Electromagnetism, Prior

Electromagnetism
Christopher R Prior
ASTeC Intense Beams Group
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics
Trinity College, Oxford
Thursday, 25 October 2012
2
Contents
Review of Maxwells equations and Lorentz Force Law
Motion of a charged particle under constant
Electromagnetic fields
Relativistic transformations of fields
Electromagnetic waves
Waves in vacuo
Waves in conducting medium
Waves in a uniform conducting guide
Simple example TE
01
mode
Propagation constant, cut-off frequency
Group velocity, phase velocity
Illustrations
3
Reading
J.D. Jackson: Classical Electrodynamics (Wiley, 1998)
H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman & L. Ford: University Physics
(with Modern Physics) (Addison-Wesley,2007)
P.C. Clemmow: Electromagnetic Theory (CUP, 1973)
Feynmann Lectures on Physics (Basic Books, 2011)
W.K.H. Panofsky & M.N. Phillips: Classical Electricity and
Magnetism (Addison-Wesley, 2005)
G.L. Pollack & D.R. Stump: Electromagnetism (Addison-
Wesley, 2001)
Gradient is normal to
surface = constant.
For a scalar function (x, y, z, t),
gradient: =
x
,

y
,

z
For a vector

F =
F
1
, F
2
, F
3
:
divergence:

F =
F
1
x
+
F
2
y
+
F
3
z
curl:

F =
F
3
y

F
2
z
,
F
1
z

F
3
x
,
F
2
x

F
1
y
4
Vector Calculus

F

G =

G

F

F

G
= 0,

F = 0
(

F) = (

F)
2
F
Stokes Theorem
Basic Vector Calculus
5
Divergence or Gauss
Theorem
Closed surface S, volume V,
outward pointing normal

F d
S =
F dr

V

F dV =
F d
S
n
d
S = n dS
Oriented
boundary C
as we have in Greens Theorem. The line integral
F

T ds
computes the circulation around the path C while
N
x

M
y
dxdy
provides the accumulative eect of the curl of

F over the entire region D or S.
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose we are given the curl of

F ,

F = 2y, 2z, 3, but not the function

F itself.
Our surface is the upper hemisphere of radius 3. That is, S = {(x, y, z) : x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 9, z 0}. Our
objective is to evaluate the surface integral

S
(

F) nd.
(a) Use spherical coordinates to parametrize S
g(, ) =
3 sincos
3 sinsin
3 cos
0 2
0 /2
We have
n =
=
g
= 9 sin
2
cos , 9 sin
2
sin, 9 sincos
(

F)
g(, )
= 6 sinsin, 6 cos , 3
(

F) n = 54 sin
3
sin cos 54 sin
2
cos sin + 27 sincos
Evaluating
S
(

F) nd we have
/2
0
2
0
54 sin
3
sin cos 54 sin
2
cos sin + 27 sincos d d = 27
(b) Now we observe that the boundary of S is the circle
C = {(x, y, 0) : x
2
+y
2
= 9}, which just happens to be the boundary of the disk
D = {(x, y, z) : x
2
+y
2
9, z = 0}. So we apply Stokes theorem twice.
S
(

F) nd =
F dr =
D
(

F) nd
But on D, n =

k = 0, 0, 1 which means that

F) n = 2y, 0, 3 0, 0, 1 = 3 And we have
D
3 d = (3) (area(D)) = (3)(9) = 27
Note that we were able to avoid needing to know

F .
Example 3, Maple Verify Stokes Theorem for

F(x, y, z) = y
2
, x, xz on the paraboloid z = 25 x
2
y
2
, z 0.
> with(student): with(plots): with(linalg):
> F:=[y2,x,-x*z];
F := [y
2
, x, xz]
2
What is Electromagnetism?
The study of Maxwells equations, devised in 1863 to
represent the relationships between electric and magnetic
fields in the presence of electric charges and currents,
whether steady or rapidly fluctuating, in a vacuum or in
matter.
The equations represent one of the most elegant and
concise way to describe the fundamentals of electricity and
magnetism. They pull together in a consistent way earlier
results known from the work of Gauss, Faraday, Ampre,
Biot, Savart and others.
Remarkably, Maxwells equations are perfectly consistent
with the transformations of special relativity.
6
Maxwells Equations
Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated by
charge and current distributions.
7
E = electric eld
D = electric displacement
H = magnetic eld
B = magnetic ux density
= electric charge density
j = current density
0
= permeability of free space, 4 10
7
0
= permittivity of free space, 8.854 10
12
c = speed of light, 2.99792458 10
8
In vacuum:

D =
0

E,

B =
0

H,
0
0
c
2
= 1

D =

B = 0

E =

B
t

H =
j +

D
t
E =
q
4
0
r
r
3
=
sphere
E d
S =
q
4
0
sphere
dS
r
2
=
q
0
Equivalent to Gauss Flux Theorem:
The flux of electric field out of a closed region is proportional to the total
electric charge Q enclosed within the surface.
A point charge q generates an electric field:
Maxwells 1
st
Equation

E =

E =

E dV =
E d
S =
1
V
dV =
Q
0
Area integral gives a measure of the net charge enclosed; divergence of
the electric field gives the density of the sources.
8
Gauss law for magnetism:

The net magnetic ux out of any
closed surface is zero. Surround a
magnetic dipole with a closed surface.
The magnetic ux directed inward
towards the south pole will equal the
ux outward from the north pole.
If there were a magnetic monopole
source, this would give a non-zero
integral.
Maxwells 2
nd
Equation
Gauss law for magnetism is then a
statement that
There are no magnetic monopoles
9

B = 0

B d
S = 0

B = 0
Equivalent to Faradays Law of Induction:
(for a xed circuit C)
The electromotive force round a circuit
is proportional to the rate of change of ux of
magnetic eld through the circuit.
Maxwells 3
rd
Equation
!
" = l d E
! !
#
!!
" = # S d B
! !
10

E d
S =

B
t
d
E d
l =
d
dt
B d
S =
d
dt

E =

B
t
Faradays Law is the basis for electric generators. It also
forms the basis for inductors and transformers.
Michael Faraday
B =

0
I
4
l r
r
3
Maxwells 4
th
Equation
Ampre
11
Biot

B =
0
j +
1
c
2

E
t
Originates from Ampres (Circuital) Law :
Satised by the eld for a steady line current
(Biot-Savart Law, 1820):

B =
0
B d
l =

B d
S =
0
j d
S =
0
I
B =

0
I
2r
For a straight line current
Apply Amp`ere to surface 1 (a at
disk): the line integral of B =
0
I.
Applied to surface 2, line integral
is zero since no current penetrates
the deformed surface.
In a capacitor,
E =
Q
0
A
and I =
dQ
dt
=
0
A
dE
dt
,
so there is a current density

j
d
=
0

E
t
.
12
Displacement Current
Surface 1
Surface 2
Closed loop
Current I
Faraday: vary B-field, generate E-field
Maxwell: varying E-field should then produce a B-field, but not covered by
Ampres Law.

B =
0
(
j +
j
d
) =
0
j +
0

E
t
13
Consistency with Charge Conservation
Charge conservation:
Total current flowing out of a region
equals the rate of decrease of charge
within the volume.
Charge conservation is implicit in Maxwells Equations

j d
S =
d
dt
dV
j dV =

t
dV

j +

t
= 0
From Maxwells equations:
Take divergence of (modified) Ampres
equation

B =
0
j +
1
c
2

E
t
=

B =
0
j +
1
c
2
= 0 =
j +
0
= 0 =
j +

t
In vacuum:
D =
0

E,

B =
0

H,
0
0
c
2
= 1
Source-free equations:

B = 0

E +

B
t
= 0
Source equations:

E =

B
1
c
2

B
t
=
0
j
Equivalent integral form (useful for
simple geometries):

E d
S =
1
dV

B d
S = 0

E d
l =
d
dt

B d
S =
d
dt

B d
l =
0

j d
S +
1
c
2
d
dt

E d
S
Maxwells Equations in Vacuum
14
Also from

E =

B
t

B =
0
j +
1
c
2

E
t
then gives current density necessary to
sustain the elds
Example: Calculate E from B

E d
l =
d
dt

B d
S
!
"
#
>
<
=
0
0 0
0
sin
r r
r r t B
B
z
$
r
z
15
2rE
=
d
dt
r
2
B
0
sin t = r
2
B
0
cos t
= E
=
1
2
B
0
r cos t
r < r
0
2rE
=
d
dt
r
2
0
B
0
sin t = r
2
0
B
0
cos t
= E
=
r
2
0
B
0
2r
cos t
r > r
0

E d
l =
d
dt

B d
S
= 2rE
=
d
dt
The Betatron
Magnetic
flux, !
Generated
E-field
r
Particles accelerated by the rotational electric
eld generated by a time-varying magnetic eld
16
mv
2
r
= evB = B =
p
er
=

t
B(r, t) =
1
er
dp
dt
=
E
r
=
1
2r
2
d
dt
= B(r, t) =
1
2
1
r
2
B dS
B-field on orbit needs to be one half the average B over the circle. This imposes a limit on the energy
that can be achieved. Nevertheless the constant radius principle is attractive for high energy circular
accelerators.
For circular motion at a constant radius:
Lorentz Force Law
Thought of as a supplement to Maxwells equations but actually
implicit in relativistic formulation, gives force on a charged particle
moving in an electromagnetic field:
For continuous distributions, use force density:
Relativistic equation of motion
4-vector form:
3-vector component: Energy component:
F =
dP
d
=
v

f
c
,

f
1
c
dE
dt
,
d p
dt
d
dt
m
0
v
=

f = q
E +v

B
v

f =
dE
dt
= m
0
c
2
d
dt
17
f = q
E +v

B
f
d
=
E +
j

B
d
dt
m
0
v
=

f = q
E +v

B
= qv

B
d
dt
m
0
c
2
= v

f = qv v

B = 0
Motion in Constant Magnetic Fields
From energy equation, ! is constant
From momentum equation,

18
No acceleration with a magnetic eld
|v| constant and |v
| constant
= |v
| also constant
= |v| is constant
Motion in Constant Magnetic Field
Constant magnetic eld gives
uniform spiral about B with
constant energy.
19
d
dt
(m
0
v) = qv

B
=
dv
dt
=
q
m
0
v

B
=
v
2
=
q
m
0
B
= circular motion with radius =
m
0
v
qB
at an angular frequency =
v
=
qB
m
0
=
qB
m
Magnetic Rigidity
B =
m
0
v
q
=
p
q
d
dt
m
0
v
=

f = q
E +v

B
=
d
dt
m
0
v
= q
E
20
Motion in Constant Electric Field
Constant E-eld gives uniform acceleration in
straight line
Solution is v =
q
E
m
0
t
Then
2
= 1 +
v
c
2
= =
1 +
Et
m
0
c
2
If

E = (E, 0, 0),
dx
dt
=
(v)
= x = x
0
+
m
0
c
2
qE
1 +
qEt
m
0
c
2
1
x
0
+
1
2
qE
m
0
t
2
for qE m
0
c
Energy gain is m
0
c
2
( 1) = qE(x x
0
)
According to observer O in frame F, particle has velocity , fields are and
and Lorentz force is
In Frame F, particle is at rest and force is
Assume measurements give same charge and force, so
Point charge q at rest in F:

See a current in F, giving a field
Suggests
E =
q
4
0
r
r
3
,

B = 0
v

E

B
Relativistic Transformations of E and B
= q
= q and

E
=

E +v

B
0
q
4
v r
r
3
=
1
c
2
v

E
=

B
1
c
2
v

E
21
f = q
E +v

B
R
o
u
g
h

i
d
e
a
Review of Waves
1D wave equation is with general
solution
Simple plane wave:

1D: sin !t " k x
( )
3D: sin !t "
!
k #
!
x
( )
2
u
x
2
=
1
v
2
2
u
t
2
u(x, t) = f(vt x) + g(vt + x)
Wavelength is =
2
|
k|
Frequency is =

2
22
t kx = 0
v
p
=
x
t
=

k
Superposition of plane waves. While
shape is relatively undistorted, pulse
travels with the Group Velocity
Phase and Group Velocities
[ ]
!
"
" #
#
dk e k A
kx t k i ) (
) (
$
Plane wave has constant
phase at peaks
sin(t kx)
t kx =
1
2
v
g
=
d
dk
23
24
Wave Packet Structure
Phase velocities of individual plane waves making
up the wave packet are different,
The wave packet will then disperse with time
3D wave equation:
2

E =

2

E
x
2
+

2

E
y
2
+

2

E
z
2
=
2

E
t
2
Electromagnetic waves
Maxwells equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves, later
discovered by Hertz.
No charges, no currents:
=

B
t
=
2

D
t
2
=
2

E
t
2
2

E
=
2

E
25
Similarly for

H.
Electromagnetic waves travelling with
speed
1

H =

D
t
,

E =

B
t

D = 0,

B = 0
Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
A general plane wave with angular frequency ! travelling in the
direction of the wave vector has the form
Phase number of waves and so is a Lorentz
invariant.
Apply Maxwells equations:
Waves are transverse to the direction of propagation; and are
mutually perpendicular
E =

E
0
e
i(t
kx)
,

B =

B
0
e
i(t
kx)
i
t
i
26
t
k x = 2
E,

B

k

E = 0 =

B

k

E = 0 =

k

B

E =

B
t

k

E =
B
Plane Electromagnetic Wave
27
= speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is

k
= c
Plane Electromagnetic Waves
!
"
#
!
$
2
Frequency
k
2
Wavelength
=
= !
Reminder: The fact that is an
invariant tells us that

is a Lorentz 4-vector, the 4-Frequency vector.
Deduce frequency transforms as
=
c
,
k x
= ( v
k) =
c v
c + v

B =
1
c
2
E
t

k

B =
c
2
E
Combined with

k

E =
B =
|
E|
|
B|
=

k
=
kc
2
28
Waves in a Conducting Medium
(Ohms Law) For a medium of conductivity !,
Modified Maxwell:
Put
conduction
current
displacement
current
Dissipation
factor
j =

H =
j +

E
t
=
E +

E
t
i
k

H =
E +i
E
D =

E =

E
0
e
i(t
kx)
,

B =

B
0
e
i(t
kx)
29
4
0
8 -
12
0
7
10 57 . 2 1 . 2 , 10 3 : Teflon
10 , 10 8 . 5 : Copper
!
" = # = " =
= # = " =
D
D
$ $ %
$ $ %
i
k

H =
E + i
E

k

H = i
E = (i )
E
Combine with

E =

B
t
=

k

E =
H
=

k (
k

E) =
k

H = (i )
E
= (
k

E)
k k
2

E = (i )
E
= k
2
= (i + ) since

k

E = 0
Attenuation in a Good Conductor
For a good conductor, D 1, , k
2
i
= k
2
(1 i) =
1
(1 i) where =
is the skin-depth
Wave-form is: e
i(tkx)
= e
i(t(1i)x/)
= e
x/
e
i(tx/)
30
Inside a conductor (Ohms law)
Continuity equation is
Solution is
Charge density decays exponentially with time. For a very
good conductor, charge flows instantly to the surface to
form a surface current density and (for time varying fields)
a surface current. Inside a perfect conductor:
Charge Density in a Conducting Material
j =
E
=
0
e
t/
32
t
+
j = 0

t
+

E = 0

t
+

= 0.
( )

E =

H = 0

E =

B
t
= i

H =

D
t
= i
2

E = (

E)

E
= i

H
=
2
2
+
2
= 0
A Uniform Perfectly Conducting Guide
Hollow metallic cylinder with perfectly conducting boundary
surfaces
Maxwells equations with time dependence e
i!t
are:
Assume
) (
) (
) , ( ) , , , (
) , ( ) , , , (
z t i
z t i
e y x H t z y x H
e y x E t z y x E
! "
! "
#
#
=
=
! !
! !
! is the propagation constant
Can solve for the fields completely
in terms of E
z
and H
z
z
x
y
33
Then
2
t
+
2
+
2
= 0
Helmholtz Equation
To satisfy boundary conditions: E = 0 on x = 0 and x = a.
= E = Asin Kx, with K = K
n

n
a
, n integer
E = (0, 1, 0)E(x)e
itz
where E satises
2
t
E =
d
2
E
dx
2
= K
2
E, K
2
=
2
+
2
.
with solution E = Acos Kx or Asin Kx
Propagation constant is
=
K
2
n
2
=
n
a
2
,
c
=
K
n
34
A simple model: Parallel Plate Waveguide
Transport between two infinite conducting plates (TE
01
mode):
z
x
y
x
=
0
x
=
a
=
n
a
2
, E = sin
nx
a
e
itz
,
c
=
n
a
35
Cut-off Frequency, "
c
! "<"
c
gives real solution for #, so attenuation
only. No wave propagates: cut-off modes.
! ">"
c
gives purely imaginary solution for #,
and a wave propagates without attenuation.
!
For a given frequency " only a finite number of
modes can propagate.
For given frequency, convenient to
choose a s.t. only n=1 mode
occurs.
= ik, k =
2
c
1
2
=
1

2
c
1
2
>
c
=
n
a
= n <
a

k =
2
c
1
2
<
=
2
k
>
2
,
k
2
=
2
c
= v
g
=
d
dk
=
k
<
1
37
Phase and Group Velocities
v
p
=

k
>
1
# free-space wavelength
# larger than free-space
velocity
# smaller than free-
space velocity
Wave number
Wavelength
Phase velocity
Group velocity
Calculation of Wave Properties
If cm, cut-off frequency of lowest order mode is
At 7 GHz, only the n=1 mode propagates and
a = 3
f
c
=

c
2
=
1
2a

3 10
8
2 0.03
5 GHz
c
=
n
a
c
38
k =
2
c
1
2
2(7
2
5
2
)
1
2
10
9
/3 10
8
= 103 m
1
=
2
k
6 cm
v
p
=

k
= 4.3 10
8
ms
1
> c
v
g
=
k
= 2.1 10
8
ms
1
< c

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Electromagnetism

From energy equation, ! is constant

From momentum equation,

Point charge q at rest in F:

Thursday, 25 October 2012

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