Endocrine System

I. Characteristics of Hormones
A. What Are Hormones?
1. Chemical messengers released by a tissue in to the
bloodstream where they are transported to a specific target
site
. Hormones alter the acti!ities of target cells by
a. stimulating synthesis of a particular en"yme or structural
protein not already present in the cytoplasm by gene
acti!ation
b. increasing or decreasing the rate of synthesis of a particular
protein by altering the rate of transcription or translation
c. acti!ation or deacti!ation of e#isting en"ymes or membrane
channels by altering the shape or structure
$. Classes of Hormones
1. Amino acid deri!ati!es %biogenic amines&
a. synthesi"ed from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan
b. tyrosine deri!ati!es include
' thyroid hormones
' epinephrine
c. tryptophan deri!ati!es include
' melatonin
. (eptide hormones
a. )lycoproteins
' *SH
' +H
' ,SH
b. (olypeptides
' A-H
' h)H
' prolactin
.. +ipid deri!ati!es
a. Eicosanoids
' leu/otrienes
' prostaglandins
b. Steroids
' se# hormones %testosterone0 estrogens&
' corticosteroids
C. Secretion and -istribution
1. After a hormone is released into the bloodstream0 it may
remain functional for an hour or as little as minutes
. Inacti!ation of a hormone occurs when
a. it binds to receptors on the target cells
b. is bro/en down by the li!er or /idneys
c. is bro/en down by plasma en"yme or interstitial en"ymes
-. 1echanisms of Action
1. *he hormone must bind to an appropriate receptor
. 2eceptors may be located
a. on the membrane surface
b. intracellularly 3 %steroid hormones&
II. Hormones of the Anterior (ituitary )land4+ecture 5675.7518
A. )rowth Hormone
1. Indirect Affect
1. stimulates li!er to release I),s %insulin'li/e growth
factors&
. I),s promote an increase in the upta/e of amino acids in
target cells %s/eletal muscle cells0 cartilage cells&
.. I),s stimulate protein synthesis in target cells
. -irect Affect
1. stimulates stem cell di!ision and differentiation in
epithelial and connecti!e tissues
. stimulates the brea/down of triglycerides into fatty acids
and the release of the fatty acids into the bloodstream in
adipose tissues
.. stimulates glycogenolysis in li!er cells
.. Abnormalities
1. hyposecretion in childhood leads to 9pituitary dwarfism:
. hypersecretion in childhood leads to 9giantism:
.. hypersecretion in adulthood leads to Acromegaly
$. ,SH'follicle stimulating hormone'a glycoprotein'a se# hormone
1. In females 3 stimulates follicle de!elopment and combined with
+H0 stimulates the secretion of estrogens by o!arian cells
. In males 3 stimulates Sertoli cells in sperm production
C. +H'luteini"ing hormone'a glycoprotein'a se# hormone
1. In females 3 stimulates o!ulation0 promotes secretion of estrogens
and progesterone0 formation of the corpus luteum
. In males 3 stimulates the release of testosterone
-. *SH'thyroid stimulating hormone
1. Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid
hormones
E. (rolactin
1. In females 3 stimulates the production of mil/
. In males 3 increases +eydig cells sensiti!ity to +uteini"ing
Hormone ' helps stimulate testosterone production
,. AC*H'adrenocorticotropic hormone
1. Stimulates the adrenal corte# to release glucocorticoids %produced
by the in a negati!e feedbac/ loop fashion
III. Hormones of the (osterior (ituitary )land
A. ;#ytocin
1. In females 3 stimulates contraction of the uterus during labor.
Stimulates the release of mil/ %letdown&
. In males 3 function un/nown
$. A-H'antidiuretic hormone %a/a <asopressin0 describes minor effect&
1. Stimulates the reabsorption of water by the /idneys and
!asoconstriction of peripheral blood !essels4reduces water loss
. ;!erall physiologic effect is to increase blood pressure
I<. Hormones of the *hyroid )land
A. *hyroid hormones %*. and *8&
1. Stimulate basal metabolic rate %$12&
. (roduction of *. and *8 re=uires dietary inta/e of iodine
.. *he release of *. and *8 is regulated by *SH in a negati!e
feedbac/ loop
8. Abnormalities
a. hypothyroidism 3 in infants it leads to 9cretinism: a se!ere
form of mental retardation. *he condition affects 17>05550
but is treatable with e#ogenous hormones. In adults0 the
signs and symptoms are collecti!ely /nown as my#edema
which includes subcutaneous swelling0 dry s/in0 hair loss0
low body temperature0 muscular wea/ness0 slow refle#es0
lethargy and intolerance to cold. In some cases the thyroid
may enlarge forming a goiter %due to iodine deficiency&
b. hyperthyroidism 3 symptoms include increased metabolic
rate0 increased $( and H20 restlessness0 e#citability0
insomnia0 mood swings. In one instance0 an autoimmune
disorder %)ra!es?s disease& leads to hyperthyroidism
$. Calcitonin
1. 2egulates Ca
@@
le!el in the blood %lowers Ca
@@
&
a. inhibits the release of Ca
@@
stored in the bones
b. stimulates the e#cretion of Ca
@@
in the /idneys
<. Hormones of the (arathyroid )land
A. (arathyroid Hormone %(*H& 2egulates Ca
@@
le!el in the blood %raises Ca
@
@
&
1. Stimulates absorption of Ca
@@
by the )I tract
. Stimulates /idneys to reabsorb Ca
@@
.. Abnormalities
a. hypoparathyroidism 3 leads to low Ca
@@
le!els in body
fluids. Aer!ous system becomes e#citable0 which may lead
to hypocalcemic tetany0 which in!ol!es prolonged muscle
spasms to the limbs and face. -ietary calcium and !itamin
- are used to treat condition
b. hyperparathyroidism 3 leads to wea/ening of bones o!er
time0 CAS function is depressed0 memory impairment0
mood swings and depression.
<I. Hormones of the Adrenal Corte#'naturally produced by the body
A. )lucocorticoids %hydrocortisone0 corticosterone& '' +ecture Buly C0 518
A couple of conditions associated to this hormone familyD
Cushing?s syndrome ' e#cess glucocorticoids
(ictureD a man?s buffalo hump 3 due to e#cess fat deposits0 because
glucocorticoids are in!ol!ed in glucose metabolism
Addison?s -iseaseD It could be e#plained as primary adrenal gland
insufficiency4adrenal corte# damage will result in decrease in
glucocorticoids %hydrocortisone0 cortisol&E decrease in mineralocorticoids
%aldosterone&. It will result in hyperpigmentation because if adrenal corte#
is failing0 the pituitary gland will /eep producing AC*H 3 through
en"ymatic acti!ity0 AC*H will be con!erted to 1SH %related to
hyperpigmentation&. ;ther impacts ' hyper/alemia %sodium is e#creted0
potassium stays behind but at abnormally high le!els&
1. 2egulate glucose metabolism
. AC*H stimulates the release of glucocorticoids in a negati!e
feedbac/ loop
.. Ha!e an anti'inflammatory effect by inhibiting the acti!ities of
white blood cells and other components of the immune system
$. 1ineralocorticoids %1ain oneD Aldosterone&
1. Stimulates the retention of Aa
@
in the /idney0 sweat glands0
sali!ary glands and pancreas
. Stimulates the e#cretion of F
@
in the /idneys
.. *he retention of Aa
@
leads to the retention of water
C. Androgens
1. Wea/ se# hormones
-. Abnormalities
1. Addison?s -isease 3 results from inade=uate secretion of
glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Symptoms include
wea/ness and weight loss0 hypotension0 hypo!olemia
. Cushing?s syndrome 3 due to the o!erproduction of
glucocorticoids. Symptoms include suppression of glucose
metabolism0 changes in fat distribution %de!elopment of a 9buffalo
hump: and 9moon face:&0 loss of muscle strength
.. hypoaldosteronism 3 symptoms include e#cessi!e loss of water
and Aa
@
which leads to low blood !olume and $(0 hyper/alemia
which leads to neural and muscular dysfunction
8. hyperaldosteronism 3 symptoms include hypertension0
hypo/alemia resulting cardiac dysfunction0 neural and /idney
dysfunction
<II. Hormones of the (ancreas %two main hormones&
A. Insulin
1. Secreted by G'pancreatic cells '
. Stimulates the upta/e of glucose from the bloodstream by s/eletal
muscle and the li!er
.. *he effect is to lower blood glucose le!els
8. -iabetes 1ellitus
>. *ype I -iabetes 3 genetic ma/e'up appears to contribute to
de!elopment of this disease
H. *ype I -iabetes may also de!elop after a high fe!er 3 due to
immune system cross'reacti!ity that results in the attac/ of beta'
pancreatic cells
6. It is also a macro'!ascular disorder
C. )reater ris/ of cardio!ascular disease0 poor circulation in the
digits0 will cause additional circulation issues as the disease
progresses
I. *ype II -iabetes used to be a middle'age problem0 but not so
anymore. 2elated to obesity. Adipose tissue functions also secrete
hormones that regulate insulin receptors. In the case of obese
people0 some of the secreted hormones appear a down'regulation
of insulin receptors %receptors are shut down0 they stop responding
to insulin&. Some traits of *ype II -iabetes include high le!els of
insulin and high le!els of blood glucoseE pancreatic cells are
Jburned.? *ype II -iabetes can be regulated !ia lifestyle changes.
$. )lucagon %opposite effect to insulin&
1. Secreted by K'pancreatic cells
. Stimulates the brea/down of stored glycogen in s/eletal muscle
%during times of fasting&
.. Stimulates the brea/down of stored glycogen and release into the
bloodstream in the li!er
8. *he effect is to raise blood glucose le!els
C. Abnormalities
1. -iabetes 1ellitus %I--1&
a. I--1 3 destruction of G'pancreatic cells by the immune
system results the loss of insulin production.
. AI--1
a. genetic predisposition
b. aging and obesity are common ris/ factors but not causes