Why do oil and gas come from? Many theories exist as to the origin of petroleum and natural gas but yet it is not possible to determine the exact place or material from which any particular reservoir originated. There are two accepted theories Organic Inorganic
Inorganic Theory Inorganic theory of the origin of petroleum states that hydrogen and carbon came together under great temperature and pressure far below the earths surface and formed oil and gas. This then seeped through porous rocks to collect in various natural underground traps. Organic Theory Organic theory is the one most widely accepted by todays scientist, based on evidence ancient seas left on underground rocks. Oil and natural gas are formed from remains of prehistoric plants and animals. Hundreds of millions of years ago, prehistoric plant and animal settled into the seas along with sand, silt, and rocks. As the rocks and silt settled, layer upon layer piled into rivers, along coastlines, and on the sea bottom.
Organic Theory (cont) Geologic shifts resulted in some of these layers being buried deep in the earth. Over time, the layers of organic material were compressed under the weight of the sediment above them and the increasing pressure and temperature changed the mud, sand and silt into rock and organic matter in petroleum. The rock containing the organic matter that turned into petroleum is referred as sedimentary or source rock. The oil and natural gas is contained in the tiny pores spaces in these source or reservoir rock. When reservoir rock is magnified, the tiny pores that contain trapped oil droplets can be seen Oil and Gas Reservoirs Over the millions of years, the oil and gas that formed in the source rock deep within the earth moved upward through tiny, connected pore spaces in the rock. Some seeped out at the surface of the earth. But most the petroleum hydrocarbons were trapped by nonporous rocks and other barriers that would not allow it the migrate any further. These underground traps of oil and gas are called reservoirs. A trap is a geologic structure that prevents oil and gas from escaping from a reservoir rock. There are two general types of reservoir trap: Structural trap formed by deformation of the reservoir formation two common types are: Anticline an upward folding in the layer of the rock, much like an arch Fault traps results when a rock of each side of a fracture shifts its position. Stratigraphic traps that results from an existing updip termination of porosity or permeability types include: Lens trap caused by abrupt changes in the amount of connect pore space Combination trap formed by combination of folding, faulting, porosity change and other conditions Unconformity
Oil and Gas Reservoirs Source: Gerding, Fundamentals of Petroleum, 3 rd Ed. Source: Gerding, Fundamentals of Petroleum, 3 rd Ed. Source: Gerding, Fundamentals of Petroleum, 3 rd Ed. Source: Gerding, Fundamentals of Petroleum, 3 rd Ed. Source: Gerding, Fundamentals of Petroleum, 3 rd Ed. Oil is trapped under an unconformity Source: Gerding, Fundamentals of Petroleum, 3 rd Ed. Lenticular traps are often formed in buried river sandbars Source: Gerding, Fundamentals of Petroleum, 3 rd Ed. Impervious rocks like shale trap oil and gas in crests or upwarps of rock layers. A=anticline trap. R=reef trap. S=stratigraphic trap Oil and Gas Reservoirs Reservoirs are not underground lakes of oil. Reservoirs are made up of porous and permeable rocks that can hold significant amount of oil and gas within their pore spaces. The properties of these rock allow the oil and natural gas within them to flow through the pore spaces to a producing well. Most reservoir contain oil, gas and water which are layered with gas on top, oil middle and water on bottom
Reservoir rock is subsurface rock capable of containing gas, oil, water and other fluids. To be a productive petroleum reservoir the rock body must be large enough and porous to contain an appreciable volume of hydrocarbon. It must also be permeable enough to give up the contained fluids at a satisfactory rate when the reservoir is penetrated by a well. Sandstones and carbonates (i.e. limestone and dolomite) are generally the most porous of rock and also the most common reservoir rocks. Oil and Gas Reservoirs Oil and Gas Reservoirs Some reservoirs are only hundreds of feet below the surface. But other are thousands and sometimes tens of thousands of feet underground. Reservoirs have been discovered at depths greater than 30,000 feet (9.15km). Many offshore wells are drilled in thousands of feet of water and penetrate tens of thousands of feet into the sendiments below the sea floor.
Oil and Gas Reservoirs Not all petroleum reservoirs are commercially viable. To be commercially viable, the well must posses the following characteristics: A formation of rock in which the porosity is sufficient to contain the fluids Gas or oil must be present in large enough quantities to make exploitation economically viable A natural driving force, usually gas or water, must be present in the reservoir EXPLORATION Exploration - The Search for Oil 1800s to early 1900s men look for oil seeps on the surface of the earth matter or luck. The most successful oil finding method was to drill in the vicinity of oil seeps, places where oil was actually present on the surface. 1859 Col Edwin Drake, a retired railway conductor, drilled the first commercial well in Titusville, Western Pennsylvania. That day, 27 th
August 1859 is noted as the birth of the oil industry. Also proven that oil can be obtained by drilling through rocks. Col Drake and the first commercial well drilled Exploration In modern day exploration, oil and gas discoveries are generally credited to surface and subsurface geology studies based on data gathered from aerial photographs, satellite images and various geophysical instruments which in turn determines where an exploratory well should be drilled.
Note: the earth has a total surface area of 509,600,000 km 2 , 70.8% covered in water.
The search for oil begins with geologist and geophysicists using their knowledge of the earth to locate geographic areas that are likely to contain reservoir rocks. In a relatively unexplored area, the explorationists studies the surface topography and near surface structures, as well as geographic features such as drainage and development. Sometimes the character of the underground formations and structures can be deduced largely from what appears on the surface Exploration Exploration Geophysical Surveys Geophysical exploration depends on a few fundamental variables in the earths physical conditions gravitational change, magnetic field change and electrical resistance change. Gravitational survey geologist makes use of the earths gravitational field and the way it varies according to differences in mass distribution near the earth surface. Magnetic and electromagnetic surveys enables geologists to compare slight differences in the magnetism generated by the mineral in rocks. Seismic survey this is biggest breakthrough and usually the last exploration step before a prospective site is actually drilled. Seismic survey give the explorationist precise details on the structures and stratigraphy beneath the surface. Data is collected by creating vibrations, detecting them with a seismometer, recording them with a seismograph, and depicting them on a seismogram. Seismograms are used to generate a seismic section, which is much like a cross-sectional view of the subsurface.
Exploration Seismic Survey Seismograph The first seismometer was invented by David Milne in 1841 to measure, detect and record the vibrations of the ground during earthquakes. A few years later, L. Palmieri, set up a similar instrument which he called a seismograph. The first practical uses of seismic data was developed by Dr. L. Mintrop, a German scientist, during World War I. He invented a portable model used by the German Army to locate Allied artillery emplacements. After the war Dr. Mintrop reversed the process, set off explosion at known location and recorded the vibration. He formed a company called Seismos and in 1924, it supplied the first seismic crew. But the validity of reflective seismography as a useful tool in the search of oil was proven in 1921 by J .C. Karcher, W.B. Haseman, I. Derrine and W.C. Kite. Seismology - Theory The earths crust is composed of different layers which vary in density and thickness. Each layer has its own properties. Energy (in the form of seismic waves) traveling underground interacts differently with each of these layers. When an energy, e.g. explosion, dropping of heavy weights or sound wave, is released on the surface, it will travel through the earth. As the energy strikes each of the layers, part of it is refracted and part of it is reflected back to the surface. The reflected sound waves are then detected and recorded by the sensitive geophones (for land and hydrophone (for sea). Each layer of formation exhibited different characteristics. Onshore Seismic Exploration Seismic exploration onshore involves artificially creating seismic waves. In the past - shot holes are drilled and explosives charges are fired in the holes Now heavy weights are being dropped Now man-made vibrations or waves are generated (developed by VIBROSEIS). Reflection of seismic waves is picked by sensitive geophones and then transmitted to seismic recording truck which records the data for further interpretation by geophysicist and petroleum reservoir engineers. Seismic exploration on land using a seismic vibrator truck Seismic Exploration Offshore Instead of explosives or impacts on the seabed floor, the seismic ship uses a large air gun, which releases bursts of compressed air under the water, creating seismic waves that can travel through the earths crust and generate the seismic reflections that are necessary. Towed behind the seismic ship, hydrophones are being used to pick up seismic waves underwater. The hydrophones may be arranged in various configuration depending on the need of the geophysicist. Seismic exploration offshore There are up to 3000 hydrophones On a 3000m cable 2-D and 3-D Seismic 2-D Seismic Up till the 1980s reflection seismic acquisition carried out by arranging the source and received in a line for a shot and then advancing the equipment along a linear transit as necessary to complete the survey. 3-D Seismic invented by Exxon. First 3-D Seismic survey was shot by Exxon over the Friendswood field near Houston in 1967. 3-D Seismic successfully evaluated in the Bell Lake Field in 1972 with the support of six oil companies Chevron, Amoco, Texaco, Mobil, Phillips, and Unocal. Acquisition phase took about 1 month, but processing the half million input traces required another 2 years. 3-D Seismic 3-D Seismic - One of the most important technological breakthrough in an industry where profitability is closely tied to innovation and technology. Allows the subsurface to be depicted on a rectangular grid that provide the interpreter with detailed information about the full 3-D subsurface volume. Allows lateral detail to be enhanced Allows comprehensive overview of subsurface structural features, particularly faulting Allow attributes to be mapped and displayed along curved reflector surfaces Accurate positioning of events made possible through 3-D migration also improved subsurface imaging of flatter-lying stratigraphic targets. Advance 3-D imaging Advance 3-D imaging Advance 3-D Visualization One of the most exciting in advancement in 3-D interpretation is 3-D visualisation. in a special theater at the ExxonMobil Upstream Research Centre in Houston, geologists can gather for a virtual tour of potential new reservoir, as well as older fields when viewed through high-tech glasses, 3-D seismic images representing as much as 75 mile 2
of rock seem to float in space.
The Texaco has visionariums, 8 to 10 ft tall screen that curve horizontally through 160 degrees with data projected by use of three projectors that each covers one-third of the screen. Arco and Norck Hydro use immersive visualization room based on the virtual reality interface CAVE, invented by U. Illinois at Chicago. In the CAVE, three walls and the floor are used as projection surfaces, and the images on the walls are backprojected, while the image on the floor is projected from the top down. 4-D Seismic 4-D Seismic An enhancement of 3-D Seismic. Also know as time-lapse by adding the dimension of time. It is accomplished by making several 3-D seismic survey of the same area over a period time. 4-D Seismic can also track movement of oil and gas over time. Moving pictures shows how the oil reservoir has changed during production and how it will likely to change in the future.
4-D Image Interpretation Exploratory Wells The best way to gain a full understanding of subsurface geology and the potential for oil and gas deposits is to drill an exploratory well. Involves actually drilling and digging into the earths crust to look for natural oil and gas deposits. Geologist will also examine the drill cuttings and fluids to gain a better understanding of the geologic features of the area. But drilling an exploratory well is an expensive and time consuming effort.