Journal of Interactive Advertising, Volume 3, Number 2, Spring 2003

Corporate Web Sites as Advertising:

An Analysis of Function, Audience, and Message Strategy
Jang-Sun Hang
Sall! J" #c#illan
$niversit! of %ennessee at &no'ville
(uio)* +ee
Se,ong $niversit!, Seoul, &orea
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
+iterature
#et)od
-esults and Anal!sis
.iscussion
-eferences
Appendi' /
Appendi' 2
Abstract
%)e primar! purpose of t)is stud! is to e'plore and e'plain t)e concept of t)e 0eb
site as corporate advertisement" %)ree coders anal!1ed /20 corporate 0eb sites"
3orporate 0eb sites are able to combine multiple functions suc) as providing
information and image-building strategies for companies and t)eir brands as ell as
direct and indirect selling functions" 3orporate 0eb sites are also able to address
multiple audiences from a single umbrella site" #essage strategies ere more li*el!
to be informational t)an transformational 4 possibl! reflecting t)e information-deliver!
potential of t)e 0eb" In general, )ig)-revenue companies )ad more functions and
addressed more audiences t)roug) t)eir 0eb sites t)an lo-revenue companies"
Hig)-revenue companies ere also more li*el! t)an lo-revenue companies to use
transformational message strategies" Hoever, no predicted relations)ips ere found
beteen overall message strateg! and eit)er number of functions at t)e 0eb site or
number of audiences served" %)e stud! provides details on application of a relativel!
ne message strateg! model to a uni5ue ne form of corporate advertising 4 t)e
0orld 0ide 0eb"
Introduction
Internet advertising is more t)an banners, buttons, and pop-ups" %)is stud! starts
from t)e premise t)at t)e corporate 0eb site can be an e'tension of, or a different
form of, traditional corporate advertising and t)at corporate 0ebsites can be broadl!
defined as Internet advertising"
%)is stud! e'amines literature on t)ree c)aracteristics of corporate advertising 4
function, audience, and message strateg! 4 and e'plores )o t)ose c)aracteristics
are applied in t)e multiple t!pes of corporate 0eb sites" 6roduct categor! and si1e of
compan! ere considered in selection of corporate 0eb sites anal!1ed in t)is stud!
to ensure t)at a ide range of functions, audiences, and message strategies could
be identified"
%)e primar! purpose of t)is stud! is to e'plore and e'plain t)e concept of t)e 0eb
site as corporate advertisement" 7anners, buttons, and pop-ups ma! more closel!
resemble traditional advertising t)an do 0eb sites" 7ut t)is does not diminis) t)e
importance of t)e corporate 0ebsite" -at)er, t)is stud! ill see* to s)o )o 0eb
sites can build on and e'pand t)e function of corporate advertising"
%)is stud! is an important addition to t)e literature because it s)os )o 0eb sites
are c)anging bot) t)e t)eor! and practice of advertising" %raditional concerns suc)
as function, audience, and message strateg! remain, but issues ma! s)ift in an
environment )ere mar*eters )ave virtuall! unlimited time and space to
communicate t)eir messages" 7! e'amining t)e corporate 0eb site as corporate
advertising t)is stud! ma! provide advertising practitioners it) tools t)at ill )elp
t)em to better integrate t)e 0eb site into t)e mar*eting communication plan" %)e
stud! also tests a relativel! ne model for defining message strategies and see*s to
e'pand advertising-related t)eories to 0eb-based messages" %)us, findings ma!
also provide researc)ers it) ne tools for anal!1ing 0eb sites and ne directions
for t)eor! development"
Literature
Corporate Advertising: Purpose, Audience, and Message Strategy
0it) t)e enormous grot) of t)e advertising industr!, corporate advertising )as
become a significant business activit! it) e'penditures e'ceeding 89 billion as of
/992 :7elc) and 7elc) /992;" It is critical for brand managers as ell as corporate
advertising practitioners to understand corporate advertising strategies, because
consumers< *noledge formed from corporate advertising ma! influence t)e a! t)e!
t)in* about individual brands t)e compan! mar*ets :7ie)al and S)einin /99=;"
-esearc) on corporate advertising )as e'amined its messages :(arbett /9=3>
-ot)c)ild /9=?;, its ob,ectives of en)ancing corporate image :Hale! /992> Javagli et
al" /99@> Sc)umann, Hat)cote, and 0est /99/;, and its role in increasing investment
for brands :Javagli et al" /99@> 0in*leman /9=A> 0inters /9=2;"
3orporate advertising :3A; pursues several purposes" Sc)umann, Hat)cote, and
0est :/99/;, in t)eir )istorical revie of 3A, stated t)at t)e role of 3A )as c)anged
over time" In t)e /920s, 3A<s primar! function as BgoodillC and its subdividing
topics ere Bpatronage,C Bpublic relations,C and Bpublic servicesC :Stanton /92@;" %)e
concept of Bimage advertisingC as broadened in t)e /9?0s and advocac! and issue
advertising became central to 3A" Advocac! and issue advertising provide means for
companies to promote political, social and economic ideas and to elicit public support
for corporate positions :Sc)umann, Hat)cote, and 0est /99/;" 3urrentl!, t)e
demands of t)e mar*eting environment re5uire t)at corporate image advertising
continue to promote goodill, but also t)at t)e message being conve!ed )ave more
clout" %)is can be ac)ieved t)roug) issue or advocac! advertising, or t)roug) t)e
neer B)!bridC ads 4 advertising t)at combines promotion of products and services
)ile communicating a general message about t)e compan! :Hartigan and Dinc)
/9=2; t)us addressing t)e constraints of limited advertising budgets"
#c+eod and &unita :/99@; proposed a t!polog! of corporate advertising based on
eit)er image-based ob,ectives suc) asE Bgoodill,C Bc)arit!,C Bfinancial,C Bemplo!ee
recruitment,C and BaarenessC or issue-based ob,ectives suc) as Bissue positionC and
Bcounter arguments"C (arbett :/9=3; also categori1ed corporate advertising as Bissue
or advocac!,C Bimage or identit!,C Bfinancial or investor relations,C and Bmar*et
preparation :sales-related;C advertising" He also identified different ob,ectives for
different *inds of corporate ads" #an! researc)ers suggest t)at issue advertising is
fundamentall! different from ot)er t!pes of corporate advertising :(arbett /9=3> -au
and 6reble /9==> 0alt1er /9==;" Issue or advocac! advertisements are designed to
promote t)e corporation<s position on current social issues in order to influence public
attitudes or public polic! :Set)i /9?9> 0alt1er /9==;"
Fne ob,ective of 3A ma! be to persuade an investor to loo* into a compan!<s stoc*
)ile ot)er ads )ave ob,ectives suc) as attracting top scientists to or* for t)e
compan!" %)erefore, t)e corporate advertising campaign of a compan! usuall! needs
to consider multiple ob,ectives to satisf! multiple audiences :(arbett /9=3> #c+eod
and &unita /99@;"
.ifferent ob,ectives, or functions, and different target audiences can be associated
it) different message strategies in corporate advertising" #essage strateg! is
usuall! determined after advertising ob,ectives and targeting are establis)ed" %)us,
corporate advertisers need to var! t)eir message strategies for different sta*e)olders
:e"g", investors, consumers, etc"; and ob,ectives :e"g", building corporate image,
driving sales, etc";"
0eb sites can be used for all of t)e roles of corporate advertising identified above" %o
address multiple ob,ectives and t)e differing needs of different audiences, corporate
advertisers can include a variet! of content in t)eir sites" Dor e'ample, multi-purpose
umbrella corporate advertising can be effectivel! used in t)e 0eb environment
because adding additional messages does not result in t)e need for purc)asing
additional time or space in media ve)icles" In fact, li*e )!brid advertising, man!
corporate 0eb sites contain information about t)eir products and services as ell as
messages t)at focus on bot) corporate image and issues"
#an! features of t)ese corporate 0eb sites reflect t)e ob,ectives of corporate
advertising detailed above" Dor e'ample, some 0eb sites contain menu items for
investor information t)at lead to information targeted to stoc*)olders and ot)er
investors" A career menu item often leads to information targeted at prospective
emplo!ees" Deatures suc) as t)ese ma! satisf! t)e ob,ective of en)ancing
relations)ips it) various sta*e)olders" Ft)er parts of t)e 0eb site provide
information andGor branding for t)e compan! and its products"
%)e corporate 0eb site adds an important functionalit! t)at is not often available in
traditional corporate advertisingE sales" #an! corporate 0eb sites combine
advertising messages and distribution c)annels" Additionall!, t)e 0eb offers a uni5ue
opportunit! to combine multiple message t!pes targeted to multiple sta*e)olders t)at
as simpl! not possible )en corporate advertisers ere limited b! t)e constraints of
time and space available in traditional media" %)us, t)e 0eb )as t)e potential to
build on and e'pand t)e opportunities for corporate advertising"
Dinall!, t)e nature of corporate 0eb sites mig)t be influenced bot) b! product
categor! and compan! si1e" In)erent c)aracteristics of product categories are a
critical factor affecting message strategies because t)e consumer<s motivation to
purc)ase a product can var! based on product c)aracteristics" Dor e'ample, food
companies mig)t be more li*el! to appeal to t)e senses )ile apparel companies
mig)t be more li*el! to appeal to t)e ego"
7ig companies are more li*el! to invest )eavil! in corporate 0eb sites t)an are
smaller companies resulting in sites it) more features and more message
sop)istication" Hig)-revenue companies are also more li*el! to manage relations)ips
it) multiple sta*e)olders and ill t)us be li*el! to address more audiences t)roug)
t)eir 0eb sites t)an do small companies"
Teoretical Fra!e"or# for Message Strategy
Alt)oug) man! researc)ers )ave investigated message strategies in advertising for
specific products or services :e"g", +as*e!, .a!, and 3ras* /9=9> #orrison and 0)ite
2000> -amaprasad and Hasegaa /992> -eid et al" /9=A> Handpour, 3)ang, and
3atalano /992;, no studies ere found t)at e'amined message strategies of eit)er
corporate advertising or corporate 0eb sites" 0)ile t)e purposes of corporate
advertising are often 5uite different from t)ose of brand advertising, basic principles
of message strateg! appl! to bot) t!pes of advertising" %o provide a frameor* for
anal!sis of corporate 0eb sites, more detail is provided )ere on t)e concept of
message strateg!"
Advertising strateg! is about B)at to sa!C )ile advertising tactics address t)e actual
implementation of t)e message :Delton /99@;" #an! studies use t)e terms message
strateg! and creative strateg! interc)angeabl!" Hoever, some researc)ers :Dra1er
/9=3> +as*e!, .a!, and 3ras* /9=9> %a!lor /999; )ave distinguis)ed t)e to terms
suggesting t)at t)e term message strateg! focuses on t)e concept of B)at to sa!C
)ile creative strateg! incorporates bot) B)at to sa!C and B)o to sa! it"C %a!lor
:/999; defined message strateg! as Ba guiding approac) to a compan!<s or
institution<s promotional communication efforts for its products, its services, or itself
:p" ?;"C %)e current stud! adopted t)is definition of message strateg! and used
%a!lor<s si'-segment message strateg! )eel as a frameor* for e'amining
corporate 0eb sites"
%a!lor :/999; proposed a compre)ensive message strateg! model s!nt)esi1ing a
large bod! of *noledge dealing it) message strateg!" %)e model first divided
advertising strategies into 3are!<s :/9?A; to communication viesE transmission
and ritual" %)e division is similar to t)e informational and transformational dic)otom!
suggested b! 0ells :/9=0; and +as*e!, .a!, and 3ras* :/9=9; and t)ose more
familiar terms are used t)roug)out t)e reminder of t)e current document" %)e
purpose of advertising operating in t)e informational vie is to impart, send, transmit
or give information to consumers" Advertising using informational strategies provides
factual product information about a brand" %)e 0eb ould seem to offer an ideal
venue for information-based strategies because of t)e virtuall! unlimited amount of
information t)at can be included in a single 0eb site" %)e purpose of advertising
operating in t)e transformational vie is to construct and maintain an ordered,
meaningful cultural orld )ere consumers live" Advertising using transformational
strategies associates t)e e'perience of using a brand it) a set of ps!c)ological
c)aracteristics of consumers and constructs a s)ared meaning of using a brand
among consumers" +arger companies )ave often made better use of
transformational strategies t)an )ave smaller companies because t)e! )ave more
time and mone! to invest in building t)eir brands t)roug) t)ese e'perience-based
strategies"
%a!lor :/999; proposed si' segments of advertising appeals b! subdividing eac) of
t)e primar! categories" 0it)in t)e informational vie )e identified t)ree segmentsE
ration, acute need, and routine" %)e transformational vie is also divided into t)ree
segmentsE ego, social, and sensor!"
In t)e ration segment under t)e informational vie, purc)ase decisions are ver!
important to consumers )o see* as muc) information as t)e! can get" %)e role of
advertising is to inform and persuade" In t)e acute need segment, consumers need
information to ma*e purc)ase decisions but time limits t)e amount of information
t)e! can process" %)e role of advertising in t)is segment is to build brand familiarit!
and recognition" In t)e routine segment, purc)ase decisions are made on t)e basis of
rational bu!ing motives, but consumers bu! according to )abit it)out large amounts
of deliberation time" Advertising appeals in t)is segment deal it) convenience, ease
of use, and product efficac!"
In t)e ego segment under t)e transformational vie, purc)ase decisions are
emotionall! and personall! important to consumers and Ballo t)e consumer to ma*e
a statement to )imG )erself about )o )eGs)e isC :%a!lor /999, p" /3;" Appropriate
advertising appeals are ego-related" In t)e social segment, products are Bused to
ma*e a statement to ot)ersC:p" /3;" %)e advertising appeals are related to gaining
social approval and to recalling and reliving social e'periences t)roug) product
consumption" In t)e sensor! segment, products provide consumers it) Ba moment
of pleasureC based on an! of t)e five senses"
%a!lor<s model is valuable to t)e current stud! for to reasons" Dirst, t)e model as
developed on t)e basis of previous t)eoretical or* from t)e fields of communication,
consumer be)avior, and advertising" %)erefore, t)e model considers message
strateg! from t)e perspective of )o people ma*e bu!ing decisions and )o
advertising or*s" 0)ile previous t!pologies of message strategies proposed various
*inds of advertising appeals identified b! practitioners it)out t)eoretical frameor*s,
%a!lor<s model is based on several t)eoretical frameor*s :i"e", &otler<s bu!ing model
and individualism-collectivism;" Second, t)e model offers more detailed reasoning for
identification of sub-segments t)an ot)er previous models :e"g", t)e D37 (rid; did"
7ecause t)is model is based on consumers< motivational be)aviors, its application is
not limited to message strategies in traditional media suc) as television and
nespapers"
$esearc %ypoteses
%)e folloing )!pot)eses about t)e corporate 0eb site as corporate advertising gro
from t)e literature revieed in t)e previous sectionsE
H/E 3orporate 0eb sites ill combine multiple functions found in traditional corporate
advertising includingE a; communication about t)e compan!, b; communication about
t)e brand, and c; facilitating sales"
H/aE 0eb sites developed b! )ig)-revenue companies ill )ave more of t)e above
functions t)an t)ose developed b! lo-revenue companies"
H/bE 0eb sites t)at utili1e informational message strategies ill )ave more of t)e
above functions t)an ill t)ose t)at use transformational message strategies"
H2E 3orporate 0eb sites ill )ave messages targeted for multiple audiences
available from t)e same umbrella 0eb site"
H2aE 0eb sites developed b! )ig)-revenue companies ill target more t!pes of
audiences t)an t)ose developed b! lo-revenue companies"
H2bE 0eb sites t)at utili1e informational message strategies ill target more
audiences t)an ill t)ose t)at use transformational message strategies"
H3E #essage strategies based on t)e informational side of t)e strateg! )eel ill be
more prevalent t)an t)ose based on t)e transformational side of t)e strateg! )eel"
H3aE Hig)-revenue companies are more li*el! t)an lo-revenue companies to utili1e
transformational approac)es in t)eir corporate 0eb sites"
Dinall!, to researc) 5uestions ere developed to furt)er test t)e application of
%a!lor<s :/999; si'-segment strateg! )eel in t)e conte't of corporate 0eb sites"
-I/E 0)at message strategies are used most fre5uentl! at corporate 0eb sitesJ
-I2E Ho do message strategies differ among t)e eig)t product categories used in
t)is stud!J
Metod
3ontent anal!sis offers a met)od for e'amining manifest content of messages and is
an ideal tool for t)e current stud! t)at e'amines corporate 0eb sites" %raditionall!,
content anal!sis is primaril! a 5uantitative met)od but it re5uires some 5ualitative
anal!sis as ell :7erelson, /9A2> Stern, /9=9;" -esearc)ers generall! need to
develop t)eir on coding sc)eme for anal!1ing content, alt)oug) sometimes
researc)ers can adopt e'isting coding sc)emes establis)ed b! t)eir peers" Human
intuition can intervene in t)e process of developing coding sc)emes" Alt)oug) all
researc) is sub,ect to some )uman intuition, t)e process of content anal!sis allos
relativel! more room for t)e researc)er<s intuition :&assar,ian /9??; t)an do some
met)ods suc) as surve!s or e'perimental designs"
Anal!sis of 0eb-based messages adds ne comple'it! to t)e process of content
anal!sis" #c#illan :2000; revieed nineteen empirical studies t)at applied content
anal!sis to t)e 0orld 0ide 0eb and pointed out some problems it) application of
content anal!sis to 0eb researc)" 6articularl!, s)e noted t)at problems of sampling,
unit of anal!sis, and or* of coders are most c)allenging because of c)aracteristics
of t)e 0eb t)at are different from traditional media" %)e number of 0eb )omepages
is virtuall! impossible to measure and t)e number of subse5uent pages under a
)omepage varies considerabl! b! site" #oreover, man! sites continuousl! c)ange
content" %)is ambiguit! and comple'it! lead to complications in sampling, defining
units of anal!sis and ac)ieving reliable coding" 7ut, as detailed belo, steps can be
ta*en to address t)ese concerns"
7efore t)e final content anal!sis as conducted, a series of initial pre-tests ere
used to develop a coding sc)eme for message strategies and 0eb features" $sing
t)e sampling frame and procedures to collect data as described belo, @@ 0eb sites
ere e'amined b! to coders in t)e first pretest" %)is pretest primaril! aimed to
identif! a!s to measure site functions and t!pes of audiences addressed t)roug)
0eb sites" +ater, t)ree researc)ers eac) e'amined eig)t sample 0eb sites in to
pre-tests t)at also provided coder training" %)e primar! purpose of t)ese final to
pre-tests as to refine earlier coding sc)emes for message strateg! to ma*e t)em
appropriate for 0eb site anal!sis and to finali1e t)e coding of functions and
audiences" %)is final coding document :see Appendices; as used to code /20
corporate 0eb sites"
Sa!pling
Kig)t product categories ere selected for anal!sisE 3oo*ies, 7eer, 3lot)ing,
Dootear, Audio L Video, 3omputers, +ife Insurance, and Hotels L #otels" According
to %a!lor<s :/999; preliminar! stud! of consumers, t)ese product categories are
e'pected to distribute across t)e si' segments" Dor e'ample, +ife Insurance and
Hotel L #otel categories ould be e'pected to emplo! acute need strategies more
t)an ot)er product categories, )ile 3oo*ies and 7eer are e'pected to use routine or
sensor! strategies" %)e ration strateg! is e'pected in 3omputers and Audio L Video
categories" Selection of t)ese product categories also reflects t)e distribution of
message strategies across t)e product categories in a previous stud! using %a!lor<s
model to e'amine %V commercials :+ee, Nam, and Hang 200/;" Nonet)eless, t)is
distribution is not rigid> as %a!lor stated, an! ad ma! easil! contain eit)er a single
strateg! or multiple message strategies" %)us, t)is sampling of eig)t product
categories is not designed to predict t)e outcome of t)is researc) but to en)ance its
e'ternal validit! b! considering a variet! of productGservice t!pes"
0ard<s 7usiness .irector! provided t)e sampling frame" %)e director! contains all
industries sorted b! four-digit SI3 code" %)is director! provides a good sampling
frame for t)is stud! for several reasons" Dirst, t)e director! contains numerous
companies in eac) industr!" Dor e'ample, more t)an 2A0 life insurance companies
are listed" Second, companies in eac) industr! are listed b! financial data, )ic)
enables t)e researc)ers to sample from bot) )ig)-revenue and lo-revenue
companies to test )!pot)eses /a, 2a, and 3a"
A total of /20 companies ere identified :20 for eac) of t)e = product categories;" In
most categories, t)e top-/0 and bottom-/0 companies, ran*ed b! revenue, ere
selected" A fe e'ceptions ere made" Dor e'ample, t)ree different divisions of
Nabisco ere t)e top t)ree listings in t)e 3oo*ies categor!> t)e second and t)ird
listings ere disregarded and additional selections ere made from t)e ne't )ig)-
revenue companies" Searc) engines suc) as Ma)ooN and a database s)oing more
t)an /,200,000 manufacturing companies - .L7 #illion .ollar .atabase - ere used
to find 0eb sites for selected companies" 0eb sites ere found for most companies
in t)e initial sample, but some could not be found" In t)ose cases t)e ne't )ig)est-
revenue :or loest-revenue; compan! on t)e 0ard<s 7usiness .irector! list as
substituted"
&nit of Analysis
%)e unit of anal!sis as t)e )omepage of corporate 0eb sites" Anal!sis of message
strateg! focused on te't and grap)ics of t)e )omepage but did not include anal!sis
of lin*s" 7! loo*ing at t)e )omepages in t)is a!, t)e primar! te't and grap)ics can
be considered as similar to man! print advertisements" Durt)ermore, focusing on ,ust
t)e primar! te't and grap)ics )elps to e5uali1e differences beteen small sites it)
fe lin*s and larger sites it) man! lin*s" Anal!sis of functions and audiences
focused more on t)e lin*s t)at ere provided on t)e )omepage" Dor e'ample, if a
menu item as labeled s)opping, t)e site as coded as )aving a sales function"
Similarl!, if a lin* as labeled investor information t)e site as coded as targeting
investors as an audience" In some cases researc)ers )ad to go to sub-menus to
verif! content, but t)e primar! focus as on t)e )omepage"
7! using t)e )omepage as t)e unit of anal!sis, 0eb sites of var!ing si1es can be
more effectivel! compared" 0eb sites var! substantiall! in si1e" Ha and James
:/99=; reported 0eb %ec)ni5ues< estimates t)at 0eb sites range from one page to
A0,000 pages" %)e! argued t)at coding an entire site could be e'tremel! time-
consuming and introduce biases based on t)e si1e of 0eb sites" Durt)ermore t)e
)omepage is central to 0eb-based communication because it ta*es on a role more
important t)an t)e )eadline of traditional print ads" %)e )omepage not onl! states a
*e! message, but it also provides a *ind of Bfront doorC to all corporate messages
contained in t)e site" #ost visitors to a 0eb site decide )et)er t)e! ill continue to
brose a site based on t)eir impressions of t)e )omepage :Ha and James /99=;"
%)us, t)e )omepage of corporate 0eb sites is an effective and valuable unit of
anal!sis for t)is stud!"
Coding Fra!e"or#
Message Strategy
%)is stud! too* to separate steps in t)e coding process" Dirst, message strategies
of corporate 0eb sites ere evaluated and coded" As previousl! noted, onl! t)e
)omepages of corporate 0eb sites ere evaluated at t)is stage" Hoever, )en a
0eb site s)oed introductor! pages, usuall! using Dlas), before loading t)eir
)omepages, an e'ception as made" %o get consistenc!, t)ese introductor! pages
ere disregarded" %)roug)out t)e pre-tests, t)e researc)ers ere able to identif! t)e
main images and te't in eac) 0eb site it)out confusion"
#essage strateg! as coded in to stages" Dirst, researc)ers determined )et)er or
not eac) of t)e si' strategies as used in t)e )ome page image and te't" 7ecause
%a!lor :/999; argued t)at multiple message strategies are fre5uentl! emplo!ed in a
single advertisement, all specific message strategies emplo!ed on a )omepage ere
coded" %)en, coders used a A-point +i*ert scale to indicate )et)er t)e message
strateg! as entirel! transformational, relativel! transformational, bot)
transformational and informational, relativel! informational, or entirel! informational"
%)is coding of message strateg! as similar to coding sc)emes used in studies of
message strategies of traditional advertising media :#orrison and 0)ite 2000> +ee,
Nam, and Hang 200/;"
Functions and Audiences
In t)e second step of t)e content anal!sis, functions and audiences ere e'amined"
%)e pilot stud! of @@ sites generated a pool of 32 items t)at mig)t indicate t)e
function of 0eb sites andGor t)e audiences targeted" After revie, t)is list as
narroed to t)ree t!pes of functionsE communication about t)e compan!,
communication about t)e brand, and facilitating sales" 3ommunication about t)e
compan! includes bot) informational and image-building features :e"g" corporate
)istories, p)ilant)rop! activities;" 3ommunication about t)e brand includes bot)
informational and image-building features related to specific brands :e"g" product
feature lists, individuals< e'periences in using a brand;" %)e uni5ue selling capabilit!
of t)e 0eb as coded in terms of bot) direct transactions :online sales; and indirect
transactions suc) as providing contact information for sales people" Si' different
t!pes of audiences ere identifiedE business partners :e"g" distributorsGretailers;,
communities, consumers, emplo!ees :prospective andGor current;, government, and
investors"
Dinal coding as conducted beteen September /= and September 23, 200/" .ata
collection as compressed to address concerns about potential c)anges in content"
Hoever, t)is particular time frame resulted in a uni5ue code t)at as added to t)e
coding s)eet during t)e final pre-test in mid-September" -esearc)ers discovered
some 0eb sites )ad added a message to t)eir )ome page directl! related to t)e
terrorist attac*s of September //, 200/" #ost of t)ese messages e'pressed concern
for victims and t)eir families and some indicated )at companies andGor t)eir
emplo!ees ere doing to )elp" %)is code is s)on as an Bacute responseC function,
but it ma! )ave also )ad some effect on t)e message strateg! because most of
t)ese messages dra on t)e social message strateg!" Hoever, coding at t)is time
provides a good opportunit! to observe )o eac) compan! reacts to a sociall!
critical p)enomenon" %)is is )at traditional corporate advertising also does it) a
form of issue advertising as previousl! described"
%)ree researc)ers )o are familiar it) %a!lor<s frameor* conducted t)e coding"
%)e total of /20 0eb sites ere divided and eac) researc)er e'amined one t)ird of
t)e sample"
$esults and Analysis
Average time spent coding eac) 0eb site as appro'imatel! ten minutes" %o
calculate t)e intercoder reliabilit!, 20O of t)e sample :32 0eb sites; as selected"
Selected sites ere representative of t)e )ole sample in terms of product categor!
and si1e of companies" %o out of t)ree researc)ers e'amined eac) of t)e 32 sites
and t)e intercoder reliabilit! of eac) coding item as calculated using Holsti<s
formula" Intercoder reliabilit! ranged from ?A"9O to =?"AO it) an average of =/"0O"
-eliabilit! scores ere =0O or )ig)er in most categories" %)e fe items it) loer
reliabilit! re5uired 5ualitative and sub,ective decisions :e"g", t)e five-point +i*ert scale
for overall message strateg!;"
Functions of Web Sites
As s)on in %able /, most corporate 0eb sites combine multiple functions as
predicted b! )!pot)esis /" Fnl! @ of t)e /20 sites :2"AO; )ad a single function and
/0A of t)e sites :2A"23O; combined all t)ree functions" %)e second-most fre5uent
mi' :20"23O; as sites t)at combined communication about t)e compan! and t)e
brand but )ad no sales functions" Almost a t)ird of all sites incorporated a message
about t)e September // traged! on t)eir )ome pages"
Table '( Su!!ary of Functions
H!pot)esis /a predicted t)at 0eb sites developed b! )ig)-revenue companies ould
)ave more functions t)an t)ose created b! lo-revenue companies" As illustrated in
%able 2, t)is )!pot)esis as generall! supported" Hig)-revenue companies ere
particularl! more li*el! to )ave bot) compan! and brand-related nes releases lin*ed
to t)eir )ome pages t)an ere lo-revenue companies" 0eb sites created b! )ig)-
revenue companies ere also muc) more li*el! to respond to t)e September //
traged!"
%)e smallest differences beteen )ig)- and lo-revenue companies ere found in
terms of )o t)e! eit)er directl! or indirectl! facilitated sales" %)is ma! suggest t)at
compan! si1e is not muc) of a relative advantage in terms of abilit! to do business
online" %)is possibilit! is furt)er supported b! one of t)e significant findings reported
in %able 2 t)at is not in t)e direction predicted b! )!pot)esis /a 4 lo-revenue
companies ere more li*el! t)an )ig)-revenue companies to include indirect
transaction information" An e'ample ould be information about )ere to purc)ase
goods and services in a particular area"
Table )( Functions by $evenue of Co!panies
#ost numbers in t)e )ig)Glo revenue columns above represent percent of sites t)at
included a specific function :e"g" =?"AO of )ig)-revenue sites included basic
corporate information;" Hoever for t)e bold face categories :e"g" 3ommunication
about t)e 3ompan!; t)e numbers in t)e cells are t)e mean number of functions in
t)e categor! :e"g" )ig)-revenue sites )ad an average of 2"0@ 3ommunication about
t)e 3ompan! functions;"
H!pot)esis /b predicted t)at 0eb sites utili1ing informational strategies ould )ave
more functions t)an t)ose utili1ing transformational strategies" %)e mean number of
functions :combining all items coded for communication about t)e compan!,
communication about t)e brand, and sales functions; for informational strategies as
3"99 and t)e mean number of functions for transformational strategies as @"/3, but
t)is difference as not significant :D P "2A2, p Q "0A;" %)us )!pot)esis /b as not
supported"
Audiences
H!pot)esis 2 predicted t)at corporate 0eb sites ould )ave messages targeted for
multiple audiences from t)e same umbrella site" %able 3 s)os t)is )!pot)esis as
supported" #ost sites )ad lin*s targeted to to or more audiences" %)e most
common audiences addressed b! t)ese 0eb sites ere consumers, business
partners, and emplo!ees"
Table *( Audiences addressed
H!pot)esis 2a predicted t)at )ig)-revenue companies ere li*el! to target more
audiences t)an ere lo-revenue companies" %)is )!pot)esis as supported it)
0eb sites from )ig)-revenue companies )aving lin*s to an average of 3"/3
audiences )ile t)ose created b! lo-revenue companies lin*ed to an average of
onl! /"23 audiences :D P A2"@0?, p R "00/;" As illustrated in %able @, t)e largest
differences ere found in investor, communit!, and emplo!ee relations" No lo-
revenue companies )ad government relations lin*s )ile onl! ?"A percent of )ig)-
revenue companies )ad suc) lin*s"
Table +( Audiences by $evenue of Co!panies
H!pot)esis 2b predicted t)at 0eb sites using informational strategies ould )ave
more audience lin*s t)an ould t)ose using transformational strategies"
Informational sites lin*ed to an average of 2"@A audiences> transformational sites
lin*ed to an average of 2"30 audiences" %)is difference as not significant :D P "9AA,
p Q "0A;> )!pot)esis 2b as not supported"
Message Strategy
H!pot)esis 3 predicted t)at informational strategies ould dominate 0eb sites" %able
A s)os support for t)is )!pot)esis" Nearl! to t)irds of sites are based on
informational strategies )ile onl! about one t)ird of t)e sites are based on
transformational strategies" %)e prevalence of informational strategies is
understandable because t)e 0eb re5uires more vieer involvement t)an traditional
media suc) as television" In fact, most vieers enter corporate )omepages ver!
intentionall!" Additionall!, one of t)e most fre5uent motives users )ave for 0eb use is
Binformation searc)C or Bresearc)C :Strauss and Drost /999;"
Table ,( -Transfor!ational . Infor!ational/ 0istribution of Corporate Web Sites
H!pot)esis 3a predicted t)at )ig)-revenue companies ould be more li*el! t)an lo-
revenue companies to utili1e transformational strategies" Ff t)e sites t)at utili1ed a
transformational strateg!, 29"/O ere )ig)-revenue companies and onl! 30"9O ere
lo-revenue companies :3)i-s5uare P //"2@/, p R"0/;" %)us, )!pot)esis 3a as
supported" Specificall!, ego and social strategies ere preferred b! )ig)er-revenue
companies, )ile t)e routine strateg! as prevalent in t)e 0eb sites of loer-
revenue companies as s)on in %able 2"
Table 1( Message Strategies by Co!pany $evenue
%o researc) 5uestions ere posed to furt)er e'plore applications of %a!lor<s
strateg! )eel to corporate 0eb sites" In anser to t)e first researc) 5uestion, %able
? s)os t)e distribution of 0eb sites among t)e si' message strategies" -outine as
t)e most popular message strateg! :emplo!ed at ?3"/O of 0eb sites;, and t)e ot)er
five strategies ere distributed relativel! evenl! :ranging from 2A"0O for sensor! to
3?"AO for ego;" #an! corporate )omepages s)o a single visual image and a s)ort
amount of cop! designed to provide cues or reminders of communication about t)e
compan!" %)is t!pe of simple site as most li*el! to be coded as routine t)us
accounting for t)e )ig) occurrence of t)at message strateg!"
Table 2( Specific Message Strategies of Corporate Web Sites
%able = addresses t)e second researc) 5uestion as it illustrates differences in
message strateg! based on product categor!" #essage strategies varied some)at
b! product categor!" Specificall!, t)e t)ree transformational message strategies :ego,
social, and sensor!; s)oed significantl! different distributions across product
categories" %)e ego strateg! as most often found in t)e 3lot)ing and Dootear
product categories" %)ese categories often use ego appeals in t)eir traditional
advertising as ell" %)e social strateg! as most li*el! to be found in t)e +ife
Insurance categor!" %)is finding as strongl! influenced b! t)e social-based
messages related to t)e September // traged! found on man! :// of 20; of t)e +ife
Insurance sites" %)e sensor! strateg! as most li*el! to be emplo!ed in t)e 3oo*ies
and Hotel L #otel categories" 3oo*ie sites often appeal to t)e taste or smell )ereas
Hotel L #otel 0eb sites often stimulate t)e sig)t"
Table 3( Message Strategies Across Product Categories
0iscussion
Su!!ary
%)is stud! e'plored corporate 0eb sites< functions, audiences, and message
strategies" #ost of t)e )!pot)eses ere supported" %)e stud! provides strong
evidence t)at t)e corporate 0eb site can fulfill man! of t)e functions of corporate
advertising"
Durt)ermore, it) t)e virtuall! unlimited time and space a 0eb site enables, multiple
audiences can be addressed at a single site" %)e information-driven nature of t)e
0eb as reflected in t)e dominance of informational message strategies"
0)ile )ig)-revenue companies ere generall! able to provide more functionalit! at
t)eir 0eb sites t)an ere lo-revenue companies, t)ere is some evidence t)at t)e
0eb could actuall! )elp to level t)e pla!ing field for smaller companies" (enerall!,
lo-revenue companies ere able to come fairl! close to )ig)-revenue companies in
t)e number of sales-related functions t)e! provided" %)is ma! suggest t)at small
companies are more focused on using t)e 0eb as sales tools t)en are t)eir larger
competitors" In particular, lo-revenue companies seem to be doing a better ,ob t)an
)ig)-revenue companies of providing 0eb-based information about )o to do
business it) t)em" Dor e'ample, man! lo-revenue companies provided
information about )ere to find t)eir retail locations"
Hig)-revenue companies also ere more li*el! to appeal to multiple different *inds of
audiences t)an ere lo-revenue companies" %)is is intuitivel! logical because )ig)-
revenue companies ill generall! )ave more sta*e)olders t)an lo-revenue
companies" Hig)-revenue companies are more li*el! to be publicl! oned )ic)
could easil! e'plain t)e fact t)at one of t)e biggest differences in audiences as t)at
A2"3O of )ig)-revenue companies include investors as an audience )ile onl! ="9O
of lo-revenue companies targeted investors"
As s)on in %able @, even in t)e area of audiences t)ere is some evidence t)at t)e
0eb mig)t provide opportunities for smaller companies to compete more effectivel!
it) t)eir larger competitors" %)e audience it) t)e smallest difference beteen )ig)-
revenue and lo-revenue companies as business partners" %)is is consistent it)
t)e trend noted for lo-revenue businesses to use t)e 0eb as an indirect selling tool"
Some of t)e smaller +ife Insurance compan! sites provide an interesting e'ample of
)o t)ese to trends complement eac) ot)er" A site mig)t provide consumers it)
information about )o to contact local agents of a small insurance firm" %)e site
mig)t also provide lin*s t)at enable t)ose agents to sta! current on t)e offerings of
t)e small compan!" %)us, using t)e 0eb to build and support netor*s of
independent agents, small companies can provide man! of t)e same services as
t)eir larger competitors and often )ave a price advantage because t)e! )ave
reduced over)ead b! doing muc) of t)eir business virtuall!"
%)e lac* of support for )!pot)eses /b and 2b suggests message strateg! is not
closel! related to number of functions or number of audiences addressed b! a 0eb
site" %)ese to )!pot)eses ere based on t)e idea t)at an informational strateg!
mig)t be driven b! t)e need to inform multiple audiences andGor support multiple
functions" Hoever, t)e findings are not surprising because bot) functions and
audiences are potentiall! more enduring t)an message strateg!" A compan! ma!
c)oose to c)ange message strateg! as part of a ne advertising campaign, but t)at
is not li*el! to c)ange t)e number or t!pe of audiences it addresses" S)ifts in
audience ould reflect a ma,or organi1ational c)ange suc) as becoming a public
compan! and adding an investor audience" Similarl!, s)ifts in t)e basic functions
identified in t)is stud! represent large organi1ational issues" .ecisions to sell online
are often tied to long-standing distribution agreements t)at cannot be c)anged as
easil! as can advertising campaigns"
Dindings related to )!pot)esis 3a found message strateg! is related to compan! si1e"
Specificall!, )ig)-revenue companies are more li*el! to use ego and social strategies
t)an are lo-revenue companies" %)ese strategies ma! or* best )en t)ere is
alread! a relativel! )ig) level of corporate or brand aareness" Investing in brand
building is a long-term strateg! t)at is often not available to smaller companies t)at
must focus more on reac)ing s)ort-term sales goals in order to survive" %)e )ig)
number of lo-revenue sites t)at used t)e routine strateg! ma! reflect lac* of
attention to brand building among t)ese companies" #an! of t)ese sites ere little
more t)an a corporate or brand logo it) minimal te't and lin*s for various functions
and audiences" Suc) a la!out reflects a strong tactical focus it)out muc) strategic
underpinning"
Kven t)oug) )ig)-revenue companies generall! use transformational strategies more
t)an lo-revenue companies do, %able 2 reveals one interesting trend t)at s)ould be
e'plored in more detail" +o-revenue companies actuall! used t)e sensor! approac)
more t)an )ig)-revenue companies 4 even t)oug) t)e difference as not statisticall!
significant" Again, t)is mig)t reflect more tactical t)in*ing rat)er t)an true strategic
message planning" Dor e'ample, lo-revenue food companies mig)t )ave simpl!
selected a sensor!-based strateg! it)out t)in*ing of ot)er a!s to effectivel!
communicate t)eir messages" 7! contrast, some of t)e )ig)-revenue food
companies utili1ed ego and social strategies t)at ere more focused on building
product andGor t)e compan! image t)roug) long-term branding efforts"
%)e routine strateg! of %a!lor<s model as t)e most popular message strateg!" %)e
dominance of routine is consistent it) t)e result of an earlier stud! b! +ee, Nam,
and Hang :200/; t)at reported routine as t)e most popular strateg! in $"S"
television commercials :found in A="2O of ==2 commercials;" 7! contrast, #orrison
and 0)ite<s :2000; stud! of Super 7ol ads found ration to be t)e most popular
strateg! :A2O;"
.istribution of ot)er strategies in t)is stud! is 5uite different from findings of earlier
studies" 0)ile ego, sensor!, and acute need ere emplo!ed in less t)an /0O of %V
commercials as eit)er t)e primar! or secondar! strateg! in t)e stud! b! +ee, Nam,
and Hang :200/;, corporate 0eb sites ere more li*el! to emplo! t)ese strategies
as reported in %able ?" Acute need as used in a 5uarter of all 0eb sites, )ile onl!
/"@O of %V commercials used t)is strateg!" #orrison and 0)ite :2000; rarel! found
routine, sensor!, and acute need strategies in %V commercials" %)is )ig) use of t)e
acute need strateg! could be related to constant availabilit! of t)e 0eb" A person in
an acute need situation could use t)e 0eb to searc) for relevant productsGservices
t)at ill )elp to meet t)at need"
6roduct categor! is related to message strategies" Information-intensive products
suc) as 3omputers and Audio L Video ere li*el! to use informational strategies,
)ile emotion-laden products li*e Dootear and 3lot)ing ere dominated b!
transformational strategies"
I!plications
6revious sections )ave suggested some implications for mar*eters" Specificall!, lo-
revenue companies lag be)ind )ig)-revenue companies in terms of man! of t)e
c)aracteristics of corporate 0eb sites e'amined b! t)is stud!" 7ut, t)ere is evidence
t)at lo-revenue companies can still ma*e effective use of t)e corporate 0eb site" In
particular, small companies seem to be e')ibiting a fair amount of fle'ibilit! in using
t)eir corporate 0eb sites to support t)eir sales functions and maintain t)eir
relations)ips it) business partners"
0)ile some connections ere found beteen message strateg! and product
categor!, t)e! ere not strong enoug) to suggest an! *ind of mandate" Not all coo*ie
companies used a sensor! strateg! and not all clot)ing companies used an ego
strateg! :in fact t)e most common message strateg! for bot) of t)ese product
categories as routine;" %)is suggests t)at 0eb site developers )ave a great deal of
fle'ibilit! in determining )at strategies to use for ma*ing t)e corporate 0eb site an
effective advertising venue" Hoever, t)ere is some evidence t)at t)e simple t!pe of
routine strategies described earlier can often be a *ind of Bcrutc)C for lo-revenue
companies t)at do not spend t)e time or creative effort to develop a solid message
strateg!"
%)e stud! also )as implications for researc)ers" 6er)aps most significantl!, it
confirms t)e notion t)at t)e corporate 0eb site can be considered to be a form of
advertising" It fulfills man! of t)e purposes of corporate advertising and allos t)e
mar*eter to address multiple audiences" Drom a researc) and t)eor! perspective t)is
)as broad implications ranging from identif!ing t)e corporate 0eb site as a valid
venue for t)e stud! of advertising to t)e possible need to redefine advertising itself"
7anners, buttons, and pop-up messages are Bli*eC traditional advertising because
t)e! are messages placed in a medium b! a mar*eter it) t)e intent of reac)ing a
specific audience" %)e entire corporate 0eb site is a mar*eter-controlled message
t)at doesn<t )ave to be boug)t from an! content provider" %argeting of audiences
ceases to be based on concerns about finding t)e rig)t venue for a message and
s)ifts instead to a focus on )o to ma*e sure t)at t)e appropriate audiences find
relevant information in t)e 0eb site"
%)e stud! also provides an important venue for appl!ing %a!lor<s :/999; message
strateg! )eel" It illustrates t)e fle'ibilit! of t)at model for identif!ing message
strateg! of a ne form of advertising 4 t)e corporate 0eb site" %)e coding s)eet
provided in t)e appendices offers ot)er researc)ers specific guidance in )o to appl!
t)e strateg! )eel to an anal!sis of message strategies in t)e comple' venue of
corporate 0eb sites"
Li!itations and Suggestions for Future Studies
Duture studies s)ould address a fe factors t)at potentiall! limited t)is e'plorator!
stud!" A more sop)isticated guideline ma! be needed for evaluating message
strategies of corporate 0eb sites" %a!lor<s si'-segment strateg! )eel as designed
for use in anal!1ing strategies of traditional media" Duture studies s)ould consider
a!s to adapt t)e model to address uni5ue c)aracteristics of t)e 0eb suc) as dept)
of information available and interactive capabilit!"
Duture studies ma! also ant to revisit t)e unit of anal!sis" 0)ile t)e )omepage
provides an important Bfront doorC to t)e site, ot)er lin*s mig)t provide more
information about t)e corporate 0eb site as advertising" Kvaluating entire 0eb sites
ma! seem to be a daunting tas*" 7ut 5ualitative researc) mig)t )elp provide focus to
future or*" Dor e'ample, intervies it) consumers or vieers can capture )at
t)e! feel about t)e )omepage, subse5uent pages, and specific 0eb site features"
Anot)er 5ualitative approac) t)at ma! be valuable in future studies is to emplo! in-
dept) intervies it) practitioners )o develop corporate 0eb sites" $nderstanding
)o t)e! formulate message strategies and determine 0eb features could provide
*e! insig)ts into t)e use of t)e 0eb for corporate advertising" -esearc)ers could
also use 5ualitative researc) to compare intended strategies it) consumer
perceptions of 0eb sites" Suc) 5ualitative researc) could also e'plore )at *inds of
motivation arise from specific content and features"
%)e fact t)at multiple functions and audiences are accommodated at a single 0eb
site as ell as t)e realit! t)at multiple message strategies are usuall! emplo!ed in a
single 0eb site ma*es content anal!sis of corporate 0eb sites ver! demanding" %o
grasp t)e overall picture of eac) 0eb site, more or* ma! be needed to develop an
effective coding sc)eme it)out undermining intercoder reliabilit!, a fundamental rule
of t)e content anal!sis" Fne solution is to let a t)ird person )o is familiar it) t)e
stud! intervene in t)e coding stage as #orrison and 0)ite :2000; did" Anot)er a! to
solve t)is problem is to )ave detailed discussion of disagreements beteen coders"
Nevert)eless, t)is stud! can give some )elpful insig)t for corporate advertisers as
ell as researc)ers )o are interested in Internet advertising" %)e 0eb does seem
to provide a venue for t)e primar! functions of corporate advertising and it enables
companies to address multiple audiences" Hig)-revenue companies currentl! seem
to be utili1ing t)e 0eb as a venue for corporate advertising more t)an lo-revenue
companies do, but t)ere is evidence t)at t)e 0eb can )elp level t)e pla!ing field for
smaller competitors" In t)e sites e'amined for t)is stud!, informational approac)es
dominate message strateg!, but some companies are using transformational
approac)es" %ec)nological development ma! influence future strateg! development"
Dor e'ample, t)e sensor! strateg! mig)t need more advanced tec)nologies, )ic)
can stimulate visitors< five senses" 7ut even it)out tapping future potential
tec)nologies, t)is stud! s)os t)at t)e 0eb is a viable and robust forum for
corporate advertising"
$eferences
7elc), (eorge K" and #ic)ael A" 7elc) :/992;, An Introduction to Advertising and
6romotion, 3)icagoE Irin"
7erelson, 7ernard :/9A2;, 3ontent Anal!sis in 3ommunication -esearc), (lencoe,
I+E Dree 6ress"
7ie)al (abriel J" and .aniel A" S)einin :/99=;, B#anaging t)e 7rand in a 3orporate
Advertising KnvironmentE A .ecision-#a*ing Drameor* for 7rand #anagers,C
Journal of Advertising, 2? :2;, 99-//0"
3are!, James" 0" :/9?A;, SA 3ultural Approac) to 3ommunication,S 3ommunication
2, .ec" /-22"
Delton, (eorge :/99@;, Advertising 3oncept and 3op!, 6rentice HallE Kngleood
3liffs, Ne Jerse!"
Dra1er, 3)arles :/9=3;, B3reative Strateg!E A #anagement 6erspective,C Journal of
Advertising, /2 :/;, 32-@/"
(arbett, %)omas D" :/9=3;, B-esearc)ing 3orporate Advertising,C Journal of
Advertising -esearc), 23 :DebG#ar;, 33-3?"
Ha, +ouisa and K" +incoln James :/99=;, BInteractivit! -ee'aminedE A 7aseline
Anal!sis of Karl! 7usiness 0eb sites,C Journal of 7roadcasting and Klectronic #edia,
@2 :2;, @A?-@?@"
Hale!, Kric J" :/992;, BK'ploring t)e 3onstruct of Frgani1ation as SourceE
3onsumers< $nderstandings of Frgani1ational Sponsors)ip of Advocac! Advertising,C
Journal of Advertising, 2A :2;, /9-32"
Hartigan, #aureen D" and 6eter Dinc) :/9=2;, B%)e Ne Kmp)asis on Strateg! in
3orporate Advertising,C 7usiness #ar*eting, Deb", @2-@9"
Javagli, -a,s)e*)ar, #ar* 7" %a!lor, Andre 3" (ross, and Kdard +ampman :/99@;,
BAareness of Sponsors)ip and 3orporate ImageE An Kmpirical Investigation,C
Journal of Advertising, 23 :@;, @?-A="
&assar,ian, Harold H" :/9??;, S3ontent Anal!sis in 3onsumer -esearc),S Journal of
3onsumer -esearc), @, =-/="
+as*e!, Henr! A", Kllen .a!, and #elvin -" 3ras* :/9=9;, B%!polog! of #ain #essage
Strategies,C Journal of Advertising, /= :/;, 32-@/"
+ee, (uio)*, &!oung-%ae Nam, and Jang-Sun Hang :200/;, B#essage Strateg! of
American and &orean %elevision 3ommercials,C in 6roceedings of t)e 200/
3onference of t)e American Academ! of Advertising, Villanova, 6AE Villanova
$niversit!"
#c+eod, .ouglas #" and #oto*o &unita :/99@;, BA 3omparative Anal!sis of t)e $se
of 3orporate Advertising in t)e $nited States and Japan,C International Journal of
Advertising, /3 :2;, /3?-/A2"
#c#illan, Sall! J" :2000;, S%)e #icroscope and t)e #oving %argetE %)e 3)allenge of
Appl!ing 3ontent Anal!sis to t)e 0orld 0ide 0eb,S Journalism and #ass
3ommunication Iuarterl!, ?? :/;, =0-9="
#orrison, #argaret and 3andace 0)ite :2000;, SSuper"3omE An Anal!sis of #essage
Strategies $tili1ed in Super 7ol Ads for .ot"com 3ompanies,S 6aper presented at
t)e Association for Kducation in Journalism and #ass 3ommunication Annual
3onference, August, 6)oeni', AH"
-amaprasad, J!oti*a and &a1umi J" Hasegaa :/992;, B3reative Strategies in
American and Japanese %V 3ommercialsE A 3omparison,C Journal of Advertising
-esearc), JanGDeb, A9-2?"
-au, 6ardee A" and Jo)n D" 6reble :/9==;, B3orporate 6ublic Issue AdvertisingE An
Anal!sis of t)e Attitudes of 3)ief K'ecutive,C International Journal of Advertising, ?
:@;, 293-302"
-eid, +eonard N", -onald +ane, +eila S" 0ent)e, and Ftto 0" Smit) :/9=A;,
B3reative strategies in )ig)l! creative domestic and international television
advertising,C International Journal of Advertising, @ :/;, //-/="
-ot)c)ild, #ic)ael +" :/9=?;, Advertising, +e'ington, #AE Heat)"
Sc)umann, .avid #", Jan #" Hat)cote, and Susan 0est :/99/;, B3orporate
Advertising in AmericaE A -evie of 6ublis)ed Studies on $se, #easurement, and
Kffectiveness,C Journal of Advertising, 20 :3;, 3A-A2"
Set)i, S" 6ra*as) :/9?=;, BInstitutionalGImage Advertising and Idea G Issue Advertising
as #ar*eting %oolsE Some 6ublic 6olic! Issues,C Journal of #ar*eting, @3 :Januar!;,
29-?="
Stanton, 0illiam J" :/92@;, Dundamentals of #ar*eting, Ne Mor*E #c(ra-Hill"
Stern, 7arbara 7" :/9=9;, B+iterar! 3riticism and 3onsumer -esearc),C Journal of
3onsumer -esearc), /2 :.ecember;, 322-33@"
Strauss, Jud! and -a!mond ." Drost :/999;, #ar*eting on t)e InternetE 6rinciples of
Fn-+ine #ar*eting, 6aramusE 6rentice-Hall"
%a!lor, -onald" K" :/999;, BA Si'-Segment #essage Strateg! 0)eel,C Journal of
Advertising -esearc), 39 :2;, ?-/?"
0alt1er, Herbert :/9==;, B3orporate Advocac! Advertising and 6olitical Influence,C
6ublic -elations -evie, /@ :/;, @/-AA"
0ells, 0illiam ." :/9=0;, Ho Advertising 0or*s, 3)icagoE Need)am Harper
0orldide"
0in*leman, #ic)ael :/9=A;, B3orporate Advertising,C 6ublic -elations Journal, @2
:.ecember;, 3=-39
0inters, +eis 3" :/9=2;, B%)e Kffect of 6roduct Advertising on 3ompan! ImageE
Implications for 3orporate Advertising,C Journal of Advertising -esearc), 22
:AprilG#a!;, A@-A9
Handpour, Dred, 3!press 3)ang, and Joelle D" 3atalano :/992;, BStories, S!mbols
and Straig)t %al*E A 3omparative Anal!sis of Drenc), %aianese, and $"S" %V
3ommercials,C Journal of Advertising -esearc), 32 :/;, 2A-3="
Appendi4 '( 5 Coding Sce!e
/" #essage Strateg!
2" 0eb Deatures :3)ec* All %)at Appl!;
3" Notes
Appendi4 )(. Coder 6uide
/" #essage Strateg!
(eneral directionE #ainl! e'amine t)e main visual and te'ts but lin*s including
buttons" %o get consistence, code t)e specific strateg! :a; first folloed b! overall
strateg! :b;"
a" Specific #essage Strateg!
b" InformationalG %ransformational Strateg!
(eneral directionE %)is five-point scale needs to get some)at 5ualitative sense" %)e
decision needs to be made strongl! based on t)e result of specific message strateg!
:/-a;" Dor e'ample, if no transformational strateg! :e"g", Kgo, Social, sensor!; is
found in t)e precedent step of /-a, t)e decision on t)is item s)ould be eit)er
B-elativel! informationalC or BKntirel! informational"C If t)e coder evaluate t)at bot)
transformational-side strateg! and informational-side strateg! are almost e5uall!
emplo!ed, B7ot) transformational and informationalC s)ould be coded" 7ot) Bentirel!
informationalC and Bentirel! transformationalC can be coded )en all specific
strategies coded in /-:a; are one-side :eit)er transformational or informational;
strategies" :7asic assumptionE Si' message strategies can cover all message
strategies";
2" 0eb Deatures of 3orporate Sites
About te Autors
7ang5Sun %"ang is a doctoral candidate in t)e .epartment of Advertising at %)e
$niversit! of %ennessee at &no'ville" His academic interest is consumer be)avior on
t)e 0eb it) 5ualitative researc)"
Sally 7( McMillan :6)"., $niversit! of Fregon; is an Assistant 6rofessor of
advertising at t)e $niversit! of %ennessee" He researc) focuses on e'ploring t)e
concept of interactivit!, definitions and )istor! of ne media, and impacts of
communication tec)nolog! on organi1ations and societ!"
6uio# Lee :6)".", $niversit! of %ennessee-&no'ville; is an Assistant 6rofessor of
3ommunication Art at Se,ong $niversit!, Seoul, &orea" Her researc) interests focus
on advertising message strateg!, cross-cultural advertising, and t)e social roles of
advertising"
$-+E ,iad"orgGvol3Gno2Gmcmillan
3op!rig)t T 2003 Journal of Interactive Advertising