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WEATHERING PROCESSES
A. Introduction
Weathering important because:
weakens resisting forces; makes landscape more susceptible to erosive forces
produces unique landforms
produce regolith (weathering mantle), which may evolve to soil
Weathering: in-situ breakdown of material
chemical weathering
physical weathering
resistance to weathering function of:
internal resistance of material
magnitude of external forces
Learning outcomes: you should be able to:
list different types of physical and chemical weathering;
explain how these weathering processes weaken the resisting framework;
indicate the landscapes or environmental conditions under which the different types of
weathering processes are most likely to occur; and,
describe the characteristics and formation processes of various weathering landforms and
identify examples of these landforms.
B. Physical Weathering
Frost action
(Talus cones, Banff National Park, Alberta. Photo: Marli Miller, University of Oregon.
http://marlimillerphoto.com/talus.html)
9% volumetric expansion up freezing
effective only in closed voids that are almost entirely
saturated
effective when temperatures oscillate above and below
freezing point
ice segregation
frozen water in voids generates a suction force pulling liquid water toward the ice
migrating water generates pressure forces sufficient to enlarge cracks
primary cause of frost heave in soils
only more recently accepted as mechanism working in solid rock
most effective in temperature range -3 to -8C
Landforms: talus, talus cones, scree slopes
Salt weathering
salt crystallization: occurs as saline solutions evaporate
salt crystal expansion: occurs when salt crystals get wet
occurrence:
hot and cold arid and semi-arid environments
capillary rise brings saline water toward surface
limited liquid water (either due to supply or phase)
incapable of washing salts away
hot arid regions: large diurnal changes in temperature and
relative humidity promote repeated wetting and drying
cold regions: cold temperatures encourage salt
precipitation from solutions
rocky coastal areas
rock susceptibility to salt weathering
proportion of micropores
water absorption capacity
surface texture
presence of clay minerals
landforms
tafoni
honeycomb weathering
granular disintegration
spalling
Honeycomb weathering in greywacke sandstone, Golden Gate National
Recreation Area. Photo: National Park Service,
http://www.nps.gov/goga/forteachers/graywacke-sandstone-faq.htm
Photo: K. Segerstrom, USGS Photographic Library image sk000626.
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
Photo: R.C. Moore, USGS Photographic Library, Image mrc00098.
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
Wetting & drying
susceptible soils & rocks:
soils with 2:1 layered clays (e.g. montmorillonite)
shale, clayey siltstones and sandstones, granite
result: spalling, granular disintegration
Photo: Marli Miller, University of Oregion. Earth Science World Image
Bank, photo hhrhuz, http://www.earthscienceworld.org/
Thermal expansion and contraction
different minerals have different coefficients of thermal
expansion
e.g. quartz is about 3 times that of feldspar
effectiveness of insolation debated
result: spalling
Photo: J.R. Stacey, USGS Photographic Library, Image hcb00980.
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
Pressure release
sheet joints and exfoliation
rock bursts in deep mines
Photo: F.E. Matthes, USGS Photographic Library, Image mfe00007.
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
Half Dome, Yosemite. Photo: F.E. Matthes, USGS Photographic Library, Image mfe00001.
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
Sheet joints, Yosemite National Park. Photo: N.K. Huber, USGS
Photographic Library, Image hnk00031. http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
C. Chemical Weathering
Introduction
progression from less stable minerals to more stable minerals
primary mineral stability
progression: primary minerals to secondary minerals to new secondary minerals
secondary minerals: clay minerals
formed primarily by recombination of silica, alumina and metal cations released during
weathering
2:1 layered clays: smectite (montmorillonite), illite, vermiculite, chlorite
1:1 layered clays (kaolinite)
progression: primary minerals to 2:1 layered clays to 1:1 layered clays to hydrous oxides of
iron and aluminum
water is critical
geochemical weathering: driven by inorganic processes; produces "rotten" rocks or saprolites
pedochemical weathering: controlled by biologic processes; leads to formation of soil from
saprolites
Solution
virtually all chemical weathering involves some solution

solution of calcite (CaCO
3
) and halite (NaCl)

most common minerals are soluble to some degree in normal waters except:
silica when contained in quartz
aluminum oxides - virtually insoluble under normal conditions
ferric iron - requires very acidic fluids
result: granular disintegration, spheroidal weathering, weathering pits, karst
(Photo: N.K. Huber, USGS Photographic Library, Image hnkb0004. http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
Hydrolysis
water dissociates into H
+
(hydrogen cation) and OH
-
(hydroxyl anion)
H+ displaces other cations in mineral structure
K
+
, Na
+
, Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
may combine with hydroxly anion or be carried away in solution
hydrolysis promoted by:
decreasing pH (increasing H
+
)
decomposition of organic matter (releases H
+
)
increased water temperatures (promotes dissociation)
important mechanism for breaking apart primary minerals
example: albite weathers to kaolinite plus some residual silica
albite + water = kaolinite + silica + sodium ion + hydroxyl ion
4NaAlSi
3
O
8
+ 6H
2
O = Al
4
Si
4
O
10
(OH)
8
+ 8SiO
2
+ 4Na
+
+ 4OH
-
result: spalling, weathering pits, spheroidal weathering, weathering rinds, production of clay
mineral
fine grained mafic igneous rock with orange-brown, iron rich weathering rind
(Photo: USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2002/of02-437/gallery.htm)
Oxidation/reduction
oxidation
element in a mineral structure loses electrons increasing their charge
reaction between ions and oxygen results in formation of:
oxides: compounds of metals + oxide ions, O
2-
hydroxides: compounds of metals and hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
occurs above water table
examples:
ferrous iron (Fe
+2
) oxidizes to ferric iron (Fe
+3
)
4Fe
+2
+ 3O
2
= 2Fe
2
O
3
iron + oxygen = iron oxide (hematite)
olivine weathers through combination of hydrolysis and oxidation to form hematite
olivine + water + oxygen = hematite + silicic acid
2Fe
2
SiO
4
+ 4H
2
O + O
2
= 2Fe
2
O
3
+ 2H
4
SiO
4
reducing agents: react to form cations (oxidize); Fe
2+
>Al
3+
>Mg
2+
>Na
+
> Ca
2+
>K
+
iron is most commonly oxidized material
most elements at earth's surface exist in an oxidized state
reduction: opposite reaction
occurs below water table
reduced form of elements are more mobile than oxidized because they're more soluble
result: weathering rinds
Cation exchange
exchange of ions in minerals (usually cations) with ions in solution
colloids: particles with diameter <2um
includes clay minerals & humus
surfaces contain negative charges
cations adsorbed to neutralize negative charge; not held too tightly
cations in solution replace cations adsorbed at colloid surface
cation exchange capacity: propensity for adsorbing cations
common exchangeable cations: H
+
, K
+
, Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
, Na
+
, Al
3+
result: production of new, more stable secondary (clay) minerals
D. Patterns To Weathering
Model based on global air temperature patterns and
global precipitation patterns
Implication: air temperature affects type of weathering
Reality:
temperature affects rate, but not type of
weathering
evidence for chemical weathering in hot and cold
deserts
air temperature not reflective of ground surface
temperature
ground surface temperature affected by air
temperature, insolation, albedo, and thermal
conductivity
Implication: precipitation affects amount of weathering (more weathering in wetter climates)
Reality:
precipitation isn't only one source of water for weathering
constant flow of soil water and groundwater brings fresh influx of reactants and removes
soluble elements
abundant groundwater flow may allow significant chemical weathering in dry climates
sufficient soil moisture in some deserts to allow chemical weathering
Amount or rate of weathering
traditional model
high amounts & thick regolith in humid tropical climates
small amounts & very thin regolith in semi-arid and arid climates
moderate amounts & moderate regolith in humid mid-high latitude climates
small amounts and thin regolith in periglacial environments
reality
climate change impacts reolith thickness; e.g. thick regolith in dry regions of Australia
erosion impacts regolith thickness;
erosion rate affected by topography and vegetation cover
thin regolith in arid environments may be result of high erosion rates, which mask the
actual weathering rate
E. Summary
physical and chemical weathering are separate but not independent
water is critical
physical weathering: frost action, salt weathering, thermal expansion, wetting and drying, pressure
release
weathering proceeds from less stable to more stable minerals; primary minerals to secondary minerals to
more weathered secondary minerals
chemical weathering: solution, hydrolysis, oxidation/reduction, ion exchange
traditional model relates weathering type and amount to global climate patterns, but reality more complex
surface temperatures also affected by insolation, albedo, and thermal conductivity
regional and local soil and groundwater flow provide other sources of water
evidence of weathering removed by erosion
results of weathering
weakening of resisting framework; increased susceptibility to erosive forces
landforms: talus, honeycombs, tafoni, granular disintegration, spalling, sheet joints, exfoliation,
spheroidal weathering, karst, weathering rinds
production of clay minerals and development of soils
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Karen A. Lemke: klemke@uwsp.edu
Last revised October 16, 2013