Radar on Cassini.

The Cassini spacecraft has been in use since 1997. It was initially launched to travel to
Saturn to orbit in 2004. Once in orbit it undertook a number of investigative missions;

Collecting data on Saturns rings - investigating the structure and internal dynamics.

Investigating the geology of Saturns satellites - such as the cratering and surface
processes on Rhea and Iapetus.

To study the Dark Material found on Iapetus hemisphere - rst observed by Giovanni
Cassini who the satellite is named after.

Measuring the magnetosphere around Saturn and further understanding its interactions
with Saturns satellites.

Looking at clouds and weather within Saturns atmosphere - such as the Great White
Spot and other cloud patterns.

Studying and Imaging Saturns moon Titan - mapping the surface and the seasonality of
Titans atmosphere.
By July 2008 Cassini had complete its entire mission. Since the instrumentation on the
craft and its power source were still useful it was decided to extend Cassinis mission
which was renamed The Cassini Equinox Mission. The Missions purpose was to study
changes in the Atmosphere and other active systems on Saturn during the August 2009
Equinox. Currently the Satellite is on yet another extension, until 2017 Cassini will wait for
the Summer Solstice in Saturns Northern Hemisphere - allowing for study of the solstice
and more in depth imaging of saturn during its orbit. After the Solstice a yby of Titan will
redirect Cassini towards Saturns cloud tops - the proximal orbits will concluded with
another yby of Titan forcing Cassini into Saturns
Atmosphere where it will burn up.
The Radar on Cassini is a multiple use tool. It can
pierce the thick atmosphere of Titan in order to
provide surface data such as relief heights and
images. But also can be pointed at Saturns Rings
and other planetary Satellites. Primarily the Radar
was installed on the initial mission in 1997 to study
Titan - one of Saturns moons, hence it was named
The Titan Radar Mapper. The instrument was
located on top of Cassini. A 4 meter diameter high
gain antenna can be maneuvered to point towards
the target for study, the dish emits a 2.18cm electromagnetic wave. There are four pieces
of data which the Cassini radar can collect. It can image, both in 3D as well as 2D. The
data can be interpreted to give altimetry, giving the distance between Titans surface and
the craft. Backscatter can be measured to investigate wind speed and behavior. Finally
radiometry measures different types of electromagnetic radiation - which is used to gauge
temperature.
The surface images created by Cassini are using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). SAR is
an alternative to using a large dish to map a whole area at once using a narrow beam
wave for good resolution. SAR is used as it is impractical to have such a large dish in orbit.
Synthetic Radar emulates a large dish by ying past the target area to image a number of
times. To create an SAR image Cassini uses a 13.78Ghz frequency which is emitted to
give two measurements used to create the nal image. The Cross Range is the lateral
movement of the satellite to give its position along the path on the surface being mapped.
This combined with the side looking Radar data.
The radar is focused to the ground at a xed angle.
As it moves past it emits radio waves which create
an spherical footprint on the planetary surface.
Because of the xed angle the difference in echo
time between the near footprint and the far of the
footprint can be measured as a doppler-time
function. Doppler processing means objects within
the footprint can be placed laterally (allowing for 3D
processing if required). The data collected from the
moving footprint can be stitched together along the
cross range, creating one big image. Cassini has a
resolution of 1.7km and as with all Radar images
can only create black and white images, but
penetrates atmospheres which normal optical
cameras could not.
Cassini mapped Titan and revealed a lot about the
planets topography and geology. It appears Titan has
a volcanic, tectonic past. There are vast areas of
contrasting rough and smooth ground, which is
evidence of resurfacing by volcanic material. Currently
it is thought that instead of a violent geological system
Titans geological processes is now dominated by
wind erosion and transport. Craters imaged by Cassini
are shallow as they have been lled by sediments deposited by the wind, volcanic rock
from lava ows and precipitated hydrocarbons, condensed from the volatile atmosphere.
As on many planets dark and light areas can be seen on Titans surface. Cassini observed
these areas and it is debated whether they are evidence of volcanic lava ows -creating
valleys just like water erosion on Earth. Or if it is eroision caused by liquid methane or
ethane seas. Cassini conrmed the existence of hydrocarbon seas on Titans surface in
2007. Hydrocarbon seas have low radar reectivity, by creating a false color map of Titans
north pole using SAR (coloring low radar reectivity areas blue) the sea of methane and
dissolved nitrogen becomes apparent. This coupled with images of channels, created by
liquid erosion showed that there is a concentration of hydrocarbon lakes in Titans north
pole.
Radar altimetry measurements are made by Cassini by maneuvering the Radar dish
parallel to the planetary surface. The measurement can be made by a short radar
emission - since radio waves travel at the speed of light the time between emission and
reception can be measure, hence the distance between Cassini and the surface can be
worked out. Alternatively in Cassini; Frequency Modulated Continuous-wave radar is used
as it achieves better accuracy. It works by using a stable frequency continuous wave
which has its frequency increased and decreased over a xed time. The frequency of the
wave will deviate over greater distances due to the doppler effect. Echoes from the emitted
and returning waves mix, and produce a beat signal (where the interference between the
two waves creates a change in volume), the beat can be demodulated. This means a
frequency shift per unit time can be found by comparing this actual frequency to a
reference the distance between Cassini and the surface can be found. Frequency
Modulated Continuous-wave is used as it is not effected by temperature, its short wave
length can penetrate clouds and dust. Another advantage of this system is that its not
limited by the distance some radio waves travel.
Much like SAR the altimetry data collected by Cassini found evidence to suggest teconic
activity on Titan. In 2006 Cassini observed a 150km long mountain range in the southern
hemisphere whilst observing crater topography. The mountains are 1.5km high and are
similar to the Himalayas on Earth - it is thought they have been produced by tectonic uplift.
Although this may be due to displacement of the ground originating from a near by impact
crater. The mountains are also covered in snow made from the same methane in the liquid
lakes - discovered by Cassinis SAR.
From observations by the Hubble telescope Cryovolcanos (which spew out water and
ammonia into Titans atmosphere as gas) have been seen on Titans surface. They are
thought to be driven tidal exing by Saturn due to its strong gravitational pull on Titans
surface and radioactive decay in Titans mantle expelling heat to the surface. Further
evidence to support this hypothesis was found by Cassini. In 2010 Sotra Facula was
identied as a possible1.5km high cryovolcano - its topography is the best evidence of
volcanism on Titan found so far.
The backscatter radar data is used as a scatterometer - it measures the reection or
scattering effect of the surface it is aimed at. Cassini emits a radio wave towards the target
surface and then measure the reected energy. A second measurement of the
noise (interference) of the emission is made, this is subtracted from the original
measurement hence backscatter signal power is found. The backscatter signal power is
used in the distributed target radar equation to nd a normalized radar cross section of
the surface, this is an average measurement of the energy reected for a spherical area.
By taking multiple measurements in the down range of the target area the direction of the
wind can be found, as backscattering is caused by the undulating atmospheric material
caught in the wind. By modeling the different measurements in a computer simulation an
accurate estimate of wind speed be made.
Cassini tracked the wind on Titanin 2004, as expected the wind currents ow west to east,
which correlates to Titans planetary rotation. Cassini tracked 100km long clouds moving at
34m/s in Titans troposphere. However Cassini also imaged and tracked large cloud
streaks, 1000km long, they move only a few meters per second and are created near the
planetary surface. Because clouds in Titans atmosphere move faster then the rotation of
the moon itself it is known as a super rotator.
Altimetry, Synthetic Aperture Radar and Backscattering measurement are all active
modes on Cassini. Radiometry is a passive mode - this means instead of emitting an
electromagnetic wave it only receives them. Electromagnetic waves are created by
charged particles with kinetic energy, the kinetic energy is directly related with the
temperature - high temperature means more kinetic energy because particle move faster.
Each temperature has a unique wavelength distribution - created by the transfer of the
kinetic energy into an emission, the electro magnetic wave is received by Cassini. Cassini
can analyze this wavelength and compare with known emissions created at set
temperatures, therefore an estimate to the surface temperature can be made.
Scientists were surprised to nd that Titans global temperature was uniform, around -179.5
o
C with few exceptions. Anomalies such as at the Sinlap Crater are though to be due to a
water ice rich region. Titans surface temperature is low due to the anti-greenhouse effect -
this means its atmosphere cools the surface temperature. 90% of the overall solar energy
is absorbed by the atmospheric haze. Without its haze Titan would be 9
o
C warmer.
Cassini continues it journey around Saturn and most recently has investigated the Keeler
gap in Saturns rings. Small moons exist within the rings and become apparent when a
series of waves appear on either side of the gap between the two rings.