A volcano is a landform created by magma from the earth's

interior which penetrates through weaknesses in the Earths surface.

Most volcanoes are formed at plate boundaries.
A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a reservoir of molten rock
below the surface of the earth. Unlike most mountains, which are pushed up
from below, volcanoes are vents through which molten rock escapes to the
earths surface. When pressure from gases within the molten rock becomes
too great, an eruption occurs. Eruptions can be quiet or explosive. There may
be lava flows, flattened landscapes, poisonous gases, and flying rock and ash
that can sometimes travel hundreds of miles downwind.

Magma contains a mixture of silicates and dissolved gases.
As magma rises closer to the Earths surface the pressure
decreases and the dissolved gases come out of solution to form
bubbles. As the bubbles expand the magma is pushed into the
volcanic vent until it breaks through weaknesses in the Earth's
crust. The explosive potential of the volcano is dependant on the
effervescence of the gases and the viscosity of the magma. High
gas effervescence and low viscosity cause the most explosive
eruptions.
As previously mentioned volcanoes occur at weaknesses in
the Earths surface, these are in one of three tectonic settings:
subduction volcanoes, rift volcanoes and hot spot volcanoes.
Subduction volcanoes occur where one tectonic plate is thrust and
consumed by another. This type is the most explosive and
comprises approximately 80% of the worlds active volcanoes. Rift
volcanoes occur where tectonic plates diverge, often on the ocean
floor. These are generally less explosive. Hot spot volcanoes occur
in the middle of plate boundaries where magma exits from
weaknesses in the earth's surface. The Hawaiian Islands are an
example of hot spot volcanoes. The most active area of volcanic
activity occurs along the pacific plate boundary which is often
referred to as the 'Pacific ring of fire'.
There are about 500 active volcanoes thoughout the world.
In an average year approximately 50 of these erupt. Volcanic
hazards create fewer disasters and deaths compared with
earthquakes and severe storms. Many of the deaths associated
with volcanoes are indirect hazards such as famine due to crop
damage or from secondary hazards such as lahars. Volcanoes are
composite hazards. There are both primary and secondary
hazards which can be caused by volcanic eruptions. The primary
hazards include pyroclastic flows, air-fall tephra, lava flows and
volcanic gases. The secondary hazards include ground
deformation, lahars (mudflows), landslides and possibly tsunamis
in ocean floor volcanic eruptions.
A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a reservoir of molten rock
below the surface of the earth. Unlike most mountains, which are pushed up
from below, volcanoes are vents through which molten rock escapes to the
earths surface. When pressure from gases within the molten rock becomes
too great, an eruption occurs. Eruptions can be quiet or explosive. There may
be lava flows, flattened landscapes, poisonous gases, and flying rock and ash
that can sometimes travel hundreds of miles downwind.
Because of their intense heat, lava flows are great fire hazards. Lava flows
destroy everything in their path, but most move slowly enough that people can
move out of the way.
Fresh volcanic ash, made of pulverized rock, can be abrasive, acidic, gritty,
gassy and odorous. While not immediately dangerous to most adults, the
acidic gas and ash can cause lung damage to small infants, to older adults
and to those suffering from severe respiratory illnesses. Volcanic ash also can
damage machinery, including engines and electrical equipment. Ash
accumulations mixed with water become heavy and can collapse roofs.
Volcanic ash can affect people hundreds of miles away from the cone of a
volcano.






































An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly
slip past one another. The surface where they slip is called the fault or
fault plane. The location below the earths surface where the
earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly
above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.
Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks. These are smaller
earthquakes that happen in the same place as the larger earthquake
that follows. Scientists cant tell that an earthquake is a foreshock until
the larger earthquake happens. The largest, main earthquake is called
the mainshock. Mainshocks always have aftershocks that follow. These
are smaller earthquakes that occur afterwards in the same place as the
mainshock. Depending on the size of the mainshock, aftershocks can
continue for weeks, months, and even years after the mainshock!
What causes earthquakes and where do they
happen?

The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle and
crust. (figure 2) The crust and the top of the mantle make up a thin skin
on the surface of our planet. But this skin is not all in one piece it is
made up of many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of the earth.
(figure 3) Not only that, but these puzzle pieces keep slowly moving
around, sliding past one another and bumping into each other. We call
these puzzle pieces tectonic plates, and the edges of the plates are
called the plate boundaries. The plate boundaries are made up of many
faults, and most of the earthquakes around the world occur on these
faults. Since the edges of the plates are rough, they get stuck while the
rest of the plate keeps moving. Finally, when the plate has moved far
enough, the edges unstick on one of the faults and there is an
earthquake.
Why does the earth shake when there is an
earthquake?

While the edges of faults are stuck together, and the rest of the block is
moving, the energy that would normally cause the blocks to slide past
one another is being stored up. When the force of the moving blocks
finally overcomes the friction of the jagged edges of the fault and it
unsticks, all that stored up energy is released. The energy radiates
outward from the fault in all directions in the form of seismic waves like
ripples on a pond. The seismic waves shake the earth as they move
through it, and when the waves reach the earths surface, they shake
the ground and anything on it, like our houses and us! (see P&S Wave
inset)
How are earthquakes recorded?

Earthquakes are recorded by instruments called seismographs. The
recording they make is called a seismogram. (figure 4) The
seismograph has a base that sets firmly in the ground, and a heavy
weight that hangs free. When an earthquake causes the ground to
shake, the base of the seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight
does not. Instead the spring or string that it is hanging from absorbs all
the movement. The difference in position between the shaking part of
the seismograph and the motionless part is what is recorded.