Failure analysis of hoisting steel wire rope

Pavel Peterka
a,
, Jozef Krek
a
, Stanislav Kropuch
a
, Gabriel Fedorko
a
, Vieroslav Molnar
a
,
Marek Vojtko
b
a
Faculty of Mining, Ecology, Process Control and Geotechnology, Technical University of Kosice, Park Komenskeho 14, 042 00 Kosice, Slovak Republic
b
Faculty of Metallurgy, Technical University of Kosice, Park Komenskeho 14, 042 00 Kosice, Slovak Republic
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 20 November 2013
Received in revised form 17 June 2014
Accepted 25 June 2014
Available online 9 July 2014
Keywords:
Wire rope
Cracks
Mechanical tests
Metallographic exams
NDT
a b s t r a c t
During a very short operation of a steel rope in a hoist system of a drilling rig it was sig-
nicantly damaged. The wires of the upper layer of cable strands were damaged. This dam-
age was not caused by fatigue of material; therefore it was necessary to determine the
reason of the rope damage. The visual inspection of the damaged spots showed that during
the operation there was a progressive release of the wires from the outer layer of the outer
rope strands; subsequently released wires were rolled when passing the hoist system and
they started to break. In order to nd out the reason of the damage the samples of the dam-
aged rope were collected as well as the samples of the new rope from the reserve. Accord-
ing to the nature of the damage we decided to perform mechanical tests of the new (yet not
used) rope and thereafter metallographic tests of wire ropes from the outer layer of the
strand. The analysis of the mechanical tests results of the new rope revealed the fact that
the rope had been manufactured in other rope grade different from the class declared by
the manufacturer. It was also found that the wires of the top layer reporting damage were
made of wires of different rope grades. Mixing wires having low and high strength in the
upper layer of the rope strand caused different straining of wires in the specic (given)
layer thus wires having lower strength begun to release from the strands and deform
which led to the development of fractures at the weaken places.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Wire ropes combine two very useful properties: high axial strength and exibility in bending. These properties convert
wire ropes into indispensable load transmission elements for many industrial applications [1]. Wire ropes are frequently
used for load transmission. Compared with textile ropes (normally textile bres or synthetic material), wire ropes have
the advantage of greater strength and longer life [2]. There are, however, also special structures. Wire ropes are used in com-
bination with a chain. A chain can be (not only a component parts of mooring systems) but also a principal tension element
for raising or lowering mooring components [3]. We can use various CAD systems for designing wire ropes [4,5].
The wire ropes are widely used in harbours, on ships and in many industrial elds. The safety of a wire rope is closely
related to the life safety and equipment safety [6]. The quality and wearing degree of ropes signicantly inuences safety
and reliability of mining hoists, cranes, elevators and air transportation.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.06.005
1350-6307/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pavel.peterka@tuke.sk (P. Peterka).
Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Engineering Failure Analysis
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ engf ai l anal
It is important to know the condition of the rope in order to provide timely replacement of the rope or to extend the safe
working life when the retirement criteria have not been reached [7].
Regarding the means of transport the steel ropes are most commonly used in ski lifts, cableways or hoisting equipments.
A hoist is an important transportation equipment in coal mines used to transport coal, ore, materials, personnel, equipments,
etc [8]. A hoisting rope is used to connect the hoister with the hoisting container; therefore its reliability is directly related to
mine production and the security of personnel lives. A hoisting rope has to withstand repeated axial tension loads and bend-
ing stretch loads on the drum and guide wheel, which result in the fretting wear between steel wires and then cause fretting
damage, crack initiation, propagation and fracture failure of steel wires [9]. From above mentioned results that attention
should be paid to the wire ropes deployed in service. It particularly includes the research of processes of their wear, increase
in their service life and performance monitoring. It is a vast, still highly topical issue. Giglio and Manes [2] examined the life
prediction of a wire rope subjected to the axial and bending loads. As part of their research, they focused on the comparison
of different analytical formulations employed to estimate the state of stress in inner and external wires of a rope. Chaplin
[10] was dealing with more detailed examination of failure mechanisms in wire ropes. In particular, he focused on the spe-
cic degradation mechanisms observed in three different applications: a mine hoist rope operating on a drum winder, a
mooring rope for an offshore structure and a spin-resistant single-fall offshore crane rope.
Zhang et al. [11] study the issue of the bending fatigue behaviour and failure mechanisms of wire ropes. In their research
were used nondestructive quantitative detection and articial detection methods.
Prier et al. [12] dealt with the study of drawn steel wires submitted to fretting-fatigue in the solution of sodium chloride.
Experimental tests were conducted to reproduce the contact conditions in spiral strands undergoing free bending deforma-
tions and submitted to corrosion. The same author researched [13] the inuence of aqueous environment on the fretting
behaviour of steel wires used in civil engineering cables.
Wang carried out lots of studies of the hoisting rope failures. He investigated the effect of terminal mass on fretting and
fatigue parameters of a hoisting rope during a lifting cycle in a coal mine [14]. Wang analyzed the fretting fatigue damages of
steel wires in a coal mine in three corrosive media [15]. Wang et al. [16] investigated the effect of strain amplitude on fret-
tingfatigue behaviour of steel wires in a low cycle fatigue by employing a fretting-fatigue test rig which was able to apply a
constant normal contact load. He looked into the effects of fretting parameters on stress distributions of contacting wires
during the initial stage of fretting-fatigue of steel wires using the nite element method too [17]. He realised the nite ele-
ment analysis of a hoisting rope and three-layered strand for the exploration of fretting fatigue parameters and stress dis-
tributions on the cross-section [18].
The effect of displacement amplitude on fretting fatigue behaviour of steel wires in low cycle fatigue at two cyclic strain
levels were examined by Wang as well. [19].
Wang et al. [20] presented the simulation model of a rope tension to examine the role of various kinematic parameters in
rope tension and tension amplitude during lifting. In addition, he investigated the effect of strain amplitude on fretting-
fatigue behaviour of steel wires in low cycle fatigue by using a fretting-fatigue test rig which was able to apply a constant
normal contact load [21].
Torkar and Arzensi [22] performed the failure analysis of a broken multi strand wire rope from a crane. Elata et al. [23]
dealt with the mechanical behaviour of a wire rope with an independent wire rope core. In their later work, Shen et al. [24]
performed the fretting wear tests on the self-made fretting wear rig to investigate fretting wear behaviours of steel wires
under friction-increasing grease conditions.
The results demonstrated that the fretting regimes were dependent on displacement amplitudes and normal loads. Tittel
et al. [25] researched the effect of drawing angle size of a die on wire drawing and bunching process. Plasek and Tittel [26]
studied the friction ratio in the wire ropes. Liskova et al. [27] evaluated the effect of wire rods quality on the mechanical
properties of drawn wires. Inspection is also important in investigation of steel rope properties. The application of magnetic
ux leakage (MFL) methods to the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of metal parts has been known for several decades [28].
Magnetic ux leakage (MFL) techniques are used extensively for non-intrusively detecting and characterizing wire rope
defects [29]. Taylor et al. [30] applied frequency analysis to the acoustic emission signals resulting from the failure of steel
wire ropes and individual wires taken from the ropes. Christen et al. [28] used three-dimensional localization of defects in
stay cables. Commercial instruments for electromagnetic tests are able to highlight small defects but they provide only a
rough estimation of their positions.
Vallan [31] described the analysis of the uncertainty contributions that affect the defect position measurements. The sys-
tem is designed to be employed with commercial instruments for electromagnetic tests and it is composed of a laser-based
detector, a digital acquisition system and a personal computer. Gu and Chu [32] applied a new technique for detecting wire
rope defects. They developed a uxgate sensor of single-core and single-winding. Chen and Xu [33] examined a multi-rope
hoist wire rope tension on-line monitoring system, which is used to monitor the tension of multi-rope hoist wire rope in real
time, thus to calculate the real hoisting load and tension difference. Wei and Jianxin [34] used a transducer made of uxgate
sensors for testing wire rope defects. Cao et al. [35] used novel electromagnetic method for local defects inspection of wire
rope. Most electromagnetic testing instruments give one-dimensional axial magnetic ux leakage signal losing the circum-
ferential distribution of defects. The two-dimensional magnetic leakage signal of wire rope is acquired via an inspection pro-
totype with the Hall sensor array. Vallan and Molinari [36] described a measurement system that is based on a video camera
and on an ofine processing algorithm. The camera acquires an image sequence of the running rope; then an image process-
ing algorithm extracts the rope contour and measures both the distance among rope strands and the whole distance covered
P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105 97
by the rope during the test. Radovanovic et al. [37] used magnetic method of inspection for the system providing full mon-
itoring of wire rope condition according to the prescribed international standards, too. Stroffek and Lesso [38] suggested the
acoustic method for measurement of Youngs modulus of steel wire ropes.
2. Material and methods
The hoist steel wire ropes belong among the moving ropes. Therefore, they must meet the strictest safety criteria during
their duty. This is the reason why they are being subjected, in periodical intervals, to preventive inspections to check their
damage and asses their operational reliability. Their damage is mostly caused by factors such as bending, abrasion, corrosion,
deformation in the hoist groove, contact bruising or dynamic-load tensile in load and bending.
To evaluate the condition of a hoist rope several methods and procedures based on available professional literature, stan-
dards and ndings are recommended, they can be in general divided into mechanical, metallurgical and nondestructive ones
(Table 1).
At the beginning of the evaluation process it is appropriate to subject the rope to the non-destructive inspection in order
to map and quantify the extent and degree of damage. Ideally, the rope is being subjected to the non-destructive inspection
during the operation and the initial test is performed immediately once the rope was set into a hoist system. This eliminates
any defects arising on the rope during its manufacture and installation.
Mechanical tests of a rope can be performed on a rope as a whole by the tensile test of the entire rope or on individual
rope wires. To assess the damage to a rope it is useful to apply mechanical tests assessing individual rope wires where the
tensile test and wire diameter measurements are often used in order to determine the strength of a wire used to construct a
rope. Other tests from the category of mechanical tests include the tests conducted by alternating bending and torsion, the
main objective is to verify the mechanical properties of the wire used to manufacture the rope.
It is appropriate to complete mechanical tests of the rope wires with metallographic experiments in the course of further
evaluation. The goal is to analyze selected and damaged rope wires by a means of a light macroscope, a light microscope and
a scanning electron microscope to determine the prevalence and, if possible, closer identify the nature of the wire surface
damage and analyze in more details the microstructure of individual wires used to manufacture the rope.
All rope wires, i.e. both, the wires of the outer layers of the rope strands and the wires of the rope core, have to pass the
assessment process. Before the tests the individual wires of the rope must be released, cleaned and degreased in perchlor-
ethylene because of the mechanical testing purposes. Metallographic tests require additional cleaning of the rope wires in an
ultrasonic bath. The paper aims to describe the evaluation of the hoist rope operated in real conditions and to determine the
reason of damage after a short period of use.
3. Theory/calculation
The steel hoist rope is exposed to the process of gradual deterioration since being deployed to service. Proper mainte-
nance and compliance with the prescribed operating conditions allows to regulate the process of wear and maintaining it
within acceptable limits to ensure its maximum life. Therefore, the system based on the rope hoisting duty monitoring is
used in the ropes of hoist mechanisms of drilling rigs (Fig. 1). The main objective is in successive steps to pull the new rope
from the supply reel into the hoist system in relatively small sections, this will ensure the even wear of the rope all along.
It is not possible to apply this operation on all kinds of the drilling rigs, especially not for those employed in the under-
ground repair of wells. In general, it is possible to point out that the characteristic feature of the ropes in operation is that all
of them will show fatigue fractures, corrosion and wear during shorter or longer period.
During the operation the number of fatigue fractures in the rope is increasing and it, however, can still perform its func-
tion and its operation is still safe. The rope must be removed only when the concentration of fatigue breakages, wear-out or
Table 1
Methods used for the rope evaluation.
Methods used for the rope examination Testing techniques Testing criteria and sample preparation Evaluation criteria
Mechanical tests of new rope wires Wire diameter EN 10218-2
Tension EN ISO 6892-1 EN 12385-1
Alternating bending ISO 7801 Annex B
Torsion ISO 7800 EN 10264-2
Metallographic tests of damaged rope wires Light macroscope
Light microscope
Scanning electron microscope
Nondestructive rope testing Magnetic ux leakage STN 27 0143
b
STN 27 0143
b
ISO 4309
a
ISO 4309
a
a
After the agreement with the operator, the standards used for cranes and lifting devices are applied to check and evaluate the condition of ropes.
b
Slovak Technical Standard.
98 P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105
corrosion will reach a limit value, which reduces its load capacity below a certain safety margin. Evaluating the operability of
the rope a local reduction of its load capacity is taken into account.
For better understanding of all the degradation processes going on in the steel wire rope or on its surface it is necessary to
carry on the research in this area.
The acquired knowledge can enrich the existing information base and so facilitate development of new advanced diag-
nostic and detection methods and they will be used by manufacturers and operators of this category of steel wire ropes.
The whole effort in researching damages to the steel wire ropes aims to time shortening required for the application of
diagnostic methods, increase of their reliability and reduction of their demanding character in technology, energy and
nances.
A rope duty when pulling out and running the drilling stem:
A h
2
q
tE
L h q
tE
4 h M
k
0; 5 l q
ZE
q
tE
g 10
3
1
where A is a rope duty when pulling out and running the drilling stem (kJ); h the drilling depth (m); q
tE
the linear mass of the
drill pipe in the mud (kg m
1
); L the length of the strips of the drilling pipe (m); M
K
the hoist system weight (kg); l the length
of the drilling collars (m); q
ZE
the linear mass of the drilling collar in the mud (kg m
1
); and g is the acceleration due to
gravity (m s
2
).
A rope duty when drilling a borehole:
A
V
3 A
K
A
p
2
where A
V
is a rope duty when drilling a borehole (kJ); A
K
the work per one cycle for the nal borehole depth (kJ); and A
P
is the
work per one cycle for the initial borehole depth (kJ);
where A
K
and A
P
are to determine from Eq. (1).
A rope duty when coring:
A
J
2 A
K
A
p
3
where A
J
is the rope duty in coring the borehole (kJ).
A rope duty in dinting the borehole:
A
R
2 A
K
A
P
; 4
where A
R
is the rope duty in reaming the borehole (kJ).
A rope duty in casing the borehole:
A
Z
0:5 h
2
q
PE
L
p
h
q
q
PE
4 h M
K
0:5 L
p
q
PE
g 10
3
5
where A
Z
is a rope duty in casing the borehole (kJ); q
PE
the linear mass of the casing in the mud (kg m
1
); L
p
the casing length
(m); h
q
the casing depth (m); and g is the acceleration due to gravity (m s
2
).
Fig. 1. Diagram of a drilling rig hoist system. 1 Cable drum of the winch; 2 crown block; 3 free block; 4 moor (sensor) of the rope dead end; 5
reserve drum; 6 static (dead rope end); 7 signal amplier in the aw detector; 8 aw detector; 9 assessment device; 10 device measuring the
length of the rope; 11 connecting cable; A static (dead end of the rope); B tensile rope branch.
P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105 99
The rope performs the largest part of the work in running and pulling out the drill stem. The total work is the sum of
individual work operations. After reaching the recommended deliverables the new rope is pulled a little bit from the supply
reel upon the pulling calculation which signicantly increases its period of service; or it is replaced as a whole. The traction
work (although monitored) often leads to excessive local wear of the rope.
4. Results
The hoist rope of the drilling rig was subjected to the experiment after completing 127 tonne-kilometres. Within a short
period of use the rope started to show distortions release of wires from the rope strands. The released rope wires were
deformed when passing through a hoist system and, subsequently, deformed, abraded and crushed wires broke. The damage
to the rope was only manifested on the external sheathing wires of the outer rope layer (Fig. 2). The visual inspection of the
rope found numerous nests of damage to the individual wires on the outer layer of the external rope strands (Fig. 3). The nets
were not distributed on a regular basis. The rope was bearing signs of corrosion and wear as a result of operation. The wires
of the top layer of the rope strands were considerably worn by abrasion and compression.
The rope consists of six rope strands and the core in the form of a individual IWRC-type steel wire rope. Each of the outer
strands has 26 wires. The outer strands were of the WS (Warrington Seal) type, designed as 6 (1 + 5 + (5 + 5) + 10). The
rope core of the IWRC type was designed as 1 + 6 + 6 (1 + 6). (Fig. 4) The parameters of the examined wires in the rope
are shown in the Table 2.
The rope operator has a systemof regular non-destructive inspections of the ropes. For these types of the hoist ropes it is a
standard procedure the rope is checked regularly in three-month intervals or after completing a certain number of tonne-
kilometres. The operator removed the rope from the system immediately after nding deformations on the rope, thus made
it impossible to perform nondestructive inspection of the rope and to measure the extent of damage to the rope.
Due to the damage to the rope before the end of the rst cycle of duty identied by the number of tonne-kilometres peri-
odic non-destructive inspection of the rope was not performed. The rope was only subjected to the initial non-destructive
test (Fig. 5) to determine the status of the new rope. The inspected rope contained no damaged wires and no defects from
the manufacture (soldered joints of wires).
After taking away the rope sample the level of the rope destruction was investigated by the visual inspection. According
to the nature of the damage to the rope wires it was not clear that all the damages were caused by fatigue, therefore the
sample of the unused rope from the archive was subjected to mechanical testing. It was also suggested to perform simulta-
neously metallographic measurements of the damaged wires and, if necessary, mechanical tests of 10% of the damaged wire
rope.
The rope sample from the unused archived rope sample was taken and the particular wires were extracted from it. All
extracted wires were subjected to the mechanical tests of tension, bending and torsion; the actual measured diameter of
the wire was measured simultaneously.
Even during the tests the signicant differences in the mechanical properties of the wires from the top layer of the strand
with the diameter 1.85 mm were notable. The evaluation of mechanical rope tests was done in accordance with the EN stan-
dards 12385-1 and EN 10264-2:2012 + A1. The evaluation showed that the rope was manufactured in another rope grade as
it was declared in the steel rope test certicate by the manufacturer. Table 3 shows the average strengths for particular wire
diameters used in the construction of the rope. It is clear (Table 3 average strength values of wire ropes) the rope was man-
ufactured in the rope grade 1960 MPa; there for the rope was evaluated in both rope grades 1770 MPa and 1960 MPa. The
evaluation of the rope in accordance with the criteria of both rope grades found that unsatisfactory wire ropes are located in
the upper layer of the individual strands formed by the wires having a diameter 1.85 mm. According to the criteria for the
rope grade 1770 MPa 38 wires with the diameter 1.85 mm were displaced. According to the criteria for the rope grade
1960 MPa 24 wires with the diameter 1.85 mm were displaced. This led to the nding that the wires with the diameter
1.85 mm in two rope grades were inwoven into the rope. In the Table 4 are listed only 1.85 mm diameter wire strengths
for individual strands. It is evident that the manufacturer of the rope used the rope grade 1770 MPa and the second one
was even 2160 MPa.
Fig. 2. The detail of the damaged rope.
100 P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105
The strengths of the individual wires of the upper layer of the rope strand were for better understanding graphically pre-
sented in Fig. 6.
The wires with the diameter 1.85 mm, i.e. wires of the top layer of strands, were exactly those wires which showed the
damage on the operating rope.
Due to signicant differences in the strength of the top layer of the rope the wires of 1.85 mm diameter from this layer
were subjected to metallographic and electron-microscopic analyses as well as modied bending tests and hardness
Fig. 3. The nests of the broken wires on the rope sample.
Fig. 4. Cross section of the rope.
Table 2
Parameters of examined rope.
Rope core/strand Number of strands Number of wires Wire diameter
IWRC Core 1 1 1.25
6 1.10
Strands 6 1 1.10
6 1.00
Strands 6 1 0.85
5 1.10
5 1.00
5 1.30
10 1.85
P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105 101
Length [m]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
[
V
]
Fig. 5. Records of non-destructive inspection of the new rope in the hoist system.
Table 3
The average strengths of the individual wire diameters used for the rope production.
Wire diameter (mm) Total number of wires in the given diameter Average strength (MPa)
1.25 1 2045
1.10 42 2048
1.0 66 1971
0.85 6 2094
1.3 30 1998
1.85 60 2014
Table 4
Measured strength values in the top layer of the wires, diameter of 1.85 mm.
Wire No. Strength of wires in MPa
Strand 1 Strand 2 Strand 3 Strand 4 Strand 5 Strand 6
1 2181 1749 2122 1720 2218 2158
2 2227 1742 1756 1712 2226 2151
3 2181 1764 1749 1749 2129 2256
4 2227 2211 1734 2203 2210 2151
5 2258 2062 1741 1757 2174 2218
6 2227 1705 1749 2017 2181 2159
7 2261 1764 1757 1764 2144 2220
8 2174 2099 1749 1734 2159 2181
9 2167 1749 2122 1757 2173 2181
10 2197 1734 1727 2130 2189 2250
Fig. 6. The strength of the tested wires in the top layer of the outer rope strands sorted out.
102 P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105
Fig. 7. The wire samples under a light microscope. A Strand No. 3, wire No. 4 having unsatisfactory strength of 1734 MPa. B Strand No. 5, wire No. 8
having satisfactory strength of 2159 MPa.
Fig. 8. The wire samples under a scanning electron microscope. A Strand No. 3, wire No. 4, with unsatisfactory strength of 1734 MPa. B Strand No. 5,
wire No. 8, with satisfactory strength of 2159 MPa.
Fig. 9. The details of the broken wire. A The nest of the broken wires on the rope sample. B and C The details of the damaged wire.
Fig. 10. The details of the broken wires. A The nest of the broken wires on the rope sample. B and C The details of the damaged wires.
P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105 103
measurements. Detailed metallographic expert examinations of the top layer wires of the rope strands did not conrm sig-
nicant differences in the structure of used steel (Figs. 7 and 8). The wires showing damage, the wires with lower strength
and undamaged wires, the wires with higher strength have identical, predominantly bainitic structure with a high degree of
forming.
Deformations of the wires are caused by a strong dint and abrasion during the passing through the hoist system. Thus
weakened wires then ruptured. The results of the metallographic examinations showed that all the wires of the top layer
have the same structure (Figs. 7 and 8). This means that the damage of the rope was caused by the higher stress of the wires
having lower strength; the wires started to release from the rope construction, deform and break (Figs. 9ac and 10ac).
5. Conclusions
From the above results of mechanical and metallographic analyses is possible to state that the rope subjected to the tests
is of unsatisfactory quality. The rope was manufactured in the1960 MPa rope grade and not in the rope grade 1770 MPa as
declared by the manufacturer. Evaluating the rope under the criteria (see Table 1) and according to these in the declaration of
conformity of the manufacturer, i.e. for the criteria for the rope grade 1770 MPa, the rope is insufcient because most of the
wires were excluded because of the upper strength limit. Because of above mentioned facts and evaluation purposes the rope
was upgraded to the rope grade in which it was actually manufactured (the rope grade 1960 MPa). Despite the upgrade the
rope did not match the rope grade criteria and 33 wires were displaced. 24 displaces wires, substantial portion of them, is in
the upper layer, the diameter is 1.85 mm.
The mechanical tests showed that the wires used for manufacturing the rope and placed in the top layer of the strand
belong to two different rope grades the rope grade 1770 MPa and even the rope grade 2160 MPa (Fig. 6).
Taking samples of each rope grade of the upper layer of the wire in the course of mechanical tests and metallographic
tests and their subjection to metallographic tests such as magnication and observation under the light macroscope, and
a light microscope and a scanning microscope conrmed that all observed wires have the same structure of the material.
It means that in the manufacturing process were not used wires having strength affected by the incorrect wire manufactur-
ing process and even the wires were prevented from the additional thermal damage that might have caused possible sub-
sequent change of the metal structure. In conclusion, based on carried mechanical tests, it can be stated that in the upper
layer of the rope were during manufacturing inwoven wires of two different rope grades and it accelerated the damage
to the rope in operation (Figs. 2 and 3). Deformations and breakages of the wires were caused by the release of the wires
of the lower rope grade of the rope strands as well as by strong dint and abrasion when released wires are passing the hoist
system. Thus weakened wires then ruptured (Figs. 9 and 10).
Acknowledgments
Supported by the Scientic Grant Agency (VEGA) of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak Acad-
emy of Sciences, Grants No. VEGA 1/0962/11 and VEGA 1/0922/12.
The responsible translators and correctors for English language are Viera Nemcokov and Pavel Peterka.
References
[1] Argatov II, Gmez X, Tato W, Urchegui MA. Wear evolution in a stranded rope under cyclic bending: Implications to fatigue life estimation. Wear
2011;271:285767.
[2] Giglio M, Manes A. Life prediction of a wire rope subjected to axial and bending loads. Eng Fail Anal 2005;12:54968.
[3] Chaplin CR. Torsional failure of a wire rope mooring line during installation in deep water. Eng Fail Anal 1999;6:6782.
[4] Kral J, Kral Jr J, Madac K, Pavlik A. Creation of 3D parametric surfaces in CAD systems. Acta Mechanica Slovaca 2008;12:2238.
[5] Erdnmez C. Modeling techniques of nested helical structure based geometry for numerical analysis. strojniki vestnik. J Mech Eng 2011;57:28392.
[6] Jianxin CJC, Wei GWG. Study and development on detecting device of wire rope localized fault. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Intelligent
Control and Automation Cat No02EX527, 2002. p. 1.
[7] Mironenko A, Sukhorukov V. Non-destructive testing of steel wire ropes in Russia. Insight 1998;40:3957.
[8] Ge SR, Qu RL, Xie WY. Reliability techniques for winders in mine. China University of Mining and Technology, 1994.
[9] Zhang D, Ge SR, Qiang YH. Research on the fatigue and fracture behavior due to the fretting wear of steel wire in hoisting rope. Wear 2003;255:12337.
[10] Chaplin CR. Failure mechanisms in wire ropes. Eng Fail Anal 1995;2:4557.
[11] Zhang D, Chen K, Jia X, Wang D, Wang S, Luo Y, et al. Bending fatigue behaviour of bearing ropes working around pulleys of different materials. Eng Fail
Anal 2013;33:3747.
[12] Prier V, Dieng L, Gaillet L, Tessier C, Fouvry S. Fretting-fatigue behaviour of bridge engineering cables in a solution of sodium chloride. Wear
2009;267:30814.
[13] Prier V, Dieng L, Gaillet L, Fouvry S. Inuence of an aqueous environment on the fretting behaviour of steel wires used in civil engineering cables.
Wear 2011;271:158593.
[14] Wang D, Zhang D, Ge S. Effect of terminal mass on fretting and fatigue parameters of a hoisting rope during a lifting cycle in coal mine. Eng Fail Anal
2014;36:40722.
[15] Wang D, Zhang D, Zhao W, Ge S. Quantitative analyses of fretting fatigue damages of mine rope wires in different corrosive media. Mater Sci Eng, A
2014;596:808.
[16] Wang D, Zhang D, Ge S. Determination of fretting parameters of hoisting rope in coalmine and fretting-fatigue behavior of steel wires. Ind Lubr Tribol
2013;65:43648.
[17] Wang D, Zhang D, Ge S. Finite element analysis of fretting fatigue behavior of steel wires and crack initiation characteristics. Eng Fail Anal
2013;28:4762.
104 P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105
[18] Wang D, Zhang D, Wang S, Ge S. Finite element analysis of hoisting rope and fretting wear evolution and fatigue life estimation of steel wires. Eng Fail
Anal 2013;27:17393.
[19] Wang D, Zhang D, Ge S. Effect of displacement amplitude on fretting fatigue behavior of hoisting rope wires in low cycle fatigue. Tribol Int
2012;52:17889.
[20] Wang D, Zhang D, Zhang Z, Ge S. Effect of various kinematic parameters of mine hoist on fretting parameters of hoisting rope and a new fretting fatigue
test apparatus of steel wires. Eng Fail Anal 2012;22:92112.
[21] Wang D, Zhang D, Ge S. Frettingfatigue behavior of steel wires in low cycle fatigue. Mater Des 2011;32:498693.
[22] Torkar M, Arzens B. Failure of crane wire rope. Eng Fail Anal 2002;9:22733.
[23] Elata D, Eshkenazy R, Weiss MP. The mechanical behavior of a wire rope with an independent wire rope core. Int J Solids Struct 2004;41:115772.
[24] Shen Y, Zhang D, Duan J, Wang D. Fretting wear behaviors of steel wires under friction-increasing grease conditions. Tribol Int 2011;44:15117.
[25] Tittel V, Zelenay M, Kudelas L. Effect of drawing angle size of a die on wire drawing and bunching process. In: 21ST International Conference On
Metallurgy And Materials (Metal 2012), Brno, Czech Republic: TANGER LTD. Ostrava; 2012. p. 3617.
[26] Plasek B, Tittel V. Lime-based lubricants improve wire drawing. Wireworld Int 1987;29:334.
[27] Liskova J, Tittel V, Zelenay M. The effect of wire rods quality on mechanical properties of drawn wires. In: Annals of Daaam for 2008 & Proceedings of
the 19th International Daaam Symposium, Trnava, Slovakia: DAAAM INT Vienna, Austria; 2008. p. 7578.
[28] Christen R, Bergamini A, Motavalli M. Three-dimensional localization of defects in stay cables using magnetic ux leakage methods. J Nav Sci Eng
2004;22:93101.
[29] Zhang D, Zhao M, Zhou Z, Pan S. Characterization of wire rope defects with gray level co-occurrence matrix of magnetic ux leakage images. J Nondestr
Eval 2013;32:3743.
[30] Taylor JL, Casey NF, White H. Frequency analysis of the signals generated by the failure of constituent wires of wire rope. NDT International
1985;18:33944.
[31] Vallan A. A system for the measurement of wire-rope defect positions. In: Proceedings of the 21st IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology
Conference IEEE Cat No04CH37510, 2004. p. 2.
[32] Gu W, Chu JX. The principle and application of a new technique for detecting wire rope defects. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on
Industrial Technology ICIT96, 1996.
[33] Chen H, Xu G. Multi-rope hoist wire rope tension on-line monitoring and analysis of reasons about tension imbalance. In: 2011 International
Conference on Consumer Electronics Communications and Networks CECNet, 2011. p. 4857.
[34] Wei GWG, Jianxin CJC. A transducer made up of uxgate sensors for testing wire rope defects. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 2002;51:1204.
[35] Cao YN, Zhang DL, Wang C, Gu Y, Xu DG. A Novel Electromagnetic Method for Local Defects Inspection of Wire Rope, 2006.
[36] Vallan A, Molinari F. A vision-based technique for lay length measurement of metallic wire ropes. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 2009:58.
[37] Radovanovic ID, Rajovic NM, Rajovic VM, Jovicic NS. Signal acquisition and processing in the magnetic defectoscopy of steel wire ropes. In: 2011
19thTelecommunications Forum TELFOR Proceedings of Papers, 2011. p. 8647.
[38] Stroffek E, Lesso I. Acoustic method for measurement of youngs modulus of steel wire ropes. Metalurgija 2001;40:21922.
P. Peterka et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 45 (2014) 96105 105