeA i/$i!ates ",e#4hel2i/l* that the#e is /"tA as a #%leA the
slihtest $iO!%lt* i/ 5#i/i/ the 4"#$ t" !"/s!i"%s/ess as a 3s*!h"l"i!al
#ealit*: N" 2"#e !"/,i/!i/ test !"%l$ 5e $esi#e$ tha/ thisA that the /a[,e
I/$ia/A .%ite %/a!!%st"2e$ t" the !"/!e3t "C the 4#itte/ 4"#$A has
/e,e#theless /" se#i"%s $iO!%lt* i/ $i!tati/ a te1t t" a li/%isti! st%$e/t
4"#$ 5* 4"#$N he te/$sA "C !"%#seA t" #%/ his 4"#$s t"ethe# as i/ a!t%al
s3ee!hA 5%t iC he is !alle$ t" a halt a/$ is 2a$e t" %/$e#sta/$ 4hat is $esi#e$A
he !a/ #ea$il* is"late the 4"#$s as s%!hA #e3eati/ the2 as %/its: He #e%la#l*
#eC%sesA "/ the "the# ha/$A t" is"late the #a$i!al "# #a22ati!al ele2e/tA "/
the #"%/$ that it S2aBes /" se/se:T 7 8hatA the/A is the "5Ke!ti,e !#ite#i"/ "C
the 4"#$? The s3eaBe# a/$ hea#e# Ceel the 4"#$A let %s #a/tA 5%t h"4 shall 4e
K%stiC* thei# Ceeli/? IC C%/!ti"/ is /"t the %lti2ate !#ite#i"/ "C the 4"#$A 4hat
is?
It is easie# t" asB the .%esti"/ tha/ t" a/s4e# it: The 5est that 4e !a/ $" is
t" sa* that the 4"#$ is "/e "C the s2allestA !"23letel* satisC*i/ 5its "C
is"late$ S2ea/i/T i/t" 4hi!h the se/te/!e #es"l,es itselC: It !a//"t 5e !%t
i/t" 4ith"%t a $ist%#5a/!e "C 2ea/i/A "/e "# the "the# "# 5"th "C the se,e#e$
3a#ts #e2ai/i/ as a hel3less 4aiC "/ "%# ha/$s: I/ 3#a!ti!e this %/3#ete/ti"%s
!#ite#i"/ $"es 5ette# se#,i!e tha/ 2iht 5e s%33"se$: I/ s%!h a se/te/!e as <t
is unthin*ab#e, it is si23l* i23"ssi5le t" #"%3 the ele2e/ts i/t" a/* "the#
a/$ s2alle# S4"#$sT tha/ the th#ee i/$i!ate$: 0hin* "# thin*ab#e 2iht 5e
is"late$A 5%t as /eithe# un( /"# (ab#e /"# is(un *iel$s a 2eas%#a5le
satisCa!ti"/A 4e a#e !"23elle$ t" lea,e unthin*ab#e as a/ i/te#al 4h"leA a
2i/iat%#e 5it "C a#t: A$$e$ t" the SCeelT "C the 4"#$ a#e C#e.%e/tl*A 5%t 5* /"
2ea/s i/,a#ia5l*A !e#tai/ e1te#/al 3h"/eti! !ha#a!te#isti!s: ChieC "C these is

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a!!e/t: I/ 2a/*A 3e#ha3s i/ 2"stA la/%aes the si/le 4"#$ is 2a#Be$ 5* a
%/iC*i/ a!!e/tA a/ e23hasis "/ "/e "C the s*lla5lesA t" 4hi!h the #est a#e
s%5"#$i/ate$: The 3a#ti!%la# s*lla5le that is t" 5e s" $isti/%ishe$ is
$e3e/$e/tA /ee$less t" sa*A "/ the s3e!ial e/i%s "C the la/%ae: The
i23"#ta/!e "C a!!e/t as a %/iC*i/ Ceat%#e "C the 4"#$ is "5,i"%s i/ s%!h
E/lish e1a23les as unthin*ab#e, characteri>in/. The l"/ Pai%te 4"#$ that 4e
ha,e a/al*;e$ is 2a#Be$ as a #ii$ 3h"/eti! %/it 5* se,e#al Ceat%#esA !hieC "C
4hi!h a#e the a!!e/t "/ its se!"/$ s*lla5le FwiK( SB/iCeTG a/$ the sl%##i/
FS%/,"i!i/AT t" %se the te!h/i!al 3h"/eti! te#2G "C its D/al ,"4el F(mG,
a/i2ate 3l%#alG: S%!h Ceat%#es as a!!e/tA !a$e/!eA a/$ the t#eat2e/t "C
!"/s"/a/ts a/$ ,"4els 4ithi/ the 5"$* "C a 4"#$ a#e "Cte/ %seC%l as ai$s i/
the e1te#/al $e2a#!ati"/ "C the 4"#$A 5%t the* 2%st 5* /" 2ea/s 5e
i/te#3#ete$A as is s"2eti2es $"/eA as the2sel,es #es3"/si5le C"# its
3s*!h"l"i!al e1iste/!e: The* at 5est 5%t st#e/the/ a Ceeli/ "C %/it* that is
al#ea$* 3#ese/t "/ "the# #"%/$s:
8e ha,e al#ea$* see/ that the 2aK"# C%/!ti"/al %/it "C s3ee!hA the se/te/!eA
hasA liBe the 4"#$A a 3s*!h"l"i!al as 4ell as a 2e#el* l"i!al "# a5st#a!te$
e1iste/!e: Its $eD/iti"/ is /"t $iO!%lt: It is the li/%isti! e13#essi"/ "C a
3#"3"siti"/: It !"25i/es a s%5Ke!t "C $is!"%#se 4ith a state2e/t i/ #ea#$ t"
this s%5Ke!t: S%5Ke!t a/$ S3#e$i!ateT 2a* 5e !"25i/e$ i/ a si/le 4"#$A as i/
Lati/ .ico? ea!h 2a* 5e e13#esse$ i/$e3e/$e/tl*A as i/ the E/lish
e.%i,ale/tA < say? ea!h "# eithe# 2a* 5e s" .%aliDe$ as t" lea$ t" !"23le1
3#"3"siti"/s "C 2a/* s"#ts: N" 2atte# h"4 2a/* "C these .%aliC*i/ ele2e/ts
F4"#$s "# C%/!ti"/al 3a#ts "C 4"#$sG a#e i/t#"$%!e$A the se/te/!e $"es /"t
l"se its Ceeli/ "C %/it* s" l"/ as ea!h a/$ e,e#* "/e "C the2 Calls i/ 3la!e as
!"/t#i5%t"#* t" the $eD/iti"/ "C eithe# the s%5Ke!t "C $is!"%#se "# the !"#e "C
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the 3#e$i!ate: < S%!h a se/te/!e as 0he mayor o$ 6ew @or* is /oin/ to .e#iver
a s%eech o$ we#come in Hrench is #ea$il* Celt as a %/iDe$ state2e/tA i/!a3a5le
"C #e$%!ti"/ 5* the t#a/sCe# "C !e#tai/ "C its ele2e/tsA i/ thei# i,e/ C"#2A t"
the 3#e!e$i/ "# C"ll"4i/ se/te/!es: The !"/t#i5%t"#* i$eas "C o$ 6ew @or*,
o$ we#come, a/$ in Hrench 2a* 5e eli2i/ate$ 4ith"%t h%#ti/ the i$i"2ati!
U"4 "C the se/te/!e: 0he mayor is /oin/ to .e#iver a s%eech is a 3e#Ce!tl*
i/tellii5le 3#"3"siti"/: B%t C%#the# tha/ this 4e !a//"t " i/ the 3#"!ess "C
#e$%!ti"/: 8e !a//"t sa*A C"# i/sta/!eA -ayor is /oin/ to .e#iver. ' The
#e$%!e$ se/te/!e #es"l,es itselC i/t" the s%5Ke!t "C $is!"%#seWthe mayorW
a/$ the 3#e$i!ateWis /oin/ to .e#iver a s%eech. It is !%st"2a#* t" sa* that the
t#%e s%5Ke!t "C s%!h a se/te/!e is mayor, the t#%e 3#e$i!ate is /oin/ "# e,e/
is, the "the# ele2e/ts 5ei/ st#i!tl* s%5"#$i/ate: S%!h a/ a/al*sisA h"4e,e#A is
3%#el* s!he2ati! a/$ is 4ith"%t 3s*!h"l"i!al ,al%e: It is 2%!h 5ette# C#a/Bl*
t" #e!"/i;e the Ca!t that eithe# "# 5"th "C the t4" te#2s "C the se/te/!eI
3#"3"siti"/ 2a* 5e i/!a3a5le "C e13#essi"/ i/ the C"#2 "C si/le 4"#$s: The#e
a#e la/%aes that !a/ !"/,e* all that is !"/,e*e$ 5* 0he(mayor is(/oin/(to(
.e#iver(a(s%eech i/ t4" 4"#$sA a s%5Ke!t 4"#$ a/$ a 3#e$i!ate 4"#$A 5%t
E/lish is /"t s" hihl* s*/theti!: The 3"i/t that 4e a#e #eall* 2aBi/ he#e is
that %/$e#l*i/ the D/ishe$ se/te/!e is a li,i/ se/te/!e t*3eA "C D1e$ C"#2al
!ha#a!te#isti!s: These D1e$ t*3es "# a!t%al se/te/!eI#"%/$I4"#Bs 2a* 5e
C#eel* ",e#lai$ 5* s%!h a$$iti"/al 2atte# as the s3eaBe# "# 4#ite# !a#es t" 3%t
"/A 5%t the* a#e the2sel,es as #ii$l* Si,e/T 5* t#a$iti"/ as a#e the #a$i!al
a/$ #a22ati!al ele2e/ts a5st#a!te$ C#"2 the D/ishe$ 4"#$: Ne4 4"#$s 2a*
5e !"/s!i"%sl* !#eate$ C#"2 these C%/$a2e/tal ele2e/ts "/ the a/al"* "C
"l$ "/esA 5%t ha#$l* /e4 t*3es "C 4"#$s: I/ the sa2e 4a* /e4 se/te/!es a#e
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5ei/ !"/sta/tl* !#eate$A 5%t al4a*s "/ st#i!tl* t#a$iti"/al li/es: The e/la#e$
se/te/!eA h"4e,e#A all"4s as a #%le "C !"/si$e#a5le C#ee$"2 i/ the ha/$li/ "C
4hat 2a* 5e !alle$ S%/esse/tialT 3a#ts: It is this 2a#i/ "C C#ee$"2 4hi!h
i,es %s the "33"#t%/it* "C i/$i,i$%al st*le:
The ha5it%al ass"!iati"/ "C #a$i!al ele2e/tsA #a22ati!al ele2e/tsA 4"#$sA
a/$ se/te/!es 4ith !"/!e3ts "# #"%3s "C !"/!e3ts #elate$ i/t" 4h"les is the
Ca!t itselC "C la/%ae: It is i23"#ta/t t" /"te that the#e is i/ all la/%aes a
!e#tai/ #a/$"2/ess "C ass"!iati"/: Th%sA the i$ea "C Shi$eT 2a* 5e als"
e13#esse$ 5* the 4"#$ S!"/!ealAT the /"ti"/ "C Sth#ee ti2esT als" 5* Sth#i!e:T
The 2%lti3le e13#essi"/ "C a si/le !"/!e3t is %/i,e#sall* Celt as a s"%#!e "C
li/%isti! st#e/th a/$ ,a#iet*A /"t as a /ee$less e1t#a,aa/!e: M"#e i#Bs"2e
is a #a/$"2 !"##es3"/$e/!e 5et4ee/ i$ea a/$ li/%isti! e13#essi"/ i/ the
Del$ "C a5st#a!t a/$ #elati"/al !"/!e3tsA 3a#ti!%la#l* 4he/ the !"/!e3t is
e25"$ie$ i/ a #a22ati!al ele2e/t: Th%sA the #a/$"2/ess "C the e13#essi"/
"C 3l%#alit* i/ s%!h 4"#$s as boo*s, o9en, shee%, a/$ /eese is Celt t" 5e #athe#
2"#eA I Ca/!*A a/ %/a,"i$a5le a/$ t#a$iti"/al 3#e$i!a2e/t tha/ a 4el!"2e
l%1%#ia/!e: It is "5,i"%s that a la/%ae !a//"t " 5e*"/$ a !e#tai/ 3"i/t i/
this #a/$"2/ess: Ma/* la/%aes " i/!#e$i5l* Ca# i/ this #es3e!tA it is t#%eA
5%t li/%isti! hist"#* sh"4s !"/!l%si,el* that s""/e# "# late# the less
C#e.%e/tl* "!!%##i/ ass"!iati"/s a#e i#"/e$ "%t at the e13e/se "C the 2"#e
,ital "/es: I/ "the# 4"#$sA all la/%aes ha,e a/ i/he#e/t te/$e/!* t"
e!"/"2* "C e13#essi"/: 8e#e this te/$e/!* e/ti#el* i/"3e#ati,eA the#e 4"%l$
5e /" #a22a#: The Ca!t "C #a22a#A a %/i,e#sal t#ait "C la/%aeA is si23l* a
e/e#ali;e$ e13#essi"/ "C the Ceeli/ that a/al""%s !"/!e3ts a/$ #elati"/s
a#e 2"st !"/,e/ie/tl* s*25"li;e$ i/ a/al""%s C"#2s: 8e#e a la/%ae e,e#
!"23letel* S#a22ati!alAT it 4"%l$ 5e a 3e#Ce!t e/i/e "C !"/!e3t%al

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e13#essi"/: U/C"#t%/atel*A "# l%!Bil*A /" la/%ae is t*#a//i!all* !"/siste/t: All
#a22a#s leaB:
U3 t" the 3#ese/t 4e ha,e 5ee/ ass%2i/ that the 2ate#ial "C la/%ae
#eUe!ts 2e#el* the 4"#l$ "C !"/!e3ts a/$A "/ 4hat I ha,e ,e/t%#e$ t" !all the
S3#e#ati"/alT 3la/eA "C i2aesA 4hi!h a#e the #a4 2ate#ial "C !"/!e3ts: 8e
ha,eA i/ "the# 4"#$sA 5ee/ ass%2i/ that la/%ae 2",es e/ti#el* i/ the
i$eati"/al "# !"/iti,e s3he#e: It is ti2e that 4e a23liDe$ the 3i!t%#e: The
,"liti"/al as3e!t "C !"/s!i"%s/ess als" is t" s"2e e1te/t e13li!itl* 3#",i$e$ C"#
i/ la/%ae: Nea#l* all la/%aes ha,e s3e!ial 2ea/s C"# the e13#essi"/ "C
!"22a/$s Fi/ the i23e#ati,e C"#2s "C the ,e#5A C"# e1a23leG a/$ "C $esi#esA
%/attai/e$ "# %/attai/a5le F;ou#. he mi/ht come5 "# ;ou#. he were here5G
The e2"ti"/sA "/ the 4h"leA see2 t" 5e i,e/ a less a$e.%ate "%tlet:
E2"ti"/A i/$ee$A is 3#",e#5iall* i/!li/e$ t" s3ee!hless/ess: M"stA iC /"t allA the
i/te#Ke!ti"/s a#e t" 5e 3%t t" the !#e$it "C e2"ti"/al e13#essi"/A als"A it 2a*
5eA a /%25e# "C li/%isti! ele2e/ts e13#essi/ !e#tai/ 2"$alitiesA s%!h as
$%5itati,e "# 3"te/tial C"#2sA 4hi!h 2a* 5e i/te#3#ete$ as #eUe!ti/ the
e2"ti"/al states "C hesitati"/ "# $"%5tWatte/%ate$ Cea#: O/ the 4h"leA it
2%st 5e a$2itte$ that i$eati"/ #ei/s s%3#e2e i/ la/%aeA that ,"liti"/ a/$
e2"ti"/ !"2e i/ as $isti/!tl* se!"/$a#* Ca!t"#s: ThisA aCte# allA is 3e#Ce!tl*
i/tellii5le: The 4"#l$ "C i2ae a/$ !"/!e3tA the e/$less a/$ e,e#IshiCti/
3i!t%#e "C "5Ke!ti,e #ealit*A is the %/a,"i$a5le s%5Ke!tI2atte# "C h%2a/
!"22%/i!ati"/A C"# it is "/l*A "# 2ai/l*A i/ te#2s "C this 4"#l$ that eMe!ti,e
a!ti"/ is 3"ssi5le: Desi#eA 3%#3"seA e2"ti"/ a#e the 3e#s"/al !"l"# "C the
"5Ke!ti,e 4"#l$N the* a#e a33lie$ 3#i,atel* 5* the i/$i,i$%al s"%l a/$ a#e "C
#elati,el* little i23"#ta/!e t" the /eih5"#i/ "/e: All this $"es /"t 2ea/ that
,"liti"/ a/$ e2"ti"/ a#e /"t e13#esse$: The* a#eA st#i!tl* s3eaBi/A /e,e#

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a5se/t C#"2 /"#2al s3ee!hA 5%t thei# e13#essi"/ is /"t "C a t#%l* li/%isti!
/at%#e: The /%a/!es "C e23hasisA t"/eA a/$ 3h#asi/A the ,a#*i/ s3ee$ a/$
!"/ti/%it* "C %tte#a/!eA the a!!"23a/*i/ 5"$il* 2",e2e/tsA all these
e13#ess s"2ethi/ "C the i//e# liCe "C i23%lse a/$ Ceeli/A 5%t as these 2ea/s
"C e13#essi"/ a#eA at last a/al*sisA 5%t 2"$iDe$ C"#2s "C the i/sti/!ti,e
%tte#a/!e that 2a/ sha#es 4ith the l"4e# a/i2alsA the* !a//"t 5e !"/si$e#e$
as C"#2i/ 3a#t "C the esse/tial !%lt%#al !"/!e3ti"/ "C la/%aeA h"4e,e#
2%!h the* 2a* 5e i/se3a#a5le C#"2 its a!t%al liCe: A/$ this i/sti/!ti,e
e13#essi"/ "C ,"liti"/ a/$ e2"ti"/ isA C"# the 2"st 3a#tA s%O!ie/tA "Cte/ 2"#e
tha/ s%O!ie/tA C"# the 3%#3"ses "C !"22%/i!ati"/:
The#e a#eA it is t#%eA !e#tai/ 4#ite#s "/ the 3s*!h"l"* "C la/%ae = 4h"
$e/* its 3#e,aili/l* !"/iti,e !ha#a!te# 5%t atte23tA "/ the !"/t#a#*A t"
$e2"/st#ate the "#ii/ "C 2"st li/%isti! ele2e/ts 4ithi/ the $"2ai/ "C
Ceeli/: I !"/Cess that I a2 %tte#l* %/a5le t" C"ll"4 the2: 8hat the#e is "C
t#%th i/ thei# !"/te/ti"/s 2a* 5e s%22e$ %3A it see2s t" 2eA 5* sa*i/ that
2"st 4"#$sA liBe 3#a!ti!all* all ele2e/ts "C !"/s!i"%s/essA ha,e a/ ass"!iate$
Ceeli/It"/eA a 2il$A *et /"/e the less #eal a/$ at ti2es i/si$i"%sl* 3"4e#C%lA
$e#i,ati,e "C 3leas%#e "# 3ai/: This Ceeli/It"/eA h"4e,e#A is /"t as a #%le a/
i/he#e/t ,al%e i/ the 4"#$ itselCN it is #athe# a se/ti2e/tal #"4th "/ the
4"#$Hs t#%e 5"$*A "/ its !"/!e3t%al Be#/el: N"t "/l* 2a* the Ceeli/It"/e
!ha/e C#"2 "/e ae t" a/"the# FthisA "C !"%#seA is t#%e "C the !"/!e3t%al
!"/te/t as 4ellGA 5%t it ,a#ies #e2a#Ba5l* C#"2 i/$i,i$%al t" i/$i,i$%al
a!!"#$i/ t" the 3e#s"/al ass"!iati"/s "C ea!hA ,a#iesA i/$ee$A C#"2 ti2e t"
ti2e i/ a si/le i/$i,i$%alHs !"/s!i"%s/ess as his e13e#ie/!es 2"l$ hi2 a/$
his 2""$s !ha/e: T" 5e s%#eA the#e a#e s"!iall* a!!e3te$ Ceeli/It"/esA "#
#a/es "C Ceeli/It"/eA C"# 2a/* 4"#$s ",e# a/$ a5",e the C"#!e "C i/$i,i$%al

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ass"!iati"/A 5%t the* a#e e1!ee$i/l* ,a#ia5le a/$ el%si,e thi/s at 5est: The*
#a#el* ha,e the #ii$it* "C the !e/t#alA 3#i2a#* Ca!t: 8e all #a/tA C"# i/sta/!eA
that storm, tem%est, a/$ hurricane, .%ite asi$e C#"2 thei# sliht $iMe#e/!es "C
a!t%al 2ea/i/A ha,e $isti/!t Ceeli/It"/esA t"/es that a#e Celt 5* all se/siti,e
s3eaBe#s a/$ #ea$e#s "C E/lish i/ a #"%hl* e.%i,ale/t Cashi"/: 7torm, 4e
CeelA is a 2"#e e/e#al a/$ a $e!i$e$l* less S2a/iD!e/tT 4"#$ tha/ the "the#
t4"N tem%est is /"t "/l* ass"!iate$ 4ith the sea 5%t is liBel*A i/ the 2i/$s "C
2a/*A t" ha,e "5tai/e$ a s"Cte/e$ la2"%# C#"2 a s3e!iD! ass"!iati"/ 4ith
ShaBes3ea#eHs #eat 3la*N hurricane has a #eate# C"#th#iht/essA a $i#e!te#
#%thless/ess tha/ its s*/"/*2s: Yet the i/$i,i$%alHs Ceeli/It"/es C"# these
4"#$s a#e liBel* t" ,a#* e/"#2"%sl*: T" s"2e tem%est a/$ hurricane 2a*
see2 Ss"CtAT lite#a#* 4"#$sA the si23le# storm ha,i/ a C#eshA #%e$ ,al%e
4hi!h the "the#s $" /"t 3"ssess Fthi/B "C storm an. stressG: IC 4e ha,e
5#"4se$ 2%!h i/ "%# !hil$h""$ $a*s i/ 5""Bs "C the S3a/ish Mai/A hurricane
is liBel* t" ha,e a 3leas%#a5l* 5#a!i/ t"/eN iC 4e ha,e ha$ the 2isC"#t%/e t"
5e !a%ht i/ "/eA 4e a#e /"t %/liBel* t" Ceel the 4"#$ as !"l$A !hee#lessA
si/iste#:
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The Ceeli/It"/es "C 4"#$s a#e "C /" %seA st#i!tl* s3eaBi/A t" s!ie/!eN the
3hil"s"3he#A iC he $esi#es t" a##i,e at t#%th #athe# tha/ 2e#el* t" 3e#s%a$eA
D/$s the2 his 2"st i/si$i"%s e/e2ies: B%t 2a/ is #a#el* e/ae$ i/ 3%#e
s!ie/!eA i/ s"li$ thi/Bi/: Ge/e#all* his 2e/tal a!ti,ities a#e 5athe$ i/ a 4a#2
!%##e/t "C Ceeli/ a/$ he sei;es %3"/ the Ceeli/It"/es "C 4"#$s as e/tle ai$s
t" the $esi#e$ e1!itati"/: The* a#e /at%#all* "C #eat ,al%e t" the lite#a#*
a#tist: It is i/te#esti/ t" /"teA h"4e,e#A that e,e/ t" the a#tist the* a#e a
$a/e#: A 4"#$ 4h"se !%st"2a#* Ceeli/It"/e is t"" %/.%esti"/i/l* a!!e3te$
5e!"2es a 3l%sh* 5it "C C%#/it%#eA a c#ichL. E,e#* /"4 a/$ the/ the a#tist has
t" Dht the Ceeli/It"/eA t" et the 4"#$ t" 2ea/ 4hat it /aBe$l* a/$
!"/!e3t%all* sh"%l$ 2ea/A $e3e/$i/ C"# the eMe!t "C Ceeli/ "/ the !#eati,e
3"4e# "C a/ i/$i,i$%al K%1ta3"siti"/ "C !"/!e3ts "# i2aes:

E
4/3/ Ess+.0(&' o1 /oo- 2ro.u.)(&0(o.
+" 1lending, ,hrasing and #ntonation
." 4ood sentence construction
/" Effective e'pression
LO" USE NON7VER!AL COMMUNICATION CUES
%33E33<E=T R#TER#%*
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+" =on-ver$al communication cues used in customer and co-workers are
appropriately identified"
." =on-ver$al cues appropriate to workplace situation are use and
demonstrated"
/" <essages to suit non-ver$al cues are correctly modified to convey ideas"
-=TE=T3*
+" ,roper posture
." Dand movements and application
/" 7acial e'pression in various conte't
0" olor
2" %ppearance/good grooming
+" Learning modules/handouts on non-ver$al communication cues"
." lassmates/4roup <ates
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LO4 COMMUNICATE >RITTEN OR ELECTRONICALLY IN >RITING
%33E33<E=T R#TER#%*
+" (ritten communication produced is grammatically correct"
." 7aulty sentences are identified"
/" orrect rules on su$!ect-ver$ agreement are applied
0" %ppropriate ver$ tenses are used when stating facts, narrating past events"
2" %ppropriate prepositions in common idiomatic e'pressions are applied"
6" (ritten communication is produced according to accepted format
8" Encoding is undertaken accurately and proficiently in accordance with
esta$lished standards"
9" ,rotocol for electronic messages is properly identified"
E" Electronic messages correctly stored, deleted and forwarded, virus free"
?C. +roper sitting position in using computer is obser%ed according to 0.S
standard
??. )lectrical connections of computer are checked prior to operation
-=TE=T3*
+" %ctive versus passive voice
." 3igns of redundancy and ver$al clutter
/" the importance of $revity
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0" %chieving clarity through word
2" 1alance or parallelism
6" )sing conversational English
8" understanding idioms
9" %voiding 7ilipinisms
E" onstructive language
+5" Re-constructing ineffectual words phrases
++" )se of electronic communication equipment
?9. safety precaution in operating computers
+" computer with peripherals
." internet su$scription
/" 4roup mates/classmates
0" learning modules/handouts on grammar and
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Or#$ Auestionin! 0'ec%$ist
)rainee na"e#
)rainer na"e# %R9/N =. 6A7A)AN
,ualification# $OS N8 //
>nit of co"'etency# ;rovide ;orter (ervices
6ate of assess"ent#
)i"e of assess"ent#
/nstructions for Oral ,uestioning
The trainee will be assessed based on his=her answers to the given 8uestions. The trainer
should not deviate from the standard 8uestions provided herein.
Oral ,uestions (atisfactory response
The trainee should answer the following questions: Yes No
1. What is an Arrivals List?
2. What will the porter do once the guests have been
greeted?

3. What is OH&S?

4. Why most porters desks maintain a directory?

5. Give 3 types of greeting the guest receives from the
porter.

The trainees underpinning knowledge was:
Satisfactory Not Satisfactory
Feedback to trainee:
The trainees overall performance was:
Satisfactory Not Satisfactory
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Trainers signature: Date:
The trainees responses were"
(atisfactory &ot (atisfactory
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Suggested Questions with Answers for Oral Questioning [continued]
Questions with Answers
1. What is an Arrivals List?
Answer: Arrivals List is a necessary tool in the planning undertaken to
receive guests.
2. What will the porter do once the guests have been greeted?
Answer: The guests should be directed to the reception area to
register, as this is a legal requirement.
3. What is OH&S?
Answer:Occupational Health and Safety.
4. Why most porters desks maintain a directory?
Answer: It gives the porter the information needed quickly and
efciently.
5. Give 3 types of greeting the guest receives from the porter.
Answer: professional, personable, welcoming
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TBIRD PARTC REPORT
Trainee8s name
+ame of third
party
4ontact
no.
Position
0elationship with
candidate
K employer K supervisor K colleague K other
+lease specify
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
+lease do not complete the form if you are a relati%e, close friend or
ha%e a conflict of interestE
6ates the trainee wor-ed with
you
F#"29 T"9
4ompetency
Standards
TVET TR)I'ERS
/nit of 4ompetency
&ROVIDE &ORTER SERVICES
The t#ai/ee is 5ei/ assesse$ aai/st the !"23ete/!* sta/$a#$s C"#
8e a#e seeBi/ *"%# s%33"#t i/ the K%$2e/t "C this t#ai/eeHs !"23ete/!e: Please
a/s4e# these .%esti"/s h"/estl* as a #e!"#$ "C the t#ai/eeHs 3e#C"#2a/!e 4hile
4"#Bi/ 4ith *"%: Tha/B *"% C"# *"%# ti2e:
4omments regarding trainees8 performance and e!perience
I $an /eri,y the traineeA# a0iity to:
(tic* the correct res%onseM
Yes N"
N"t
s%#e
Comment# to #u++ort
my re#+on#e#:
7hec# the availability of all resources
re8uired for training.
K
K K
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!eviewed and planned e2pected daily
arrivals and departures and re8uests for
ma-or guest movements are in accordance
with established standards.
K K K
Identify alternative resources for contingency
measures.
K K K
)perate luggage storage system correctly and
in accordance with established procedures
and security re8uirements.
K K K
Identify and arrange appropriate training
locations according to training needs.
K K K
Third party signature 6ate
Send to
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System
Language Tutorial
Services
Representative
NCII
Providing Tutorial
Service
Date Developed:
November 2013
Issued by:
JEL
Page 147 of 70
Developed by:
Erwin B. Dagatan
Revision # 01

Competency Based Learning

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COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING

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