Short Notes Chemistry

Chemical Formulae and Equation

Calculation Calculation

Summary Summary








molar volume
molar volume
molar mass
Avogadro Constant
Number of
particles
Mole of
particles
Mass of particle
(in gram)
Avogadro Constant molar mass
Volume of
Gas
For Solid, liquid or gas

mass of subtance
number of mole =
molar mass


Molar mass =RAM/RMM/RFM in gram
For gas (only)

volume of gas
number of mole =
molar volme


Molar volume =24dm
3
at room temperature
Molar volume =22.4dm
3
at s.t.p.

For Solution

MV
number of mole =
1000


M =molarity
V =Volume of solution in cm
3

For quantity of particle(atom,molecule,ion)

23
quantity of particle
number of mole =
6.02 10



Chemical Formula

Cation (Positive Ions)

Ion Symbol Ion Symbol Ion Symbol
Potassium K
+
Calcium Ca
2+
Aluminium Al
3+

Sodium Na
+
Magnesium
Mg
2+

Iron (III) Fe
3+

Lithium Li
+
Zinc
Zn
2+

Chromium(III) Cr
3+

Hydrogen H
+
Barium
Ba
2+


Argentums(I) Ag
+
Iron (II)
Fe
2+


Mercury(I) Hg
+
Tin (II)
Sn
2+


Ammonium NH
4
+
Lead(II)
Pb
2+


Copper(II)
Cu
2+


Manganese(II)
Mn
2+



Anion (Negative Ions)

Ion Symbol Ion Symbol Ion Symbol
Oxide
O
2-

Hydroxide
OH
-

Ethanoate
CH
3
COO
-

Fluoride
F
-

Sulphate
SO
4
2-

Manganate(VII)
MnO
4
-

Chloride
Cl
-

Nitrate
NO
3
-

Dichromate(VI)
Cr
2
O
7
2-

Bromide
Br
-

Carbonate
CO
3
2-

Phosphate
PO
4
3-

Iodide
I
-



Thiosulphate
S
2
O
3
2-


Formulae for Certain Molecule

Karbon monoxide CO Ammonia NH
3

Carbon dioxide CO
2
water H
2
O
Nitrogen monoxide NO Hydrogen chloride HCl
Nitrogen dioxide NO
2
Tetrachloromethane CCl
4

Sulphur dioxide SO
2
Glucose C
6
H
12
O
6

Sulphur trioxide SO
3
Hydrogen bromide HBr
Fluorine F
2
Hydrogen iodide HI
Bromine Br
2
Hydrogen sulphide H
2
S
Chlorine Cl
2
Ethanol C
2
H
5
OH
Iodine I
2
Ethanoic Acid CH
3
COOH





Periodic Table
Reaction of Group 1 Elements

1. Reaction with Oxygen
The entire group 1 metal can react with oxygen to form metal oxide.
4Li +O
2
2Li
2
O
4Na +O
2
2Na
2
O
4K +O
2
2K
2
O

The metal oxide of group 1 elements can dissolve in water to form alkali (hydroxide) solution
Li
2
O +H
2
O 2LiOH
Na
2
O +H
2
O 2NaOH
K
2
O +H
2
O 2KOH

2. Reaction with halogen (Chlorine)
2Li +Cl
2
2LiCl
2Na +Cl
2
2NaCl
2K +Cl
2
2KCl

3. Reaction with water
The entire group 1 metal can react with water to produce alkali (hydroxide) solution and hydrogen gas.
2Li +2H
2
O 2LiOH +H
2

2Na +2H
2
O 2NaOH +H
2

2K +2H
2
O 2KOH +H
2


Reaction of Group 17 Elements

1. React with water
Cl
2
+H
2
O HCl +HOCl
Br
2
+H
2
O HBr +HOBr
I
2
+H
2
O HI +HOI

2. React with Sodium Hydroxide
Cl
2
+ 2NaOH NaCl + NaOCl + H
2
O
Br
2
+ 2NaOH NaBr + NaOBr + H
2
O
I
2
+ 2NaOH NaI + NaOI + H
2
O

3. React with Iron
3Cl
2
+2Fe 2FeCl
3

3Br
2
+2Fe 2FeBr
3

3I
2
+2Fe 2FeI
3


Preparation of Chlorine Gas
2KMnO
4
+16HCl 2KCl +2MnCl
2
+5Cl
2
+8H
2
O


Electrochemistry

Electrolyte

Ionisation of Electrolyte
Ionisation of Molten Compound
PbBr
2
Pb
2+
+Br
-

NaCl Na
+
+Cl
-

Al
2
O
3
2Al
3+
+3O
2-


Ionisation of Aqueous Solution

NaCl Na
+
+Cl
-

H
2
O H
+
+OH
-



HCl H
+
+Cl
-

H
2
O H
+
+OH
-



CuSO
4
Cu
2+
+SO
4
2-

H
2
O H
+
+OH
-



Discharge of Positive Ion Discharge of Negative Ion
Na
+
+e Na
Observation:
Grey deposit is formed.

Al
3+
+3e Al
Observation:
Grey deposit is formed.

Pb
2+
+2e Pb
Observation:
Grey deposit is formed.

Cu
2+
+2e Cu
Observation:
Brown deposit is formed.

Ag
+
+e Ag
Observation:
Silver deposit is formed.

2H
+
+2e H
2

Observation:
Gas bubble is formed. A pop sound is produced
when a lighted splinter is placed near the mouth of
the test tube.
2Cl
-
Cl
2
+2e
Observation:
Bubbles of pungent yellowish green gas are
produced. The gas turns moist litmus paper to red
and then bleaches it.

2Br
-
Br
2
+2e
Observation:
Molten electrolyte:
Brown colour gas is produced.

Aqueous solution:
Light brown solution is formed.

2I
-
I
2
+2e
Observation:
Molten electrolyte:
Brown colour gas is produced.

Aqueous solution:
Light brown solution is formed. The solution turns
blue when a few drops of starch solution is added in.

4OH
-
O
2
+2H
2
O +4e
Observation:
Gas bubble is formed. Gas produces light up a
wooden splinter.





Acid and Base
Ionisation of Acid

Hydrochloric Acid
HCl H
+
+Cl
-

HCl +H
2
O H
3
O
+
+Cl
-


Nitric Acid
HNO
3
H
+
+NO
3
-

HNO
3
+H
2
O H
3
O
+
+NO
3
-





Sulphuric Acid
H
2
SO
4
H
+
+SO
4
2-

H
2
SO
4
+2H
2
O 2H
3
O
+
+SO
4
2-



Ethanoic Acid
CH
3
COOH H
+
+CH
3
COO
-

CH
3
COOH +H
2
O H
3
O
+
+CH
3
COO
-


Chemical Properties of Acid

Acid + Reactive Metal Salt + H
2

Example:
2HCl +Zn ZnCl
2
+H
2

6HNO
3
+2Fe 2Fe(NO
3
)
3
+3H
2

H
2
SO
4
+Pb PbSO
4
+H
2

6CH
3
COOH +2Al 2Al(CH
3
COO)
3
+3H
2


Acid + Metal Oxide Salt + H
2
O
Example:
2HCl +ZnO ZnCl
2
+H
2
O
2HNO
3
+MgO Mg(NO
3
)
2
+H
2
O
H
2
SO
4
+CuO CuSO
4
+H
2
O
2CH
3
COOH +Na
2
O 2CH
3
COO
-
Na
+
+H
2
O

Acid + Metal Hydroxide Salt + H
2
O
Example:
2HCl +Ca(OH)
2
CaCl
2
+2H
2
O
HNO
3
+NaOH NaNO
3
+H
2
O
H
2
SO
4
+2NH
4
OH (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
+2H
2
O or H
2
SO
4
+2NH
3
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4

CH
3
COOH +KOH CH
3
COO
-
K
+
+H
2
O

Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + CO
2
+ H
2
O
Example:
2HCl +ZnCO
3
ZnCl
2
+CO
2
+H
2
O
2HNO
3
+CaCO
3
Ca(NO
3
)
2
+CO
2
+H
2
O
H
2
SO
4
+Na
2
CO
3
Na
2
SO
4
+CO
2
+H
2
O
2CH
3
COOH +MgCO
3
Mg(CH
3
COO)
2
+CO
2
+H
2
O


Salt
Solubility of Salt

Salt Solubility
Salt of potassium, sodium and ammonium All are soluble in water
Salt of nitrate All are soluble in water
Salt of sulphate Mostly soluble in water except:
(Pb) Lead sulphate
(Ba) Barium sulphate
(Ca) Calcium sulphate
Salt of chloride Mostly soluble in water except:
(Pb) Lead chloride
(Ag) silver chloride
(Hg) mercury chloride
Salt of carbonate Mostly insoluble in water except:
Potassium carbonate
Sodium carbonate
Ammonium carbonate
Oxide and Hydroxide Solubility
Oxide Mostly insoluble in water except: K
2
O and Na
2
O.
Hydroxide Mostly insoluble in water except: NH
4
OH, KOH and NaOH

Preparation of Salt

Preparation of Soluble Salt

Salt of Potassium, Sodium and Ammonium

Acid +Alkali Salt +Water

Example: Preparation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

HCl +NaOH NaCl +H
2
O


Salt of non-Potassium, Sodium and Ammonium

Acid +Reactive metal Salt +Hydrogen Gas
Acid +Metal Oxide Salt +Water
Acid +Metal Carbonate Salt +Water +Carbon Dioxide

Example: Preparation of Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO
4
)

H
2
SO
4
+Zn ZnSO
4
+H
2

H
2
SO
4
+ZnO ZnSO
4
+H
2
O
H
2
SO
4
+ZnCO
3
ZnSO
4
+H
2
O +CO
2



6


Preparation of Insoluble Salt

Ionic Precipitation
Insoluble salts can be made by double decomposition. This involves mixing a solution that contains its
positive ions with another solution that contains its negative ions.

Example: Preparation of Silver Nitrate
AgNO
3

(aq)
+NaCl
(aq)
AgCl
(s)
+NaNO
3

(aq)

Ag
+

(aq)
+C1
-

(aq)
AgCl
(s)
(ionic equation)


Colour of Salt

Salt or metal oxide Solid Aqueous solution
Salt of:
Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium, zinc,
Lead, ammonium

Chloride, sulphate, nitrate, carbonate
White Colourless
Salt of Copper(II).-
Copper(II) Carbonate Green Insoluble
Copper(II) sulphate, Copper(II) nitrate, Copper(II)
chloride
Blue Blue
Copper(II) oxide Black Insoluble
Salt of Iron (II)
Iron(II) sulphate; Iron(II) nitrate; Iron(ID chloride
Green Green
Salt of Iron (III).
Iron(III) sulphate; Iron(III) nitrate; Iron(III)
chloride
Brown Brown
Lead Iodide
Yellow Insoluble
Lead Chloride
White Insoluble
Zink oxide Yellow when it is hot and
white when it is cold.
Insoluble
Lead(II) oxide- Brown when it is hot and
yellow when it is cold.
Insoluble
Magnesium oxide, Aluminium oxide White Insoluble
Potassium oxide, Sodium oxide, Calcium oxide White Colourless

7


Heating effect on Salt
Heating
Effect
CO
3
2-
NO
3
-
SO
4
2-
Cl
-
Most Probably
Release CO2
Most Probably
Release NO2
Most Probably
Release SO3
Most Probably
No effect

Heating Effect on Carbonate Salt
Carbonate Salt Equation of The Reaction
Potassium carbonate
Sodium carbonate
Not decomposible
Calcium carbonate
Magnesium carbonate
Aluminium carbonate
Zinc carbonate
Iron (III) carbonate
Lead(II) carbonate
Copper(II) carbonate
CaCO
3
CaO +CO
2

MgCO
3
MgO +CO
2

Al
2
(CO
3
)
3
Al
2
O
3
+3CO
2

ZnCO
3
ZnO +CO
2

Fe
2
(CO
3
)
3
Fe
2
O
3
+3CO
2

PbCO
3
PbO +CO
2

CuCO
3
CuO +CO
2


Mercury(II) carbonate
Silver(I) carbonate

2HgCO
3
2Hg +2CO
2
+O
2

2Ag
2
CO
3
4Ag +2CO
2
+O
2


Ammonium carbonate
(NH
4
)
2
CO
3
NH
3
+CO
2
+H
2
O


Heating Effect on Nitrate Salt
Nitrate Salt Equation of The Reaction
Potassium nitrate
Sodium nitrate
2KNO
3
2KNO
2
+O
2

2NaNO
3
2NaNO
2
+O
2

Calcium nitrate
Magnesium nitrate
Aluminium nitrate
Zink nitrate
Iron (III) nitrate
Lead(II) nitrate
Copper(II) nitrate
2Ca(NO
3
)
2
2CaO +4NO
2
+O
2

Mg(NO
3
)
2
2MgO +4NO
2
+O
2

4Al(NO
3
)
3
2Al
2
O
3
+12NO
2
+3O
2

Zn(NO
3
)
2
2ZnO +4NO
2
+O
2

4Fe(NO
3
)
3
2Fe
2
O
3
+12NO
2
+3O
2

Pb(NO
3
)
2
2PbO +4NO
2
+O
2

Cu(NO
3
)
2
2CuO +4NO
2
+O
2

Mercury(II) nitrate
Silver(I) nitrate

Hg(NO
3
)
2
Hg +2NO
2
+O
2

2AgNO
3
2Ag +2NO
2
+O
2

Ammonium nitrate
NH
4
NO
3
N
2
O +2H
2
O
[NOTES: Nitrogen dioxide, NO
2
is acidic gas and is brown in colour.]
8


Heating effect on sulphate salt The heating effect on chloride salts
Most sulphate salts do not decompose by heat. Only
certain sulphate salts are decomposed by heat when
heated strongly.
Zinc sulphate, Copper (II) sulphate, Iron (III)
sulphate
ZnSO
4
ZnO +SO
3

CuSO
4
CuO +SO
3

2Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
Fe
2
O
3
+SO
2
+SO
3


Ammonium sulphate
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
2NH
3
+H
2
SO
4

All chloride salts are not decomposable by heat
except ammonium chloride.
Example:

NH
4
Cl NH
3
+HCl


Identification of Gases
Gasses Characteristics
Oxygen Rekindle glowing splinter.
Hydrogen Explode with a pop sound when brought close to a lighted splinter.
Carbon Dioxide Turns lime water chalky.
Chlorine Bleach moist litmus paper.
Ammonia Pungent smell.
Turn moist red litmus paper to blue.
Produces white fume when reacts with concentrated hydrochloric Acid.
Sulphur Dioxide Pungent smell.
Bleach the purple colour of potassium manganate(VII).
Turn moist blue litmus paper to red.
Nitrogen Dioxide Pungent smell.
Brown in colour.
Turn moist blue litmus paper to red.

Qualitative analysis
Identification of Anions (Negative ions)
Diluted HCl or
diluted HNO
3
or
diluted H
2
SO
4

BaCl (aq) or Ba(NO
3
)
2

(aq) follow by diluted
HCl/HNO
3

AgNO
3
follow by
diluted HNO
3
.
Brown Ring Test
( + FeSO
4
(aq ) +
concentratedH
2
SO
4

CO
3
2-
Carbon Dioxide is
released.
White precipitate is
formed. It is soluble in
diluted HCl/HNO
3


White precipitate is
formed. It is soluble in
diluted HNO
3

-
SO
4
2-
-
White precipitate is
formed. It is NOT soluble
in diluted HCl/HNO
3


- -
Cl
-
- -
White precipitate is
formed. It is NOT
soluble in diluted
HNO
3

-
NO
3
-
- - -
Formation of Brown
Ring
9


Idendification of cation

NaOH(ak) NH
3
(ak) HCl or NaCl
H
2
SO
4
or
Na
2
SO
4

Na
2
CO
3
KI
Na
+


Ca
2+

White
precipitate.

White
precipitate is
produced.
White
precipitate is
produced.

Mg
2+

White
precipitate is
produced.
White
precipitate is
produced.

White
precipitate is
produced.

Al
3+

White
precipitate is
produced.
Dissolve in
excess NaOH
solution.
White
precipitate is
produced.
.

White
precipitate is
produced.

Zn
2+

White
precipitate is
produced.
Dissolve in
excess NaOH
solution.
White
precipitate is
produced.
Dissolve in
excess NH
3

solution.

White
precipitate is
produced.

Pb
2+

White
precipitate is
produced.
Dissolve in
excess NaOH
solution.
White
precipitate is
produced.
White
precipitate is
produced.
Dissolve in hot
water
White
precipitate is
produced.
White
precipitate is
produced.
Yellow
precipitate is
produced.
Dissolve in hot
water
Fe
2+

Dirty green
precipitate is
produced.
Dirty green
precipitate is
produced.

Green
precipitate is
produced.

Fe
3+

Red brown
precipitate is
produced.
Red brown
precipitate is
produced.

Brown
precipitate is
produced.
A red brown
solution formed.
Cu
2+

Blue precipitate
is produced.
Blue precipitate
is produced.
Dissolve in
excess NH
3

solution and
form a blue
solution.

Blue precipitate
is produced.
White
precipitate form
in brown
solution
NH
4
+



=No changes is observed
10


Distibguish Iron(II) and Iron(III)

Reagent Observation Ion presents
Light blue precipitate Fe
2+
Solution of potassium hecxacianoferate(II)
Dark Blue precipitate Fe
3+

Dark blue precipitate Fe
2+
Solution of potassium hecxacianoferate(III)
Greenish brown solution Fe
3+

Pinkish solution Fe
2+
Solution of potassium Thiocyanate(II)
Blood red solution Fe
3+


Manufactured Substances in Industry

Contact Process (Making Sulphuric Acid)

Stage 1: Formation of SO
2

Combustion of Sulphur
S
(s)
+O
2
(g) SO
2

(g)

or
Heating of metal sulphide such as lead(II) sulphide
2PbS
(s)
+3O
2(g)
2PbO
(s)
+2SO
2(g)

or
Combustion of hiydrogen sulphide
2H
2
S
(g)
+3O
2(g)
2SO
2(g)
+2H
2
O
(ce)


Stage 2: Formation of SO
3

2SO
2

(g)
+O
2

(g)
2SO
3

(g)

Catalyst: vanadium(V) oxide
Temperature: 450C
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres

Stage 3 Formation of oleum H
2
S
2
O
7


SO
3(g)
+H
2
SO
4(aq)
H
2
S
2
O
7(l)


Stage 4:Formation of Sulphuric acid

H
2
S
2
0
7

(1)
+H
2
O
(1)
2H
2
SO
4(aq)









11


Haber Process (Making Ammonia)

Sources of the raw material
Hydrogen 1. Reaction between steam and heated coke
H
2
O +C CO +H
2

2. Reaction between steam and natural gas.
2H
2
O + CH
4
CO
2
+4H
2

Nitrogen From distillation of liquid air.

The reaction
1. Ammonia is made by the Haber process from nitrogen and hydrogen:
N
2
(g) +3H
2
(g) 2NH
3
(g); H =-92 kJ mo1
-1

Catalyst: Iron
Promoter: Aluminium oxide
Temperature: 450 C
Pressure: 200-1000 atm



12

1

Rate or Reaction

Calculation

Rate of Reaction (Average Rate)
Quantity change of reactants/products
Rates of reaction =
Total time for the reaction


If the quantity change is immeasurable
1
Rates of reaction =
Total time for the reaction


Find the Rate From a Graph

Average Rate Rates At an Instant
The rate of reaction is equal to the slope of the graph
of quantity against time.

(Product)
Rate of Reaction =
(Time)


The rate of reaction at an instant, t, is equal to the
slope of tangent at that instant.

(Product)
Rate of Reaction =
(Time)















2
Chemical Reaction

Precipitation of Sulphur

2HCl
(aq)
+ Na
2
S
2
O
3(aq)
2NaCl
(aq)
+ S
(s)
+ SO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)


Notes:
1. Yellow precipitate (sulphur) is formed.
2. The reaction is slow.

Na
2
S
2
O
3
: Sodium thiosulphate


Potassium Dichromate (VI) with Ethanedioic Acid

Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
+ 3C
2
O
4
2-
6CO
2
+ 7H
2
O + 2Cr
3+


Notes:
1. In the reaction, the orange colour of the solution
turns into green.
Cr
2
O
7
2-
: dichromate(VI) ion (Orange)
C
2
O
4
2-
: ethanedioate ion (Colourless)
Cr
3+
: Chromium(III) ion (green)

Potassium Manganate(VII) with Ethanedioic Acid

2MnO
4
-
+ 16H
+
+ 5C
2
O
4
2-
10CO
2
+ 8H
2
O + 2Mn
2+


Notes:
1. Mn
2+
is colourless
2. In the reaction, the purple colour of the solution
turns into colourless.
MnO
4
-
: Manganate(VII) ion (Purple)
Mn
2+
: Manganese(II) ion colourless

Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide

2H
2
O
2

-
2H
2
O + O
2

Catalyst: manganese(IV) oxide(MnO
2
), Iron(III) oxide (Fe
2
O
3
), silver (Ag)

Haber Process (Manufacture Ammonia)

N
2
+ 3H
2
2NH
3


(More detail in Form 4 Chapter 9)

Contact Process(Manufacture Sulphuric Acid)

2SO
2
+ O
2
2SO
3




3
Ostwald Process (Manufacture Nitric Acid)

Stage 1
4NH
3(g)
+ 5O
2(g)
4NO
(g)
+ 6H
2
O
(g)

Notes:
1. Temperature = 900oC
2. Pressure = 4-10 atm
3. Catalyse = Platinum (Pt)

Stage 2
2NO
(g)
+ O
2(g)
2NO
2(g)

Dissolve in water
3NO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
2HNO
3(aq)
+ NO
(g)


Carbon Compound

Alkane

Alkane
Combustion
Complete
Combustion
Incomplete
Combustion
Substitution
Reaction
(Halogenation)


Combustion

Complete combustion

C
2
H
6
+
7
2
O
2
2CO
2
+ 3H
2
O

Incomplete combustion

C
2
H
6
+
5
2
O
2
2CO + 3H
2
O
C
2
H
6
+
3
2
O
2
2C + 3H
2
O


4
Substitution Reaction


Alkene

Alkene
Combustion
Complete
Combustion
Incomplete
Combustion
Addition Reaction
+Bromine/Chlorine
+Potassium
Manganate(VII)
+Hydrogen
+Hydrogen Halide
+Steam
Polymerization
Alkane Alcohol
Craking Dehydration


Preparation of Alkene

Cracking of Alkane

2C
4
H
10
CH
4
+ C
2
H
4
+ C
2
H
6
+ C
3
H
6


Dehydration of Alchohol

C
2
H
5
OH + C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O


5
Combustion:

Complete combustion:

C
2
H
4
+ 3O
2
2CO
2
+ 2H
2
O
Incomplete combustion

C
2
H
4
+ 2O
2
2CO + 2H
2
O

C
2
H
4
+ O
2
2C + 2H
2
O
Addition Reaction:

+ Bromine:


+ Potassium Manganate(VII):


+ Hydrohen:

(Catalyst: platinum/nickel)
+ Hydrogen Halide:


+ Steam (H
2
O):

(Catalyst: phosphoric acid; Temperature: 300
o
C; Pressure: 60atm)
Polymerization

(Catalyst: oxygen; Temperature: 200
o
C; Pressure: 1200atm)

6
Alcohol

Alkene Carbohydrate
Alcohol fermentation Addition
+Sodium dehydration Combustion
Oxidation
(+K
2
CrO
7
/KMnO
4
)


Preparation of alchohol

Fermentation of Carbohydrate (Glucose)
C
6
H
12
O
6
2C
2
H
5
OH + 2CO
2

Addition of Alkene
C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O C
2
H
5
OH
[Catalyst:Phosphoric acid; Temperature:300
o
C; Pressure: 60atm ]
or
C
2
H
4
+ H
2
SO
4
CH
3
CH
2
OSO
3
H
CH
3
CH
2
OSO
3
H + H
2
O CH
3
CH
2
OH + H
2
SO
4

Combustion of Alcohol

C
2
H
5
OH + 3O
2
2CO
2
+ 3H
2
O

Dehydration of Alcohol

C
2
H
5
OH + C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O

Alcohol + Sodium

2C
2
H
5
OH + 2Na 2C
2
H
5
ONa + H
2


Oxidation of Alcohol

C
2
H
5
OH + 2[O] CH
3
COOH + H
2
O



7
Carboxylic Acid
Aldehydes Alchohol
Carboxylic acid Oxidation Oxidation
+Metal +oxide base +alkali +Metal carbonate +Alchohol
Salt +H
2
O Salt +H
2
O Salt +H
2
Salt +CO
2
+H
2
O
Esther


Preparation of Carboxylic acid

Oxidation of Alcohol
C
2
H
5
OH + 2[O] CH
3
COOH + H
2
O

Oxidation of Aldehyde
C
2
H
6
O + [O] CH
3
COOH

Reaction

Carboxylic Acid + Alkali

CH
3
COOH + NaOH CH
3
COONa + H
2
O

Carboxylic Acid + Metal Oxide

2CH
3
COOH + MgO Mg(CH
3
COO)
2
+ H
2
O

Carboxylic Acid + Metal

2CH
3
COOH + Mg Mg(CH
3
COO)
2
+ H
2

Carboxylic Acid + Metal Carbonate

2CH
3
COOH + CaCO
3
Ca(CH
3
COO)
2
+ CO
2
+H
2
O

Carboxylic Acid + Alchohol

CH
3
COOH + C
2
H
5
OH CH
3
COOC
2
H
5
+ H
2
O


8
Summary of The Reaction


9
Oxidation and Reduction

Iron(II) to Iron(III)

Oxidising agent: Chlorine or Bromine
+
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
Cl
2
+ 2e 2Cl

2Fe
2+
+ Cl
2
2Fe
3+
+ 2Cl

+
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
Br
2
+ 2e 2Br

2Fe
2+
+ Br
2
2Fe
3+
+ 2Cl

Observation:
1. The green colour of Fe
2+
solution turns brown
Observation:
1. The green colour of Fe
2+
solution turn brown
2. The brown colour of bromine water turns into
colourless.

Oxidising agent: Potassium Permanganate(VII)
+
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
MnO
4

+ 8H
+
+ 5e Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O

5Fe
2+
+ MnO
4

+ 8H
+
5Fe
3+
+ Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O

Observation:
1. The green colour of solution Fe
2+
turns brown
2. The purple colour of the MnO
4

solution turns into colourless

Oxidising agent: Potassium Dichromate(VI)
+
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14 H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O

6Fe
2+
+ MnO
4

+ 8H
+
6Fe
3+
+ Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O

Observation:
1. The green colour of solution Fe
2+
turns brown.
2. The orange colour of the Cr
2
O
7
2-
solution turns green.

Oxidising agent: Hidrogen Peroxide
+
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
H
2
O
2
+ 2H
+
+ 2e 2H
2
O

2Fe
2+
+ H
2
O
2
+ 2H
+
2Fe
3+
+ 2H
2
O
Observation:
1. The green colour of solution Fe
2+
turns brown

Oxidising agent: Concentrated Nitric Acid
+
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
NO
3
-
+ 4H
+
+ 3e NO + 2H
2
O

3Fe
2+
+ NO
3
-
+ 4H
+
3Fe
3+
+ NO + 2H
2
O

Observation:
1. The green colour of solution Fe
2+
turns brown

10
Iron(III) to Iron(II)

Reducing Agent: More reactive Metal
+
Fe
3+
+ e Fe
2+

Zn Zn
2+
+ 2e

2Fe
3+
+ Zn 2Fe
2+
+ Zn
2+


Observation:
1. The brown colour of the iron(III) solution turn green.
2. Zinc powder dissolve in the solution.

Reducing Agent: Sulphur Dioxide
+
Fe
3+
+ e Fe
2+

SO
2
+ 2H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+
+ 2e

2Fe
3+
+ SO
2
+ 2H
2
O 2Fe
2+
+ SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+


Observation:
1. The brown colour of the iron(III) solution turn green.

Reducing Agent: Hydrogen Sulphide
+
Fe
3+
+ e Fe
2+

H
2
S 2H
+
+ S + 2e

2Fe
3+
+ H
2
S 2Fe
2+
+ 2H
+
+ S

Observation:
1. The brown colour of the iron(III) solution turn green.
2. Yellow precipitate forms in the solution.

Reducing Agent: Sodium Sulphite
+
Fe
3+
+ e Fe
2+

SO
3
2-
+ H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 2H
+
+ 2e

2Fe
3+
+ SO
3
2-
+ H
2
O 2Fe
2+
+ SO
4
2-
+ 2H
+


Observation:
1. The brown colour of the iron(III) solution turn green.

Reducing Agent: Tin(II) Chloride
+
Fe
3+
+ e Fe
2+

Sn
2+
Sn
4+
+ 2e

2Fe
3+
+ Sn
2+
2Fe
2+
+ Sn
4+


Observation:
1. The brown colour of the iron(III) solution turn green.




11
Displacement of Metal
[A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive ion of metal from its compound.]

Example:
Mg + PbCl
2
MgCl
2
+ Pb
3Zn + Fe
2
O
3
3ZnO + 2Fe
Al + CuSO
4
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ Cu

Electrochemical Series

Reactivity Series


Displacement of Halogen
[A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halide from its compound.]

Example:
Cl
2
+ KBr KCl + Br
2

Br
2
+ NaI NaBr + I
2

F
2
+ KI KF + I
2


Reactivity of Halogen

Colour of Halogen and Halide
Halogen Colour in
water
Colour in
CCl
4

Chlorine (Cl
2
) Pale Yellow Pale Yellow
Bromine (Br
2
) Brown/Orange/
Yellow
Brown/Orange/
Yellow
Iodine (I
2
) Brown/Orange/
Yellow
Purple
Halogen Colour in
water
Colour in
CCl
4

Chloride (Cl
-
) Colourless Colourless
Bromide (Br
-
) Colourless Colourless
Iodide (I
-
) Colourless Colourless


More reactive

F
2
> Cl
2
> Br
2
> I
2
> At
2

More reactive

K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, H, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag
More electropositive

K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Ag

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12
The Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent

Oxidising Agent (Reduction) Redusing Agent (Oxidation)
Halogen
Cl
2
+ 2e 2Cl

Br
2
+ 2e 2Br

I
2
+ 2e 2I

Metal
Mg Mg
2+
+ 2e
Zn Zn
2+
+ 2e
Al Al
3+
+ 2e
Metal Ion
Mg
2+
+ 2e Mg
Pb
2+
+ 2e Pb
Sn
2+
+ 2e Sn
Halide Ion
2Cl

Cl
2
+ 2e
2Br

Br
2
+ 2e
2I

I
2
+ 2e
Fe
3+

Fe
3+
+ e Fe
2+

Fe
2+

Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e
Potassium Manganate(VII)
MnO
4

+ 8H
+
+ 5e Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
Sulphur Dioxide
SO
2
+ 2H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+
+ 2e
Potassium Dicromate(VI)
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14 H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
Hydrogen Sulphide
H
2
S 2H
+
+ S + 2e
Hydrogen Peroxide
H
2
O
2
+ 2H
+
+ 2e 2H
2
O
Sodium Sulphite Aqueous
SO
3
2-
+ H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 2H
+
+ 2e
Concentrated Nitric Acid
NO
3
-
+ 4H
+
+ 3e NO + 2H
2
O
Tin(II) Chloride Aqueous
Sn
2+
Sn
4+
+ 2e

Rusting

Step 1: Formation pf Ion
Anode:
Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
Cathode:
O
2
+ H
2
O 4OH
-
+ 4e

Step 2: Corrosion of Iron
Fe
2+
+ 2OH
-
Fe(OH)
2


Step 3: Formation of iron(III) hydroxide

4Fe(OH)
2
+ H
2
O + O
2
4Fe(OH)
3


Step 4: Formation of Hydrated Iron(III) Oxide

Fe(OH)
3
Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O

General Equation

4Fe + 3O
2
+ xH
2
O 2Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O

13
Preparation of Oxygen Gas

Decomposition of Potassium Manganate (VII)

2KMnO
4
K
2
MnO
4
+ MnO
2
+ O
2


Decomposition of Potassium Chlorate (V)

2KClO
3
2KCl + 3O
2

[Manganese(IV) Oxide as catalyst]
Decomposition of Potassium Nitrate

2KNO
3
2KNO
2
+ O
2


Extraction of Iron From Its Ore

Production of Carbon Dioxide
C + O
2
CO
2


Production of Carbon Monoxide
CaCO
3
CaO + CO

Reduction of Iron Ore to Iron
Upper Section of the Ballast Furnace
Fe
2
O
3
+ 3CO 2Fe + 3CO
2


Fe
3
O
4
+ 4 CO 3Fe + 4CO
2


Lower Section of the Ballast Furnace
Fe
2
O
3
+ 3C 2Fe + 3CO

Fe
3
O
4
+ 4 C 3Fe + 4CO
2


Removal of Impurities
CaO + SiO
2
CaSiO
3




14
Thermochemistry

Calculation

Heat of Reaction

Thermal Energy Change
Number of Mole
H =

Thermal Energy Change

Q = mc

m = mass of solution = volume of solution
c = specific heat capacity of solution

Number of Mole

For solution
1000
MV
n =

For gas (When volume is given)
3 3
Volume of gas
Molar volume of gas (22.4dm at stp / 24dm at rtp)
n =
For solid, liquid or gas ( When mass is given )
mass
Molar mass (RAM/RMM)
n =

Chemical Reaction

Exothermic Reaction

Dissolving Alkali or Acid

-
2
NaOH Na OH
H O +
+

2
2
2 4 4
H SO H SO
H O
+
+

Dissolving of Anhydrous Salt

2 2
2
4 4
CuSO Cu SO
H O
+
+

2
2
2 3 3
Na CO 2Na CO
H O
+
+





15
Combustion of Fuel
Example:
Combustion of Carbon
C + O
2
CO
2

Combustion of Hydrogen
2H
2
+ O
2
2H
2
O
Combustion of Ethane
C
2
H
6
+
7
2
O
2
2CO
2
+ 3H
2
O

Reaction of Acid
Neutralisation
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H
2
O

2HNO
3
+ CaO Ca(NO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O
Acid + Reactive Metal
H
2
SO
4
+ Zn ZnSO
4
+ H
2

Acid + Carbonate Acid
HCl + CaCO
3
CaCl
2
+ CO
2
+ HCl
Displacement Reaction
Zn + CuSO
4
ZnSO
4
+ Cu

Endothermic Reaction

Dissolving of Ammonium Chloride, Ammonium Nitrate and Ammonium Sulphate

-
2
4 4
NH Cl NH Cl
H O
+
+

2
4 3 4 3
NH NO NH NO
H O
+
+

2
2
4 4 4 4
(NH )SO 2NH SO
H O
+
+

Dissolving of Hydrated Salt

CuSO
4
xH
2
O Cu
2+
+ SO
4
2-
+ xH
2
O

Na
2
CO
3
xH
2
O 2Na+ + CO
3
2-
+ xH
2
O

Thermal Decomposition of salts

CaCO
3
CaO + CO
2


2Ca(NO
3
)
2
2CaO + 4NO
2
+ O
2