Contents

Articles
Housing 1
Affordable housing 1
List of human habitation forms 18
Residence 21
References
Article Sources and Contributors 22
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 23
Article Licenses
License 24
Housing
1
Housing
Housing generally refers to the social problem of insuring that members of society have a home to live in, whether
this is a house, or some other kind of dwelling, lodging, or shelter. Many governments have a department that deals
with housing, such as the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.
Affordable housing
Affordable housing is housing deemed affordable to those with a median household income . as rated by country,
province (state), region or municipality by a recognized Housing Affordability Index. In Australia, the National
Affordable Housing Summit Group developed their definition of affordable housing as housing that is, "...reasonably
adequate in standard and location for lower or middle income households and does not cost so much that a household
is unlikely to be able to meet other basic needs on a sustainable basis."
[1]
In the United Kingdom affordable housing
includes "social rented and intermediate housing, provided to specified eligible households whose needs are not met
by the market." Most of the literature on affordable housing refers to a number of forms that exist along a continuum
- from emergency shelters, to transitional housing, to non-market rental (also known as social or subsidized housing),
to formal and informal rental, indigenous housing and ending with affordable home ownership.
[2][3][4]
The notion of housing affordability became widespread in the 1980s in Europe and North America. A growing body
of literature found it problematic.
[5][6][7][8]
Notably, the shift in UK housing policy away from housing need to the
more market-oriented analyses of affordability was challenged by Whitehead (1991).
[9]
This article discusses the
principles that lie behind the concepts of need and affordability and the ways they have been defined.
This article focuses on the affordability of owner-occupied and private rental housing as social housing is a
specialised tenure.
Housing choice is a response to an extremely complex set of economic, social, and psychological impulses. For
example, some households may choose to spend more on housing because they feel they can afford to, while others
may not have a choice. In the United States and Canada, a commonly accepted guideline for housing affordability is
a housing cost that does not exceed 30% of a household's gross income. When the monthly carrying costs of a home
exceed 3035% of household income, then the housing is considered unaffordable for that household. Determining
housing affordability is complex and the commonly used housing-expenditure-to-income-ratio tool has been
challenged. Canada, for example, switched to a 25% rule from a 20% rule in the 1950s. In the 1980s this was
replaced by a 30% rule. India uses a 40% rule.
Measuring housing affordability
A perfectly balanced housing market
"A common measure of community-wide affordability is the number of homes that a household with a certain
percentage of median income can afford. For example, in a perfectly balanced housing market, the median household
(and the half of the wealthier households) could officially afford the median housing option, while those poorer than
the median home could not afford the median home. 50% affordability for the median home indicates a balanced
market."
A community might track the percentage of its housing that is affordable to households earning 60% of median
income.
The Median Multiple indicator, recommended by the World Bank and the United Nations, rates affordability of
housing by dividing the median house price by gross [before tax] annual median household income). This indicator
Affordable housing
2
rates housing affordability on a scale of 0 to 5 with categories 3 and under being affordable. From 3 to 5 the
categories are rated as moderate (3.1 to 4.0), serious (4.1 to 5.0) and severe unaffordability (5.1 and over).] Using
this indicator, Demographia, provides market-based annual housing affordability ratings.
Housing expenditure to income ratio tool
Determining housing affordability is complex and the commonly used housing-expenditure-to-income ratio tool has
been challenged. Canada, for example, switched to a 25% rule from a 20% rule in the 1950s. In the 1980s this was
replaced by a 30% rule.
Housing Affordability Index (HAI)
One of its greatest strengths of the HAI developed by MIT is its ability to capture the Total Cost of Ownership of
individuals housing choices. In computing the index the obvious cost of rents and mortgage payments are modified
by the hidden costs of those choices.
Household income and wealth
Income is the primary factor not price and availability, that determines housing affordability. In a market economy
the distribution of income is the key determinant of the quantity and quality of housing obtained. Therefore,
understanding affordable housing challenges requires understanding trends and disparities in income and wealth.
Housing is often the single biggest expenditure of low and middle income families. For low and middle income
families, their house is also the greatest source of wealth.
The most common approach to measure the affordability of housing has been to consider the percentage of income
that a household spends on housing expenditures. Another method of studying affordability looks at the regular
hourly wage of full-time workers who are paid only the minimum wage (as set by their local, regional, or national
government). The hope is that full-time workers will be able to afford at least a small apartment in the area where
they work. Some countries look at those living in relative poverty, which is usually defined as making less than 60%
of the median household income. In their policy reports, they consider the presence or absence of housing for people
making 60% of the median income.
Housing expenditures
Housing affordability can be measured by the changing relationships between house prices and rents, and between
house prices and incomes. There has been an increase among policy makers in affordable housing as the price of
housing has increased dramatically creating a crisis in affordable housing.
Since 2000 the "world experienced an unprecedented house price boom in terms of magnitude and duration, but also
of synchronisation across countries." "Never before had house prices risen so fast, for so long, in so many countries."
Prices doubled in many countries and nearly tripled in Ireland.
The bursting of the biggest financial bubble in history in 2008 wreaked havoc globally on the housing market. By
2011 home prices in Ireland had plunged by 45% from their peak in 2007. In the United States prices fell by 34%
while foreclosures increased exponentially. In Spain and Denmark home prices dropped by 15%. However, in spite
of the bust, home prices continue to be overvalued by about 25% or more in Australia, Belgium, Canada, France,
New Zealand, Britain, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden.
Affordable housing
3
Causes and consequences of rise in house prices
Costs are being driven by a number of factors including:
demographics shifts
the declining number of people per dwelling
Growing Density Convergence, Regional Urbanization
solid population growth (for example sky-high prices in Australia and Canada as a rising population pushes up
demand).
supply and demand
a shortfall in the number of dwellings to the number of households
smaller family size
the strong psychological desire for home ownership,
[10]
shifts in economic policies and innovations in financial instruments
reduced profitability of other forms of investment
availability of housing finance
low interest rates
mortgage market innovations
public policy
deregulation
land use zoning
Inequality and housing
A number of researchers (David Rodda, Jacob Vigdor, Janna Matlack, and Jacob Vigdor), argue that a shortage of
affordable housing at least in the US is caused in part by income inequality.
[11]
David Rodda
[12]
noted that from
1984 and 1991, the number of quality rental units decreased as the demand for higher quality housing increased
(Rhoda 1994:148). Through gentrification of older neighbourhoods, for example, in East New York, rental prices
increased rapidly as landlords found new residents willing to pay higher market rate for housing and left lower
income families without rental units. The ad valorem property tax policy combined with rising prices made it
difficult or impossible for low income residents to keep pace.
Other housing expenditures
In measuring affordability of housing there are various expenditures beyond the price of the actual housing stock
itself, that are considered depending on the index being used.
Some organizations and agencies consider the cost of purchasing a single-family home; others look exclusively at
the cost of renting an apartment.
Many U.S. studies, for example, focus primarily on the median cost of renting a two-bedroom apartment in a large
apartment complex for a new tenant. These studies often lump together luxury apartments and slums, as well as
desirable and undesirable neighborhoods. While this practice is known to distort the true costs, it is difficult to
provide accurate information for the wide variety of situations without the report being unwieldy.
Normally, only legal, permitted, separate housing is considered when calculating the cost of housing. The low rent
costs for a room in a single family home, or an illegal garage conversion, or a college dormitory are generally
excluded from the calculation, no matter how many people in an area live in such situations. Because of this study
methodology, median housing costs tend to be slightly inflated.
Costs are generally considered on a cash (not accrual) basis. Thus a person making the last payment on a large home
mortgage might live in officially unaffordable housing one month, and very affordable housing the following month,
when the mortgage is paid off. This distortion can be significant in areas where real estate costs are high, even if
Affordable housing
4
incomes are similarly high, because a high income allows a higher proportion of the income to be dedicated towards
buying an expensive home without endangering the household's ability to buy food or other basic necessities.
Growing density convergence and regional urbanization
The majority of the more than six billion people on earth now live in cities (UN). There are more than 500 city
regions of more than one million inhabitants in the world. Cities become megacities become megalopolitan city
regions and even "galaxies" of more than 60 million inhabitants. The Yangtze Delta-Greater Shanghai region now
surpasses 80 million. Tokyo-Yokohoma adjacent to Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto have a combined population of 100 million.
Rapid population growth leads to increased need for affordable housing in most cities.
The availability of affordable housing in proximity of mass transit and linked to job distribution, has become
severely imbalanced in this period of rapid regional urbanization and growing density convergence.
"In addition to the distress it causes families who cannot find a place to live, lack of affordable housing is considered
by many urban planners to have negative effects on a community's overall health."
Affordable housing challenges in inner cities range from the homeless who are forced to live on the street, to the
relative deprivation of vital workers like police officers, firefighters, teachers and nurses unable to find affordable
accommodation near their place of work. These workers are forced to live in suburbia commuting up to two hours
each way to work. Lack of affordable housing can make low-cost labour scarcer (as workers travel longer distances)
(Pollard and Stanley 2007).
Economy
Lack of affordable housing places a particular burden on local economies.
As well, individual consumers are faced with mortgage arrears and excessive debt and therefore cut back on
consumption. A combination of high housing costs and high debt levels contributes to a reduction in savings.
These factors can lead to decreased investment in sectors that are essential to the long-term growth of the economy.
Supply and demand
The market has been unable to meet the growing demand to supply housing stock at affordable prices. Although
demand for affordable housing, particularly rental housing that is affordable for low and middle income earners, has
increased, the supply has not.
[13]
Potential home buyers are forced to turn to the rental market, which is also under
pressure. An inadequate supply of housing stock increases demand on the private and social rented sector, and in
worse case scenarios, homelessness.
Factors that affect the overall volume of housing stock
Demographic and behavioural factors
Migration (to cities and potential employment)
Increased life expectancy
Building codes
[14]
A greater propensity for people to live alone
Young adults delaying forming their own household (in advanced economies).
Affordable housing
5
Factors that affect tenure choices (ex. owner occupier, private rented, social rented)
Employment rates
Rising unemployment rates increase demand for market rentals, social housing and homelessness.
Real household incomes
Household incomes have not kept up with rising housing prices
Affordability of rents and owner occupation
Interest rates
Availability of mortgages
Levels of confidence in the economy and housing market
Low confidence decreases demand for owner occupation
Labour market performance
In both large metropolitan areas and regional towns where housing prices are high, a lack of affordable housing
places local firms at a competitive disadvantage. They are placed under wage pressures as they attempt to decrease
the income/housing price gap. Key workers have fewer housing choices if prices rise to non-affordable levels.
Variations in affordability of housing between areas may create labour market impediments.
Potential workers are discouraged from moving to employment in areas of low affordability. They are also
discouraged from migrating to areas of high affordability as the low house prices and rents indicate low capital gain
potential and poor employment prospects.
Social costs of lack of affordable housing
Housing affordability is more than just a personal trouble experienced by individual households who cannot easily
find a place to live. Lack of affordable housing is considered by many urban planners to have negative effects on a
community's overall health.
Jobs, transportation, and affordable housing
Lack of affordable housing can make low-cost labor more scarce, and increase demands on transportation systems
(as workers travel longer distances between jobs and affordable housing). Housing cost increases in U.S. cities
[15][16]
have been linked to declines in enrollment at local schools.
[17]
"Faced with few affordable options, many people attempt to find less expensive housing by buying or renting farther
out, but long commutes often result in higher transportation costs that erase any savings on shelter." Pollard (2010)
called this the "drive 'til you qualify" approach, which causes far-flung development and forces people to drive
longer distances to get to work, to get groceries, to take children to school, or to engage in other activities. A well
located dwelling might save significant household travel costs and therefore improve overall family economics, even
if the rent is higher than a dwelling in a poorer location. A household's inhabitants must decide whether to pay more
for housing to keep commuting time and expense low, or to accept a long or expensive commute to obtain "better"
housing. The absolute availability of housing is not generally considered in the calculation of affordable housing. In
a depressed or sparsely settled rural area, for example, the predicted price of the canonical median two-bedroom
apartment may be quite easily affordable even to a minimum-wage worker if only any apartments had ever been
built. Some affordable housing prototypes include Nano House and Affordable Green Tiny House Project.
Affordable housing
6
Affordable housing and public policy
Policy makers at all levels - global, national, regional, municipal, community associations - are attempting to
respond to the issue of affordable housing, a highly complex crisis of global proportions, with a myriad of policy
instruments. These responses range from stop-gap financing tools to long-term intergovernmental infrastructural
changes.
In the simplest of terms, affordability of housing refers to the amount of capital one has available in relation to the
price of the goods to be obtained. Public policies are informed by underlying assumptions about the nature of
housing itself. Is housing a basic need, a right, an entitlement, a public good, or even, as in the case of home
purchasing in the United States, a civic duty? Or is just another household-level consumer choice, a commodity or an
investment within the free market system? "Housing Policies provide a remarkable litmus test for the values of
politicians at every level of office and of the varied communities that influence them. Often this test measures simply
the warmth or coldness of heart of the more affluent and secure towards families of a lower socio-economic status
(Bacher 1993:16)."
Affordable housing needs can be addressed through public policy instruments that focus on the demand side of the
market, programs that help households reach financial benchmarks that make housing affordable. This can include
approaches that simply promote economic growth in generalin the hope that a stronger economy, higher
employment rates, and higher wages will increase the ability of households to acquire housing at market prices.
Federal government policies define banking and mortgage lending practices, tax and regulatory measures affecting
building materials, professional practices (ex. real estate transactions). The purchasing power of individual
households can be enhanced through tax and fiscal policies that result in reducing the cost of mortgages and the cost
of borrowing. Public policies may include the implementation of subsidy programs and incentive patterns for
average households. For the most vulnerable groups, such as seniors, single-parent families, the disabled, etc. some
form of publicly funded allowance strategy can be implemented providing individual households with adequate
income to afford housing.
Policy instruments may focus on production strategies That facilitate increased production on the supply side of
affordable housing, which can include refurbished older stock or new housing construction. China's housing policy
during the period of central planning prior to the reform, included constructing and allocating virtually free and
unsustainable publicly funded housing.
[citation needed]
Currently, policies that facilitate production on the supply side include favorable land use policies such as
inclusionary zoning, relaxation of environmental regulations, and the enforcement of affordable housing quotas in
new developments.
In some countries, such as Canada, municipal governments began to play a greater role in developing and
implementing policies regarding form and density of municipal housing in residential districts, as early as the 1950s.
At the municipal level recently promoted policy tools include relaxation of prohibitions against accessory dwelling
units, and reduction of the amount of parking that must be built for a new structure.
Affordable housing is a controversial reality of contemporary life, for gains in affordability often result from
expanding land available for housing or increasing the density of housing units in a given area. Ensuring a steady
supply of affordable housing means ensuring that communities weigh real and perceived livability impacts against
the sheer necessity of affordability. The process of weighing the impacts of locating affordable housing is quite
contentious, and is laden with race and class implications. Recent research, however, suggests that proximity to
low-income housing developments generally has a positive impact on neighborhood property conditions.
[18]
The growing gap between rich and poor since the 1980s manifests itself in a housing system where public policy
decisions privilege the ownership sector to the disadvantage of the rental sector.
Affordable housing
7
Right to build
An article in the November 2007 issue of Atlantic Monthly reported on a study of the cost of obtaining the "right to
build" (i.e. a building permit, red tape, bureaucracy, etc.) in different U.S. cities. The "right to build" cost does not
include the cost of the land or the cost of constructing the house. The study was conducted by Harvard economists
Edward Glaeser and Kristina Tobio. According to the chart accompanying the article, the cost of obtaining the "right
to build" adds approximately $600,000 to the cost of each new house that is built in San Francisco.
[19]
Government restrictions on affordable housing
A cheap-to-build traditional Summer house in
Sweden that legally can't be lived in permanently.
Many governments put restrictions on the size or cost of a dwelling
that people can live in. Making it essentially illegal to live permanently
in a house that is too small, low cost or not meeting to other
government defined requirements. Generally these laws are
implemented in an attempt to raise the perceived "standard" of housing
across the country. This can lead to thousands of houses across a
country being left empty for much of the year even when there is a
great need for more affordable housing such as is the case in countries
like Sweden, Norway, Finland and Denmark where there is a common
tradition to have a summer house. This sometimes raises concerns for
the respect of rights such as the right to utilize ones property.
Affordable housing by country
Australia
Australians in receipt of many social security benefits from Centrelink who rent housing from a private landlord are
eligible for rent assistance. Rent assistance is a subsidy paid directly to the tenant in addition to the basic Centrelink
benefit such as the Age Pension or the Disability Pension. The amount of rent assistance paid depends on the amount
of rent payable, whether the tenant has dependents and how many dependents there are. Tenants who live in public
housing in Australia are not eligible for rent assistance.
Australians buying a home for the first time are eligible for a first home owner grant. These grants were introduced
on 1 July 2000 and are jointly funded by the Commonwealth government and the state and territory governments.
First home buyers are currently eligible for a grant of A$7000 to alleviate the costs of entering the housing market.
The Commonwealth government in 2008 introduced first home saver accounts, whereby those saving for a new
home are eligible for government contributions to their savings account, subject to conditions.
Western Australia Department of Housing Affordable Homes Scheme
The long-term goal of the Department is to deliver at least 20,000 more affordable homes by 2020 for low to
moderate income earners, through the Opening Doors Scheme. Opening Doors offers two ways for Western
Australians to own their own homes.
Shared Home Ownership
The Shared Home Ownership is the only scheme of its kind in Australia. Western Australians can purchase their own
home with help from the Department of Housing with a SharedStart loan through Keystart, the Governments lending
provider. With shared ownership, the initial cost of buying a home is reduced, as the Department retains up to 30%
of the property. The Department's share depends on your borrowing capacity, household size, and the location and
type of property. In the future, the buyer may have the option to purchase the full amount or sell the home back to
Affordable housing
8
the Department. With a ShareStart loan you can purchase newly built homes and off-theplan properties offered by
the Department of Housing.
Affordable House Sales
The Department of Housing (the Housing Authority), through the Housing Authority, now offers Affordable House
Sales to the general public. Properties are available to anyone interested in purchasing a home. The Department
works closely with industry to ensure that properties being developed for sale are affordable for those on
low-to-moderate incomes.
Canada
In Canada affordability is one of three elements (adequacy, suitability) used to determine core housing needs.
Ontario
In 2002, the Social Housing Services Corporation (SHSC) was created by Province of Ontario to provide group
services for social housing providers (public, non-profit and co-op housing) following the downloading of
responsibility for over 270,000 social housing units to local municipalities. It is a non-profit corporation governed by
a board of municipal, non-profit and co-op housing representatives. Its mandate is to provide Ontario housing
providers and service managers with bulk purchasing, insurance, investment and information services that add
significant value to their operations.
With an annual budget of $4.5 million, SHSC and its two subsidiaries, SOHO and SHSC Financial Inc. offers a
dedicated insurance program for social housing providers, bulk gas purchasing and an innovative energy efficiency
retrofit program that coordinates energy audits, expertise, funding, bulk purchasing of energy-efficient goods,
training and education, and data evaluation. SHSC manages and provides investment advice to housing providers on
capital reserves valued at more than $390 million. Working closely with other housing sector organizations and
non-governmental organizations, SHSC also supports and develops independent housing-related research, including
a new Housing Internship program for graduate-level researchers.
British Columbia
Recently there has been a move toward the integration of affordable social housing with market housing and other
uses, such as the 2006-10 redevelopment of the Woodward's building site in Vancouver.
China
China is also experiencing a gap between housing price and affordability as it moves away from an in-kind welfare
benefit system to a market-oriented allocation system (Hui et al. 2007). Most urban housing prior to 1978 in the
planned-economy era consisted of nearly free dwellings produced and allocated by the unsustainable single-channel
state-funded system.
Challenges in providing affordable housing in China through the free market system are similar to difficulties in
many Western countries. Potential purchasers lack wealth to purchase dwelling units and lack income to make
regular mortgage payments. In response China introduced the Housing Provident Fund (HPF) program nationwide in
1995. It is similar to housing fund programs in other countries such as Thailand and Singapore. The Housing
Provident Fund (HPF), provides a mechanism allowing potential purchasers who have an income to save for and
eventually purchase a unit dwelling (which may be a formerly public housing unit). The HPF includes a subsidized
savings program linked to a retirement account, subsidized mortgage rates and price discounts. The Chinese
government has embarked upon an effort to reduce the number of tenants living in publicly owned housing. In the
second system, individuals privately own housing and trade it within a free market. During the past two decades the
Chinese government has implemented a series of policies designed to privatize government owned housing.
Affordable housing
9
In 1998 China accelerated its urban housing reform further moving away from an in-kind welfare benefit system to a
market-oriented allocation system, with the state reducing its role in housing provision. As a result, in cities like
Shanghai for example, with housing construction lagging behind the demand, houses prices increased significantly
widening the gap between housing price and affordability. Acute situation of housing supply in rapidly increasing
urban areas like Shanghai did not improve with growth in income. Following the skyrocketing of real estate prices
major cities in China in early 2005, the Chinese cabinet cracked down on speculation and issued regulations
regarding down payments while raising mortgage rates and the Central Bank interest rates to cool the over-heated
market.
China's leading industrial centre is Shanghai. With a population of 13 million [2005], it is the largest city in China.
The real estate market value accounts for 22% of China's total real estate market making and also the most expensive
housing market in China (Chen 2007).
India
In India, it is estimated that in 2009-10, approximately 32% of the population was living below the poverty line
[20]
and there is huge demand for affordable housing. Some developers are developing low cost and affordable housing
for this population. The Government of India has taken up various initiatives for developing properties in low cost
and affordable segment. They have also looked at PPP model for development of these properties.
United Kingdom
The British housing market in the late 1980s and early 1990s experienced an almost unprecedented set of changes
and pressures. A combination of circumstances produced the crisis, including changes in demography, income
distribution, housing supply and tenure, but financial deregulation was particularly important. Housing affordability
became a significant policy issue when the impact on the normal functioning of the owner occupied market became
severe and when macro-economic feedback effects were perceived as serious. A number of specific policy changes
resulted from this crisis, some of which may endure. Many of these revolve around the ability or otherwise of people
to afford housing, whether as would-be buyers priced out of the boom, recent buyers losing their home through
mortgage default or trapped by 'negative equity', or tenants affected by deregulation and much higher rent levels.
A 2013 investigation by The Bureau of Investigative Journalism found that the UK spent 1.88bn enough to build
72,000 homes in London on renting temporary accommodation in 12 of Britains biggest cities over the preceding
four years.
[21]
A tradition of social housing in the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has a long tradition of promoting affordable social rented housing. This may be owned by local
councils or housing associations. There are also a range of affordable home ownership options, including shared
ownership (where a tenant rents part share in the property from a social landlord, and owns the remainder). The
government has also attempted to promote the supply of owner occupied affordable stock for purchase, principally
by using the land-use planning system to require that housing developers provide a proportion of lower cost housing
within new developments.
[22]
This approach is commonly known as inclusionary zoning (though not in the UK), and
the current mechanism for securing the provision of affordable housing as part of a planning application for new
housing development is through the use of a S.106 Agreement. In Scotland the equivalent is a Section 75 planning
agreement. (Section 75 of the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997)
Affordable housing
10
Council houses
A high proportion of homes in the UK were previously council-owned, but the numbers have been reduced since the
early 1980s due to initiatives of the Thatcher government that restricted council housing construction and provided
financial and policy support to other forms social housing. In 1980, the Conservative government of Margaret
Thatcher introduced the Right to Buy scheme, offering council tenants the opportunity to purchase their housing at a
discount of up to 60% (70% on leasehold homes such as flats). Alongside Right to Buy, council-owned stock was
further diminished as properties were transferred to housing associations. Council Tenants in some instances have
chosen to transfer management of the properties to arms-length non-profit organisations. The tenants still remained
Council tenants, and the housing stock still remained the property of the Council. This change in management was
encouraged by extra funding from central government to invest in the housing stock under the Decent Homes
Programme. The program required council housing to be brought up to a set standard was combined with restrictions
on the amounts that councils could borrow and led to an increase in such arms length management organisations
being set up. In some areas, significant numbers of council houses were demolished as part of urban regeneration
programmes, due to the poor quality of stock, low levels of demand and social problems.
In rural areas where local wages are low and house prices are higher (especially in regions with holiday homes),
there are special problems. Planning restrictions severely limit rural development, but if there is evidence of need
then exception sites can be used for people with a local connection. This evidence is normally provided by a housing
Needs survey carried out by a Rural Housing Enabler working for the local Rural Community Council.
Housing associations are not-for-profit organisations with a history that goes back before the start of the 20th
century. The number of homes under their ownership grew significantly from the 1980s as successive governments
sought to make them the principal form of social housing, in preference to local authorities. Many of the homes
previously under the ownership of local authorities have been transferred to newly established housing associations,
including some of the largest in the country. Despite being not-for-profit organisations, housing association rents are
typically higher than for council housing. Renting a home through a housing association can in some circumstances
prove costlier than purchasing a similar property through a mortgage.
All major housing associations are registered with the Homes and Communities Agency who are responsible for the
regulation of social housing from 1 April 2012. Housing associations that are registered were known as Registered
Social Landlords from 1996, but in the Housing and Regeneration Act 2008 the official term became Registered
Providers. The latter also covers council housing, and developers and other bodies that may receive grants for
development.
[23]:3
The Department for Communities and Local Government sets the policy for housing in England.
In Scotland policy is set by the Scottish Parliament; inspecting and regulating activities falls to the Scottish Housing
Regulator. Social housing in Northern Ireland is regulated by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive, which was
established to take on ownership of former council stock and prevent sectarian allocation of housing to people from
one religion.
United States
U.S. Federal Housing Budget 1976-2007
The federal government in the U.S. provides subsidies to make housing
more affordable. Financial assistance is provided for homeowners
through the mortgage interest tax deduction and for lower income
households through housing subsidy programs. In the 1970s the federal
government spent similar amounts on tax reductions for homeowners
as it did on subsidies for low-income housing. However, by 2005, tax
reductions had risen to $120 billion per year, representing nearly 80
percent of all federal housing assistance. The Advisory Panel on
Federal Tax Reform for President Bush proposed reducing the home
mortgage interest deduction in a 2005 report.
Affordable housing
11
Housing assistance from the federal government for lower income households can be divided into three parts:
Tenant based subsidies given to an individual household, known as the Section 8 program
Project based subsidies given to the owner of housing units that must be rented to lower income households at
affordable rates, and
Public Housing, which is usually owned and operated by the government. (Some public housing projects are
managed by subcontracted private agencies.)
Project based subsidies are also known by their section of the U.S. Housing Act or the Housing Act of 1949, and
include Section 8, Section 236, Section 221(d)(3), Section 202 for elderly households, Section 515 for rural renters,
Section 514/516 for farmworkers and Section 811 for people with disabilities. There are also housing subsidies
through the Section 8 program that are project based. The United States Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) and USDA Rural Development administer these programs. HUD and USDA Rural
Development programs have ceased to produce large numbers of units since the 1980s. Since 1986, the Low-Income
Housing Tax Credit program has been the primary federal program to produce affordable units; however, the
housing produced in this program is less affordable than the former HUD programs.
One of the most unique US public housing initiatives was the development of subsidized middle-class housing
during the late New Deal (194042) under the auspices of the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division of the
Federal Works Agency under the direction of Colonel Lawrence Westbrook. These eight projects were purchased by
the residents after the Second World War and as of 2009 seven of the projects continue to operate as mutual housing
corporations owned by their residents. These projects are among the very few definitive success stories in the history
of the US public housing effort.
In the U.S., households are commonly defined in terms of the amount of realized income they earn relative to the
Area Median Income or AMI. Localized AMI figures are calculated annually based on a survey of comparably sized
households within geographic ranges known as metropolitan statistical areas, as defined by the US Office of
Management and Budget. For U.S. housing subsidies, households are categorized by federal law as follows:
Moderate income households earn between 80% and 120% of AMI.
Low income households earn between 50% and 80% of AMI.
Very low income households earn no more than 50% of AMI.
Some states and cities in the United States operate a variety of affordable housing programs, including supportive
housing programs, transitional housing programs and rent subsidies as part of public assistance programs. Local and
state governments can adapt these income limits when administering local affordable housing programs; however,
U.S. federal programs must adhere to the definitions above. For the Section 8 voucher program, the maximum
household contribution to rent can be as high as 40% gross income.
Affordable housing
12
Distribution of U.S. Median Home Values
Comprehensive data for the most affordable and
least affordable places in the U.S. is published
each year by an affordable housing non-profit
organization, the National Low Income Housing
Coalition. The NLIHC promotes a guideline of
30% of household income as the upper limit of
affordability. According to a 2012 National
Low Income Housing Coalition report, in every
community across the United States "rents are
unaffordable to full-time working people."
However, by using an indicator, such as the
Median Multiple indicator which rates
affordability of housing by dividing the median
house price by gross [before tax] annual median
household income), without considering the
extreme disparities between the incomes of
high-net-worth individual (HNWI) and those in
the lower quintiles, a distorted picture of real
affordability is created. Using this
indicatorwhich rates housing affordability on
a scale of 0 to 5, with categories 3 and under
affordablein 2012 the United States overall
market was considered 3 (affordable).
Since 1996 while incomes in the upper quintile
increased, incomes in the lower quintile households decreased creating negative outcomes in housing affordability.
Before the real estate bubble of 2007, the median household paid $658 per month in total housing costs (Census
2002).
[24]
A total of 20% of households were deemed to be living in unaffordable housing: Nine percent of all
households are renters in unaffordable housing,
[25]
and eleven percent of all households are homeowners with high
housing costs.
[26]
In the 2000 U.S. Census, the median homeowner with a mortgage (70% of homeowners and 48% of census
respondents) spent $1,088 each month, or 21.7% of household income, on housing costs. The median homeowner
without a mortgage (30% of all homeowners (80% of elderly homeowners) and 20% of respondents) spent $295 per
month, or 10.5% of household income, on housing costs. Renters in 2001 (32% of respondents) spent $633 each
month, or 29% of household income, on housing costs.
Governmental and quasi-governmental agencies that contribute to the work of ensuring the existence of a steady
supply of affordable housing in the United States are the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD), USDA Rural Development, the Federal Home Loan Bank, Fannie Mae, and Freddie Mac. Important private
sector institutions worth consulting are the National Association of Home Builders, the National Affordable Housing
Management Association (NAHMA), the Council for Affordable and Rural Housing (CARH) and the National
Association of Realtors. Valuable research institutions with staff dedicated to the analysis of "affordable housing"
includes: The Center for Housing Policy, Brookings Institution, the Urban Institute and the Joint Center for Housing
Studies at Harvard University and the Furman Center for Real Estate and Urban Policy at New York University, and
the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Several of these institutions (the Fannie Mae Foundation, Urban Institute,
Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program, Enterprise Community Partners, LISC, the Harvard Joint Center
for Housing Studies, and others)
[27]
partnered to create KnowledgePlex, an online information resource devoted to
affordable housing and community development issues.
Affordable housing
13
New York City
New York City suffers from a shortage of affordable housing. New York City is a highly desirable place to live,
attracting thousands of new residents each year, and faces water and public transportation constraints. As a result,
housing prices continue to climb. Finding affordable housing in New York City is a struggle for a large portion of
the citys population including low-income, moderate-income, and even median income families.
[28]
Since 1970,
income has remained stagnant while rent has nearly doubled for New Yorkers. Consequently, 48.7% of householders
spend more than 30% of their income on rent. Several federal and state initiatives have targeted this problem, but
have failed to provide enough affordable, inclusive, and sustainable housing for New York City residents.
New York City continues to be a racially and economically segregated city. While the poverty rate for White-Non
Hispanics is below the national average at 11.0%, the poverty rate for minority groups is significantly higher. The
poverty rate for African Americans is 20.8% and the poverty rate for Asians is 18.1%.
[29]
The poverty rate for
Hispanics is the highest at 28.1% of the population. Historically, public housing was assigned by race and ethnicity
and neighborhoods in New York still remain segregated.
[30]
More than 60% of White-Non Hispanics live in areas
characterized as having high access to economic opportunities with low transit accessibility. In contrast, more
Hispanics, African Americans, and Asians live in areas that are transit accessible but have low opportunity.
Similarly, most of the federally subsidized housing in New York City tends to be located in areas that are transit
accessible, but lack access to stable jobs and educational opportunities.
Sustainability is a large portion of what constitutes a neighborhoods overall feel. Sustainable housing characteristics
include green building techniques that promote energy efficiency, successful recycling practices, and the walkability
of a neighborhood. Affordable housing in New York City tends to be highly walkable, with easy access to public
transit. However, green building practices are eschewed in affordable housing with the belief that the upfront costs
are too expensive.
One of the primary characteristics of neighborhoods with concentrated affordable housing in New York City is a
lack of access to economic opportunities. The neighborhoods that have the highest concentration of public housing
also fall into the category of the neighborhoods that have the lowest number of locally employed residents. These
neighborhoods fail to provide quality schools and stable jobs. Scholars have coined this idea as the uneven
geography of opportunity.
[31]
Residents of concentrated low- income communities are more likely to lead a life
with poor outcomes including bad health, unstable low wages, and achieving below average levels of education.4
One of the primary causes of this is that these communities and residents are disconnected from the resources more
affluent neighboring communities may have, such as better schools and job opportunities.
The issue of affordable housing concerns New Yorkers as a community overall, with more than 90% believing that
everyone has a right to shelter. With the recent recession and increasing housing costs, it is not surprising that more
than 30% of New York City residents fear they may one day be homeless.
[32]
Affordable housing is a major urban problem facing New York City. Poverty concentrated neighborhoods tend to
have poor quality housing stock, higher crime rates, higher dropout rates, and inadequate access to economic
opportunities. For residents earning below the 50% median income, only 18% of all rental units and just 4% of
market rate rental units were considered affordable in 2009. New York City must address its declining amount of
affordable housing as well as increase its sustainability and access to opportunity.
Ultimately, politicians and policymakers must determine the most optimal policy solution to the affordable housing
problem in New York City. Part of this process includes educating the public, homeowners, business owners, and
other stakeholders about the true costs and outcomes of affordable housing. Many of these groups base their views
on unfounded fears. In reality, affordable housing actually serves to revitalize neighborhoods. Older, blighted
buildings are torn down or renovated to create new structures that architecturally match the neighborhood. This
brings in stable residents, builds the neighborhood, and works to revitalize the area.
[33]
Additionally, the general
public perceives environmentally friendly construction in affordable housing to have significantly higher up-front
costs and little return on investment. However, the average building premium for an environmentally sustainable
Affordable housing
14
affordable housing development is just 2.4% more than standard development costs. Sustainable development in
affordable houses also results in lower operational costs and utility bills, better air quality, and an overall
improvement in health.
[34]
During his first term, Mayor Bloomberg successfully introduced and later expanded the New Housing Marketplace
Plan, an innovative plan to create 165,000 units of affordable housing by 2013. In his prior post as the Commissioner
of New York City Housing and Preservation Development, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Secretary, Shaun Donovan worked to implement this initiative, the largest affordable housing plan for a city in U.S.
history. Donovan also started his work to promote affordable housing that is sustainable and accessible to economic
opportunities during his tenure working for New York City. Since 2000, the median monthly rent has risen by 18%
while median wage rates have not changed. Additionally, despite the economic recession and downturn in housing
prices recently, in 2010 only 6% of home sales were affordable to New Yorkers earning the median income.
Criteria:
Key criteria in evaluating policy alternatives for affordable housing in New York City include effectiveness, political
feasibility and economic feasibility. To be considered affordable housing, rent must not exceed 30% of residents'
income. In creating or maintaining affordable units, an alternative must also provide sustainable housing with access
to economic opportunities. Affordable housing units should be within reasonable walking distance to public
transportation, maximize residents opportunity for quality education and employment opportunities and maximize
use of sustainable building elements.
Affordable housing has inherent costs that come with it in addition to construction and maintenance costs.
Depending on where alternatives plan to situate affordable housing units, communities may be revitalized or
destabilized. While revitalized communities would see increasing property values and additional businesses, creating
jobs, destabilized neighborhoods might experience increasing crime and lowering property values. In terms of
market outcomes, the chosen alternative for affordable housing should work to stabilize and revitalize
neighborhoods.
One of the key differences in the alternatives is whether the alternative is based on federal or local support. Many
alternatives rely on federal funding in the form of grants or other resources to provide affordable housing. Full
support of the federal government is necessary if an alternative is based on federal funding. Additionally, public
opinion regarding affordable housing impacts the decision of politicians. Politicians and policy makers must work to
educate the public on the potential results of affordable housing alternatives and garner support. Politicians must also
balance the interests of powerful market developers who might oppose policies promoting sustainable affordable
housing that might drive up costs of development. The selected alternative should have widespread support to ensure
it is carried out swiftly and as intended.
Some policy alternatives for consideration regarding affordable housing in New York City include:
Header text Status Quo Inclusionary Zoning Choice Neighborhoods Initiative Housing Vouchers
Effectiveness Fair- growth
efforts are
steady
Good-will rapidly increase
growth of affordable housing,
can promote access to economic
opportunities and sustainability
Fair- enables people to continue living in the
same neighborhood, encourages economic
development and can implement sustainable
practices. Growth of affordable housing may
be slow
Good- provides immediate
growth of affordable housing,
access to economic
opportunities, and sustainable
housing
Political
feasibility
Good-
minimal
opposition
Fair- may face opposition Fair- local and federal government
community development goals currently align
but my change. Competition between
neighborhoods may be fierce.
Fair- may face opposition,
NIMBY
Economic
feasibility
Good- budget
is already
approved
Very good- does not cost more Very good- utilizes outside money to invest
and revitalize neighborhoods
Fair- long term expenditure
Affordable housing
15
Evaluation Fair- Good Good Fair- Good Fair
Status quo
The status quo analyzes current affordable housing policy against the criteria to see if it aligns with the objective.
Current policy is determined by Mayor Bloomberg, the New York City Housing Authority, and the New York City
Department of Housing Preservation and Development. It provides for the creation and preservation of affordable
housing through a mix of funding sources and means, including Federal Housing Authority and HUD financing and
insurance programs, HUD project based rental assistance, New York State and New York Citys Mitchell Lama
program, and low income housing tax credits.
Inclusionary Zoning
Inclusionary zoning is a technique to develop diverse mixed-income housing. These laws would require that a set
percentage of units in each new or markably renovated building be used for affordable housing.
[35]
In exchange,
developers receive a bonus density, allowing them to build more units than would normally be allowed.
Inclusionary zoning seeks to promote mixed income communities and equitable growth for all residents.
Choice Neighborhoods Initiative
The Choice Neighborhoods Initiative is a program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Planning. It represents the idea of investing more into low to moderate income neighborhoods, seeking to bring
economic revitalization to the area. The goal of this initiative is to bring economic opportunities to areas that already
have a high concentration affordable housing and have access to public transportation. Neighborhoods with a high
concentration of public housing can compete for funding for urban revitalization. Neighborhoods submit proposals
strategizing the use of funding to create lasting results that improve the quality of life in the area. This funding is
targeted for demolition and to create new housing and developments, but can also be used to invest in schools,
infrastructure, and commercial developments.
Housing Vouchers
Housing vouchers are provided to low-income residents to pay to private landlords to supplement rent. Residents
may pay up to 30% of their income in rent. The difference between this amount and market rate is provided to the
landlord through the voucher. These vouchers provide increased mobility and choice in location for low-income
residents, enabling them to live in areas with increased access to economic opportunities and transportation. Along
with housing vouchers, it is most effective to provide search assistance and landlord outreach.
USDA Home Loan
The USDA loan program, also known as the USDA Rural Development Guaranteed Housing Loan Program is
intended to help low-income families in rural areas attain financing for home purchases or renovations. These loans,
also known as Section 502 loans, have looser credit standards than conventional loans, and may require no down
payment.
USDA rural home loans are limited homes in rural areas and to home buyers with low or moderate incomes, defined
as incomes within 115 percent of the area's median income. Some homes are eligible even if they are not in
designated rural areas at the discretion of the USDA.
Affordable housing
16
References
[1] "Definition: Affordable Housing" (http:/ / www.qahc.asn. au/ modules/ tinyd0/ index. php?id=8), Queensland Affordable Housing
Consortium, Australia
[2] Definition Affordable Housing (http:/ / www.calgary.ca/ CSPS/ CNS/ Documents/ homelessness/ ff-01_definition_affordable_housing. pdf)
[3] CNHED (http:/ / www.cnhed.org/ shared/ layouts/ singleblock. jsp?_event=view& _id=120130_U127242__194346)
[4] Queensland Affordable Housing Consortium [QAHC], Australia (http:/ / www. qahc. asn. au/ images2/ website/ affordabilitychart. pdf)
[5] [5] [Hallett, G. (Ed.) (1993) The New Housing Shortage: Housing Affordability in Europe and the USA (London, Routledge).]
[6] [6] [Kearns, A. (1992) Affordability for housing association tenants: A key issue for British social housing policy. Journal of Social Policy,
21(4), pp. 525-549.]
[7] [Linneman, P.D. & I. F. Megbolugbe (1992) Housing affordability: myth or reality? Urban Studies, 29(3/4), pp. 369-392.]
[8] [8] [Stone, M.E. (1990) One-Third of a Nation: A New Look at Housing Affordability in America (Washington, DC, Economic Policy Institute).]
[9] [9] [Whitehead, C.M.E. (1991) From need to affordability: An analysis of UK housing objectives, Urban Studies, 28(6), pp. 871-887.]
[10] http:/ / www.rideforhome. com. au/ files/ pdf/ HousingAffordability. pdf
[11] [11] page 1
[12] (cited in Matlack Do Rising Tides Lift All Prices? Income Inequality and Housing Affordability, 2006)
[13] Government of Australia (http:/ / www. facs.gov.au/ sa/ housing/ pubs/ homelessness/ not-for-profithousingsector/ Pages/
affordable_housing. aspx)
[14] Listokin, David; Hattis, David B., "Building Codes and Housing" (http:/ / www. huduser. org/ periodicals/ cityscpe/ vol8num1/ ch2. pdf),
Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, Volume 8, Number 1, 2005, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development, Office of Policy Development and Research
[15] Los Angeles, California (http:/ / www.latimes. com/ news/ education/ la-me-enroll11jun11,1,481921. story?coll=la-news-learning)
[16] Sarasota, Florida (http:/ / webcache.googleusercontent. com/ search?q=cache:J20rOJZG1_IJ:www. knowledgeplex. org/ news/ 154740.
html+ affordable+ housing+ and+ schools+ enrollment& hl=en& gl=us& ct=clnk& cd=3)
[17] Deconstructing the Myths: Housing Development Versus School Costs (http:/ / www. bos. frb. org/ commdev/ c& b/ 2005/ Spring/ Housing.
pdf)
[18] Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Low-Income Housing Tax Credit Developments and Neighborhood Property Conditions, December
2011 (http:/ / www. kansascityfed. org/ publicat/ reswkpap/ pdf/ rwp11-10. pdf)
[19] A Tale of Two Town Houses (http:/ / www. theatlantic. com/ doc/ 200711/ housing?ca=PoSzloTzAzqq0Pg+
PB504R6MjpVFf78zhjpE2yeHl78=), Atlantic Monthly, November 2007
[20] World Bank. India Country Overview September 2011 (http:/ / www. worldbank. org. in/ WBSITE/ EXTERNAL/ COUNTRIES/
SOUTHASIAEXT/ INDIAEXTN/ 0,,contentMDK:20195738~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00. html). 32% is the
2009-10 estimate, down from 37% in 2004-05.
[21] Mathiason, Nick; Hollingsworth, Victoria; Fitzgibbon, Will. ' Scale of UK housing crisis revealed (http:/ / www. thebureauinvestigates.
com/ 2013/ 05/ 19/ uk-housing-crisis-costing-taxpayer-2bn/ )', The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 19 May 2013.
[22] [22] Planning Policy Statement No. 3: Housing, Department of Communities and Local Government 2006
[23] Affordable Housing a new dawn? (http:/ / residential. joneslanglasalle. co. uk/ en-GB/ knowledge-centre/ publications/
affordable-housing-2011. aspx), Jones Lang LaSalle, 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
[24] [24] Table 1A-7: Financial Characteristics All Housing Units
[25] [25] Calculated as percentage of renter households multiplied by percentage of renter households that are burdened by housing costs in excess of
30%
[26] [26] Calculated as percentage of owner-occupied households multiplied by percentage with a mortgage multiplied by percentage of those with a
mortgage who are burdened by housing costs in excess of 30%.
[27] Partners (http:/ / www. knowledgeplex.org/ partners.html)
[28] State of New York Citys Subsidized Housing: 2011. New York: Furman Center for Real Estate and Urban Policy, The Institute for
Affordable Housing.
[29] State of New York Citys Housing and Neighborhoods 2010. New York: Furman Center for Real Estate and Urban Policy- New York
University.
[30] Vicki Been et al. (2010). Building Environmentally Sustainable Communities: A Framework for Inclusivity. New York and Washington,
DC: What Works Collaborative.
[31] Deborah L. McKoy et al. (2011). Opportunity-Rich Schools and Sustainable Communities: Seven Steps to Align High Quality Education
with Innovations in City and Metropolitan Planning and Development. Berkeley, CA: Center for Cities and Schools.
[32] Ana Maria Arumi et al. (2007). Compassion, Concern, and Conflicted Feelings: New Yorkers on Homelessness and Housing. New York:
Public Agenda.
[33] Jessica Fuir. (2012). MHN Interview: NYUs Furman Centers Surprising Data on Subsidized Housing. Multi- Housing News Online.
[34] Patricia Burke et al. (2007). Bostons Green Affordable Housing Program: Challenges and Opportunities. New York University Journal of
Legislation and Public Policy 11.1.
[35] Inclusionary Zoning Affordable Housing Program. The Department of Housing and Community Development of the District of Columbia.
Web. 29 February 2012.
Affordable housing
17
Further reading
External links
"The Ethics of Housing and NIMBYism" (http:/ / www. gcastrategies. com/ booksandarticles/ 139/
the-ethics-of-housing-and-nimbyism/ ) by Debra Stein
Canada
The Tyee Article (http:/ / thetyee. ca/ News/ 2008/ 12/ 19/ StopGapHousing/ ) Stop Gap Housing in Canada
Canadian affordable housing 1980s-2006 (http:/ / www. ctv. ca/ servlet/ ArticleNews/ story/ CTVNews/
20080130/ housing_affordable_080130/ 20080130?hub=TopStories), editorial article by Canadian Architect
magazine editor Ian Chodikoff. Retrieved March 8, 2007.
United Kingdom
UK Housing Review (http:/ / www. york. ac. uk/ res/ ukhr/ ), University of York, England.
Minford, Patrick; Ashton, Paul; Peel, Michael (1988). "The Effects of Housing Distortions on Unemployment".
Oxford Economic Papers (Oxford University Press) 40 (2): 322345. JSTOR 2662977 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/
stable/ 2662977). The authors study the effect of rent subsidies in England on mobility and unemployment.
Maliene V, Howe J, Malys N (2008). "Sustainable communities: affordable housing and socio-economic
relations". Local Economy 23 (4): 26776. doi: 10.1080/02690940802407989 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/
02690940802407989).
Maliene V, Malys N (2009). "High-quality housinga key issue in delivering sustainable communities". Building
and Environment 44 (2): 42630. doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.04.004 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. buildenv.
2008. 04. 004).
Government of the UK (2009-11-29). "Good practice and guidance, Reports and summaries" (http:/ / www.
communities. gov. uk/ publications/ housing/ deliveringaffordablehousing) (06HC04260). Retrieved 2011-12-08.
United States
Schwartz, Alex F. (2006). Housing Policy in the United States: An Introduction (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ana_ODyDbH0C& printsec=frontcover). CRC Press. ISBN0-415-95031-7.
United States Council for Affordable and Rural Housing (http:/ / www. carh. org)
USDA Home Loan Income Eligibility Calculator (http:/ / usdahomeloanprogram. com/
usda-home-loan-eligibility/ 200-income-eligibility-calculator)
HUD Low Income Housing News Alert (http:/ / www. assistedhousingalert. org)
Tony Favro, Tony (20 January 2007). "Affordable housing crisis casts a shadow over the American Dream"
(http:/ / www. citymayors. com/ society/ housing_usa. html) (.html). City Mayors Society. Retrieved 2011-12-15.
Koebel, C. Theodore; Bailey, Cara L. (1992). "State Policies and Programs to Preserve Federally Assisted
Low-Income Housing" (http:/ / www. fanniemaefoundation. org/ programs/ hpd/ pdf/ hpd_0304_koebel. pdf).
Housing Policy Debate (Washington, D.C.: Office of Housing Policy Research, Fannie Mae) 3 (4).
von Hoffman, Alexander, "Let Us Continue: Housing Policy in the Great Society, Part One" (http:/ / www.jchs.
harvard. edu/ publications/ governmentprograms/ w09-3_von_hoffman. pdf), Joint Center for Housing Studies,
Harvard University, April 2009
"America's Rental Housing: The Key to a Balanced National Policy" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20110719095136/ http:/ / www. jchs. harvard. edu/ publications/ rental/ rh08_americas_rental_housing/ index.
html), Joint Center for Housing Studies, Harvard University, 2007 (archived 2011)
Winnick, Louis (September 1995). "The Triumph of Housing Allowance Programs: How a Fundamental Policy
Conflict Was Resolved" (http:/ / www. huduser. org/ periodicals/ cityscpe/ vol1num3/ winnick. pdf) (PDF).
Affordable housing
18
Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development, Office of Policy Development and Research) 1 (3).
Association for Neighborhood and Housing Development (http:/ / www. anhd. org/ )
List of human habitation forms
This is a list of stationary and mobile types of human habitation.
Stationary
Airport
Apartment
Apartment hotel
Barn conversion
Barracks, may also be mobile, a cantonment or military camp
Bed and breakfast, or B&B (French: Chambre d'htes), may also be in a mobile structure
Bedsit
Boarding house
Bothy
Bungalow
Capsule hotel
Casino hotel
Castle
Cave
Yaodong
Cell (prison)
Chalet
Choultry
Communal apartment
Condominium, or timeshare
Cottage
County jail
Domus
Dormitory
Dugout (shelter)
Earth sheltering, earth house
Extended stay hotel
Farm stay
Flatshare, also called shared housing or shared accommodation
Flophouse
Guest house, or guesthouse
Hospital
Hospitality service, or hospitality exchange
Hostal
Hostel
Hotel
House, home or abode - see List of house types
List of human habitation forms
19
Housebarn
Hut, slab hut
Inn
Insula
Log cabin, Log home
Longhouse
Love hotel, fashion hotel, boutique hotel
Mansion
Mini dorm
Minshuku, a Japanese inn
Monastery
Moroccan Riad
Motel
Longhouse
Nursing home
Palace
Pension (lodging)
Pit-house
Prison
Psychiatric hospital
Public house
Public housing
Resort
Retirement home
Roundhouse
Ryokan, a traditional Japanese inn
Sanatorium
Share house
Single room occupancy
Sleeping car, on a train
Sod house
Train station
Tree house
Turbaza
Underground living
Vacation rental, may also be in a mobile structure
Villa
List of human habitation forms
20
Semi-permanent
Beach hut
Bivouac shelter
Emergency shelter
Igloo
Mobile home, also called static caravan
Ramada (shelter)
Snow cave
Tent city
Quinzhee
Mobile
Airplane
Bender tent
Boat, ship, ferry, cruise ship or ocean liner
Bus
Camper, caravan, or trailer
Car
Caravan parks
Houseboat includes float house
Portable building
Public transport
Recreational vehicle, a camper or caravan (travel trailer) and mobile home
Traditional tent types
Bell tent
Chum
Fly
Goahti
Kohte
Lavvu, Sami tent
Loue
Nomadic tents
Pandal
Sibley tent
Tarp tent
Tipi
Wigwam
Yurt
Lightweight materials
Tarpaulin
Bivouac sack
Blanket
Roof tent
Sleeping bag
Tarp tent
List of human habitation forms
21
Homelessness
Barn
Bus station, bus stop
Cardboard box (housing)
Homeless shelter
Derelict (building)
Dumpster
Refugee camp
Shipping container
Sleeping rough
Stable
Residence
A residence is an establishment where it was originally or currently being used by a host as their main place of
dwelling or home. Architecturally, a residence is typically a house, mansion, cottage or even grand castles and
palaces. A residence is offered to travelers as temporary lodgings where they can rent a room. The rooms are
generally furnished in the style which complements the architecture type of the building. This boutique type of
accommodation has a nice homely feel where the traveler is the 'house-guest'. Hotels, especially the extended stay
chains, commonly function as residences for many guests.
[1][2]
Residence may more specifically refer to:
Home, a place of residence or refuge
Group home, a private residence designed to serve children or adults with chronic disabilities. Typically there
are no more than six residents and there is a trained caregiver there twenty-four hours a day
Nursing home, provides a type of residential care
Dwelling or accommodation
House, a home, building, or structure that functions as a habitat for humans or other creatures
Lodging, a type of residential accommodation. People who travel and stay away from home for more than a
day need lodging for sleep, rest, safety, shelter from cold temperatures or rain, storage of luggage and access to
common household functions
Habitual residence, a civil law term dealing with the status of refugees, and child abduction
Residence in English family law, pertaining to where children should live in the case of disputes
Tax residence, to determine the location of someone's home for tax purposes
The Canadian term for what Americans call a dormitory
Residenz, the German term for residence which normally meant the city palace of a noble family
References
[1] ''Home Suite Home'' (http:/ / news.bbc.co.uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ magazine/ 6990706. stm). BBC News (2007-09-12). Retrieved on
2011-06-12.
[2] Elaine Stritch (http:/ / www.tcm. com/ tcmdb/ participant. jsp?spid=186009)
__DISAMBIG__
Article Sources and Contributors
22
Article Sources and Contributors
Housing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=571994646 Contributors: 16@r, Ageekgal, Arctic Kangaroo, BD2412, Bigmorr, Brakemire, Bucephalus, Carlossuarez46, Ccacsmss,
Compme, East718, Faradayplank, Fayenatic london, Geniac, Gogo Dodo, Iokseng, Itu, Jsharpminor, Juliancolton, Kuru, Mostlyharmless, Nbarth, Patrick, Pinethicket, Pol098, SchreiberBike,
Shadygrove2007, ShelfSkewed, Sitenl, Smith609, Srich32977, Transity, WobbieWobz, Yeun, 17 anonymous edits
Affordable housing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572186739 Contributors: 8891Knowles, Abdul Bakr, Acidburn24m, Adam37, Adpsimpson, Aeusoes1,
Affordablesearch, Aitias, Alansohn, Alynna Kasmira, Am088, Apollo1758, Arcandam, Atulpkhekade, Avani patel, Bender235, Bensin, Bftkt, Bike756, Brideshead, Bureau of Investigative
Journalism, Cafzal, CanadianCaesar, CaroleHenson, Caseymack, Castellanet, Cbuki, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, Christopher Parham, Clicketyclack, Cmonday, Craig Ragland,
Cverzonilla, Cyberlisa, DMacks, DavidCiani, Davidgid, Deipnosophista, Dflayfield, Digital infinity, Donfbreed2, DougCube, Download, Duoduoduo, Dwebb08, Edward, Erebus555,
EricEnfermero, Eyedubya, Fayenatic london, Flash8515, Furman Center for Real Estate and Urban Policy, Futurebird, GainLine, Gaius Cornelius, Gentlemandave, Geraldshields11, Getahome,
Gobonobo, GoingBatty, Gory18, GreatKhan, Grundle2600, Gus Buster, Guy Harris, Gwhitman, HHub, Histrion, Hobawido, Inkani, Iridescent, Iscariot Ex Machina, Jarble, Jessepotrie, Jimov,
John Zdralek, JonHarder, Jpo, Jrioux, Kamper11, Keeper76, Khazar2, Kinu, Krenair, KrunalBD, Levineps, Littgeo, Lololuo, Luciuskwok, M@sk, MER-C, Mac, Mairi, Mf205, Microhosting,
Midrashah, Mogism, Moladi, MoondyneAWB, MrMontag, Mreta, Mumadhay, Nar Matteru, Newyears, Nikletter, Nirvana2013, Nissin67, Nixeagle, Noq, NorthernThunder, Notmyrealname,
Oceanflynn, Odoors, OlEnglish, Olborne, Ottawahitech, Ottawakismet, Peterl, Pradeepkoundal, Prowsej, Pugdemskuf, Quior, Rahumish45, Rarara51, Redrose64, Rettetast, Rjwilmsi, Ruban
Selvanayagam, Sbrowndc, Schumi555, Sfan00 IMG, Shanata, ShelfSkewed, Sionk, Skatergirl395, Stephencdickson, Stockton, Sun Creator, Sunray, TGC55, Tabletop, The Ent, TheJJJunk,
TheOldJacobite, Theodolite, Thesmothete, ThowardLP, Tim1965, Toohool, TripleThree, Triplestop, User A1, Velveteman1, Versageek, Voceditenore, Weismantel, WhatamIdoing, Widr,
Wikiklrsc, Wired6789, Wtalcott, Yug, Zachrichardcb, 172 anonymous edits
List of human habitation forms Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=558754286 Contributors: 2607:FAD0:22:A01:2E0:52FF:FEA4:8488, AHands, Alensha, Ardbucket,
Blue387, Bluedawe, Brianga, Bsskchaitanya, C1k3, ChrisHodgesUK, Ckatz, Colonies Chris, DAJF, Dinkytown, Edward, Elisar3, Epiphanysolutions, Fitzpatrickjm, Gilabrand, Gizziiusa, Hmains,
Igiffin, JeffW, Jelsa, Jim Derby, JonHarder, KSShaezer, Khalid hassani, Kookyunii, Kymacpherson, Martarius, Maurreen, Nakerlund, NeoUrfahraner, Nick Number, Nihonjoe,
Northamerica1000, NotWith, OlEnglish, Patrick, RW Marloe, RealGrouchy, Richg41, Robinoke, Robogun, Samuell, SchuminWeb, Scriberius, Scwlong, SeventhHell, Sluzzelin, Stevenspots,
Swid, Talskiddy, TheoClarke, Tmcglynn, Tom Barnwell, Unforgettableid, Vegaswikian, Wayland, Woohookitty, 67 anonymous edits
Residence Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=549687065 Contributors: 16@r, Anna Lincoln, BD2412, Bermicourt, Bibliophylax, Correogsk, David91, Eekerz, Elonka,
Ewlyahoocom, GVnayR, Glenn, Griffin700, H92, Irish Pearl, Josve05a, Kevlar67, KinGReSiDeNcE, Littledogboy, Magister Mathematicae, Michaelowm, Mladifilozof, Msh210,
No1inparticularhere, Peterbr, Pinethicket, PorTSnipeR, Psb777, R'n'B, SD6-Agent, SmakBoot, Srhtunll, Themfromspace, Travelbird, Vegaswikian, Willking1979, Xyzzyplugh, 12 anonymous
edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
23
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Ferienhaus Schweden 2006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferienhaus_Schweden_2006.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0
Contributors: Holger.Ellgaard
File:US Fed Housing Budget Chart 1976-2007.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Fed_Housing_Budget_Chart_1976-2007.png License: Attribution
Contributors: Castellanet, Jusjih, 2 anonymous edits
File:median home value2005.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Median_home_value2005.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
Megan Knowles
License
24
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/