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org
Author: Wagner, Betty Jane.
Title: nder!tanding "rama-Ba!ed Education.
Source: #erd Br$uer %Ed.&: Body and 'anguage. (ntercultural 'earning )hrough "rama.
We!tport, Connecticut * 'ondon +,,+. -. .-/0.
Publisher: 12le3 -u2li!hing.
-u2li!hed with 4ind permi!!ion o5 the editor.
Betty Jane Wagner
Understanding Drama-Based Education
)ho!e o5 u! who ha6e cho!en a career wor4ing with language ha6e ine6ita2ly cho!en to
wor4 with the 2odie! a! well a! the mind! o5 our !tudent!. What i! language 2ut !ound
produced on the 2reath 2y the comple3 action o5 the tongue, palate, laryn3, and glottal
mechani!m to create aural !ym2ol! that ha6e meaning in a particular language
community7 (ndeed, communitie! are de5ined in large part 2y the language they !hare, a
language that ine6ita2ly em2odie! a culture, an etho!, and a world6iew. 8urthermore,
within each 2road language group, there are !u2group! de5ined 2y dialect! and di!cour!e
communitie! that !et them o55 5rom one another. 9ow a group u!e! language, what topic!
they choo!e to tal4 a2out, and at what le6el o5 5ormality or !ocial di!tance at which they
communicate all help determine the character o5 a !u2group within any 2roader language
community.
1 !econd characteri!tic o5 language teaching i! that it ine6ita2ly immer!e! u! in a
pro5oundly !ocial milieu. 1t lea!t until computer! can recogni:e and repre!ent aural
human !peech a lot 2etter than they can now and can 2e programmed to re!pond
!pontaneou!ly to !peech %which (, 5or one, don;t 2elie6e will e6er happen&, one cannot
learn to creati6ely engage in a con6er!ation in a language unle!! one ha! real human
2eing! to interact with. 1udiotape! and computer language program! can help one learn
certain common e3change! or routine phra!e!, 2ut to learn how to impro6i!e new
utterance! one ha! not yet heard, at lea!t one other !pea4er o5 the target language i!
needed.
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)hi! i! why in5ormal impro6i!ational drama acti6itie! are !o power5ul in the 5oreign-
language cla!!room. )o participate in an impro6i!ation, one need! to u!e the 2ody not
only to produce appropriate language 2ut al!o to e3pre!! emotion and idea! through
ge!ture, po!ture, and 5acial e3pre!!ion. Becau!e the !cene in a drama i! an imaginary
one, the participant i! 5ree to e3aggerate or a!!ume a per!ona that 5ree! him or her to
e3periment with a wider range o5 language than ordinary e3change! might e6o4e.
(mpro6i!ational drama i! e55ecti6e 2ecau!e o5 the repeated pre!!ure it put! on participant!
to re!pond. (t i! not enough 5or !tudent! to hear the target language !po4en< they need to
tal4 them!el6e!. =tudie! ha6e !hown that tele6i!ion 6iewing a! a medium 5or teaching
language i! o5 limited e55ecti6ene!!. Children need not only to hear a language !po4en 2ut
al!o to 2e e3pected to re!pond 2y producing their own language. 1 num2er o5 recent
!tudie! and report!-!uch a! tho!e o5 Blanch %/>?.&, Bryam and 8leming %/>>0&, Erdman
%/>>/&, #audart %/>>,&, #e55en %/>>0&, @i!himoto %/>>+&, Ma!!on %/>>.&, Miller %/>0A&,
Balph %/>>?&, Wel4ner %/>>>&, and Wil2urn %/>>+&demon!trate the e55ecti6ene!! o5 drama
in 5acilitating the learning o5 a 5oreign language.
Comparison with writing and reading development
(n the pedagogy o5 writing, two term! are o5ten e6o4ed: audience and purpo!e. =tudent!
who ha6e neither are unli4ely to de6elop 6oice in their writing. )hey need to 4now 5ir!t who
will read what they write and why they need to read it. =tudent! !imply write 2etter 5or
4nown audience! when they are telling a2out !omething they thin4 their reader need! to
4now. Writing in the cla!!room may loo4 li4e it i! per!onal and pri6ate, 2ut a! !tudent!
read their dra5t! to one another, the act o5 writing 2ecome! !ocial. )he ten!ion to produce
a te3t that i! true to what the writer want! to !ay and yet al!o one that communicate! to
one;! peer! i! central to the deci!ion! that e6ery writer mu!t ma4e. 8or e3ample, in a
!econd-grade cla!! made up largely o5 !tudent! who were 2orn in Me3ico, ( a!4ed the
!tudent! to write a2out what their 5amilie! do to remedy a cough. One o5 the children
wrote that hi! mother ga6e him a !poon5ul o5 teCuila at 2edtime. One o5 hi! cla!!mate!
a!4ed, DWhat i! teCuila7E )he 5act o5 a !ocial milieu, one that included !tudent! o5 di55erent
culture!, created a need 5or greater preci!ion in writing< in other word!, audience and
purpo!e determined content. )he !ame i! true in a cla!!room drama. 1 language learner
with an audience and a purpo!e i! pre!!ed to di!co6er the word! he need! to re!pond
appropriately in the conte3t o5 the drama.
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)here i! a parallel in the proce!! o5 learning to read. (t i! o5ten noted that children 2ecome
literate in literate en6ironment!, 2ut literate en6ironment! are not enough, or turning 4id!
loo!e in li2rarie! would 2e all we need to do. Fo, what ha! to happen i! a gradual
induction into a literate di!cour!e community, a group o5 per!on! who tal4 and interact in
term! o5 a literate culture. (t i! not enough to learn to read and write< a literate per!on al!o
need! to learn how to tal4 li4e one who !en!e! the 6alue o5 the written word-hi! own a!
well a! that o5 other!. 9ighly 6alued in!tructional !trategie!, !uch a! reading circle!,
author;! chair!, colla2orati6e writing, cooperati6e learning group!, all !hare an empha!i!
on tal4 and on the community it generate!. 1n e55ecti6e 5oreign-language cla!!room
need! to do the !ame. Becoming literate i! not Gu!t a2out the !4ill! o5 literacy-it i!
5undamentally a2out e3panding one;! community, a2out entering a con6er!ation that goe!
2eyond the con5ine! o5 the child;! home and intimate 5amily and neigh2orhood group.
Becau!e our cla!!room! are increa!ingly multicultural, thi! mean! cro!!ing ethnic and
cultural 2oundarie! to con6er!e with tho!e who di55er.
Becoming 5luent in another language i! not Gu!t a2out the ma!tery o5 the 6oca2ulary and
grammar o5 that language. (t i! a way to e3pand one;! community. Ju!t a! a reader li6e!
in a wider world than a nonreader, !o a !pea4er o5 more than one language li6e! more
2roadly. Both reading and learning another language can al!o 5unction a! way! to gain a
per!pecti6e on one;! own e3perience, language, and culture. 1! Mar!hall Mc'uhan !aid,
D( don;t 4now who di!co6ered water, 2ut ( 4now it wa!n;t a 5i!h.E When we are immer!ed in
only one language, we are not li4ely to 2e aware o5 it! peculiaritie! or limitation!. 1! mo!t
learner! o5 a !econd language will tell you, we di!co6er our 5ir!t language a! we di6e into
a !econd one.
When a per!on learn! another language, !omething i! Dundergone.E We DundergoE when
we allow our encounter! to modi5y our e!ta2li!hed conception!. When we undergo an
e3perience, we ultimately ha6e to change our!el6e! and our way o5 loo4ing at the world.
)hi! i! what true learning i!-a modi5ication o5 our 6ery !el6e!.
Fo in!tructional !trategy i! any more power5ul than drama-2a!ed education 5or creating
!ituation! in which !tudent! undergo an e3perience that ha! the potential o5 modi5ying
them a! per!on!. Educational drama, which we de5ine here a! in5ormal cla!!room
impro6i!ation, a55ect! the way! !tudent! thin4 and learn. (n the re!t o5 thi! chapter, (
highlight re!earch that !how! drama;! power5ul e55ect on thin4ing, reading, writing, and
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5oreign-language learning, and / re6iew two maGor theorie! that underlie drama a! a way
to learn-tho!e o5 'e6 Iygot!4y and Jerome Bruner. 8inally, ( end with an illu!tration.
When !tudent! engage in impro6i!ational drama, they are 2eha6ing !ym2olically. )hey
are !aying, 5or e3ample, that 5or the purpo!e! o5 imaginati6e play, a certain chair i! a
pilot;! coc4pit. )hi! a2ility to !ay that thi! !tand! 5or that i! critical to thought. nle!!
children can re!pond to and create !ym2ol!, they cannot learn to read, write, or engage in
mathematical thin4ing. Why do any o5 u! want to con6er!e, read, write, or rea!on7 We
engage in the!e proce!!e! in order to percei6e, to e3pand our per!pecti6e on, and to
more deeply under!tand and enter into our world. 1! we do thi!, we u!e !ym2ol!. Joung
children !pontaneou!ly engage in imaginati6e play 5or the !ame three rea!on!-to
under!tand, to gain a larger per!pecti6e on, and to interact more pro5oundly with their
world.
(n drama %Gu!t a! in thin4ing, reading, and writing& !tudent! ma4e meaning 2y connecting
their prior e3perience to the challenge o5 the moment-to come up with an apt image and
re!pon!e a! a player in an impro6i!ation. )hi! i! not di55erent 5rom the challenge o5 the
reader or writer o5 a te3t to come up with an apt image or re!pon!e.
(n drama-2a!ed education, !tudent! generate an impro6i!ation-a!!uming a role in a
particular moment in time and creating with other! a plau!i2le world. ( am not con!idering
in thi! chapter per5orming te3t!-acting out play!-although that can al!o 2e a 6ery e55ecti6e
way to ma!ter another language.
/
The eect o drama on cognition! oral language! reading! and writing
1 great many !tudie! !how that drama de6elop! thin4ing, oral language, reading, and
writing. =i3 o5 the!e re!pected !tudie! !how that drama impro6e! !tudent!; cogniti6e
growth, a! re5lected in language !4ill!, pro2lem-!ol6ing a2ility, and (.K. Moreo6er, the
change! are la!ting.
+
=e6eral !tudie! !how that drama al!o impro6e! role ta4ing,
H
which i! comprehending and
correctly in5erring attri2ute! o5 another per!on. )he!e in5erence!, which include another;!
/ =ee, 5or e3ample, -eter M. =poerl;!, D=pelun4enpadagogi4: 1 -er!onal 1ccount o5 "ramatic
-er5ormance in the 8oreign 'anguage Cla!!room,E Corre!pondence, HL/HA,L-/,.
+ 8or ela2oration, analy!i!, and citation! o5 the!e !tudie!, !ee Chapter L, DBe5lection and Cognition,E in
Betty Jane Wagner, Educational Drama and Language Arts: What Research Shows, pp. ??-0>.
H Ibid., pp. 0.-0A.
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thin4ing, attitude!, and emotion!, are a 5unction o5 cogniti6e perception. (n -iaget;! term!,
to engage in role ta4ing i! to DdecenterE or mo6e away 5rom a predominantly egocentric
!tage o5 de6elopment. #rowth in cognition i! dependent on growth in role ta4ing.
Fot !urpri!ingly, drama impro6e! oral language a! well a! thin4ing. ( loo4ed at thirty-two
Cua!i-e3perimental or correlational !tudie! o5 the e55ect! o5 drama on oral language
de6elopment, and 5ound that twenty-5i6e o5 the!e !how that drama impro6e! or correlate!
with impro6ement o5 oral language.
.
1nd what i! the e55ect o5 drama on reading7 8i6e literature re6iew! conclude that drama
!eem! to 2e e55ecti6e in promoting literacy.
L
Eighteen out o5 twenty-nine Cua!i-
e3perimental !tudie! ( 5ound in the literature !how that drama impro6e! !tory recall,
comprehen!ion, and/or 6oca2ulary
A
. )o illu!trate, let;! loo4 at the !tunning re!ult! o5 the
Whirlwind -rogram in Chicago.
Whirlwind ha! de6eloped a Beading Comprehen!ion )hrough "rama program that i!
currently conducting a !erie! o5 twenty drama le!!on! in many Chicago pu2lic !chool!.
)heir widely re!pected !tati!tical !tudy %-ar4! * Bo!e, />>?& o5 5ourth-grader! !howed
that the !tudent! who participated in the Whirlwind program impro6ed three month! more
than the control-group !tudent! in their (owa )e!t o5 Ba!ic =4ill! reading !core!. )hi! te!t
i! admini!tered each !pring to all Chicago pu2lic !chool !tudent!. )he Whirlwind !tudent!
impro6ed /+./ month! 5rom />>A to />>? on the (owa te!t, and tho!e without Whirlwind
>./ month! in the !ame period.
(n the Beading Comprehen!ion program, a group o5 Whirlwind actor! read !hort !torie! to
the children in grade! @-0, and then they wor4 together with them to act out the !torie!,
draw picture! o5 them, and create three-dimen!ional mini6er!ion! o5 them. (n the proce!!,
they 5orm more detailed image! in their head! a! they read< the!e image! are what help
them remem2er and under!tand the 5act! o5 the !tory. )he program;! re!ult! ha6e
recently come to the attention o5 Co:ette Buc4ney, the Chie5 Education O55icer o5 the
Chicago pu2lic !chool!. (5 Whirlwind had cho!en to mea!ure only the e55ect o5 the
program on the drama !4ill! o5 children-which did impro6e !igni5icantly, 2y the way-the
. 8or ela2oration, analy!i!, and citation! o5 the!e !tudie!, !ee ChapterH, DOral 'anguageE in Wagner,
Educational Drama, pp. H.-LA.
L 8or ela2oration, analy!i!, and citation! o5 the!e !tudie!, !ee Chapter >, D=tory Becall, Beader Be!pon!e,
and Comprehen!ion,E in Wagner, Educational Drama, pp. /?H-/>0.
A Ibid., pp. /0?-/>0.
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impact might not ha6e 2een noticed. But when reading !4ill! impro6ed, it wa! 5ront-page
new! in the Chicago ribune %Beeler, />>>&. )hi! i! why it i! politically important 5or tho!e
o5 u! who ad6ocate drama to !hare re!ult! li4e the!e with policyma4er!.
"rama ha! a po!iti6e e55ect on writing a! well. Emergent literacy !tudie! !how that
children gi6e their early writing a multimodality a!!ociated with ge!ture and graphic!.
?
"rama !er6e! a! an e55ecti6e prewriting !trategy, clari5ying 5or children concept! they
might want to e3plore through writing.
Becent o2!er6ational !tudie! report remar4a2le maturity in !tudent writing that emerge!
5rom drama.
0
=igni5icant !hi5t! in audience awarene!! occur 2e5ore, during, and a5ter
drama. )he writing produced in role !how! more attention to !en!ory imagery, awarene!!
o5 the reader, in!ight into character!; 5eeling! and empathy, and the need to clari5y
in5ormation and to di!clo!e it !electi6ely.
=e6en !tati!tical !tudie!, including one ( conducted, !how that drama impro6e! the Cuality
o5 writing.
>
(t al!o !igni5icantly correlate! with early word-writing 5luency. -re!chooler! who
engage in !ym2olic play and drawing are more li4ely to read and write early.
=ome o5 the 2e!t writing my own !tudent! ha6e produced o6er the year! ha! come when
they are writing in role. 1t thi! !tage in my career, ( cannot imagine teaching any content
at any le6el, including the graduate le6el %a! my doctoral !tudent! will tell you& without
drama. (t i! a power5ul !timulu! 5or thin4ing and writing.
Theoretical underpinnings
8or the pa!t twenty-5i6e year! ( ha6e ad6ocated that educational drama i! a 2a!ic and
central e3perience, not an e3penda2le 5rill in the cla!!room. When the late Jim Mo55ett and
( were coauthoring the te3t Student!Centered Language Arts and Reading, @-/+ %/>>+&,
we e3panded the notion o5 2a!ic language art! 2eyond the commonly accepted reading,
writing, !pea4ing, and li!tening. We added Ddramatic in6entingE a! one o5 the 5i6e 2a!ic
!4ill! 2ecau!e we 5irmly 2elie6e that drama i! the matri3 out o5 which all the other !o-
? 8or ela2oration, analy!i!, and citation! o5 the!e !tudie!, !ee Chapter ?, DWriting,E in Wagner, Educational
Drama, pp. /+H-/H+.
0 8or ela2oration, analy!i!, and citation! o5 the!e !tudie!, !ee Chapter ., D'anguage -ower )hrough
Wor4ing in BoleE 2y "a6id Booth, pp. L?-?A< and Chapter ?, DWriting,E pp. /+H-/+>, in Wagner,
Educational Drama.
> 8or ela2oration, analy!i!, and citation! o5 the!e !tudie!, !ee Chapter ?, DWriting,E in Wagner, Educational
Drama, pp. /H+-/.?.
A
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called 2a!ic !4ill! emerge, namely, !pea4ing, li!tening, reading, and writing. (n other
word!, drama i! the mo!t 2a!ic o5 the 2a!ic !4ill!.
What i! the theory that e3plain! the e55icacy o5 impro6i!ational or educational drama a! a
5oundation 5or thin4ing, reading, and writing7 )he theory i! thi!: Both educational drama
and literacy are rooted in the !ame a!!umption! a2out learning. )wo o5 the mo!t
generati6e learning theorie! to e3plain the role o5 impro6i!ational drama are tho!e o5 'e6
Iygot!4y %/>AA< />?0& and Jerome Bruner %/>0H< />0A< />>,&. Both were in!trumental in
u!hering in the con!tructi6i!t theory o5 learning, and 2oth pro6ide a !olid 5oundation 5or
u!ing drama in the cla!!room a! a way to deepen and enlarge under!tanding o5 any
!u2Gect matter.
=e6eral other maGor theori!t! ha6e a!!erted that imaginati6e role-playing i! central to the
de6elopment o5 thin4ing: "ougla! Barne! %/>A0&, Jame! Britton %/>?,&, and, o5 cour!e,
my coauthor, Mo55ett %Mo55ett * Wagner, />>+&. For !hould we o6erloo4 the guiding
educational philo!opher o5 the early decade! o5 thi! century, John "ewey %/>L>&, nor
Jean -iaget %/>A+&, who, li4e Iygot!4y %/>AA&, !howed how pretend play, e!pecially the
u!e o5 o2Gect! in a nonliteral 5a!hion, parallel! cogniti6e de6elopment. -iaget %/>A+&
a!!erted that conceptual thin4ing de6elop! through acti6ity, !pontaneou! play,
manipulation o5 o2Gect!, and !ocial colla2oration. 9e !howed how participation in drama
lead! to impro6ed li!tening, comprehen!ion, !eCuential under!tanding, and the integration
o5 thought, action, and language.
Constructivist Theor" o #earning
Our under!tanding o5 the learning proce!! ha! undergone a !ea change in the la!t three
decade!, and than4! to the 2rain re!earch Cuantum !cienti!t! are currently conducting,
we may 2e on the 6erge o5 another !uch pro5ound change. =impli!tic 2eha6iori!t model!
o5 learning are now largely di!credited, e3cept to account 5or ma!tering the !imple!t o5
mechanical !4ill!. Bac4 in the />L,! when ( wa! immer!ed in 2eha6iori!m at Jale
ni6er!ity, Jerome Bruner and other cogniti6e p!ychologi!t! in Few Jor4 were
di!co6ering the 2rilliant Bu!!ian p!ychologi!t, 'e6 Iygot!4y. )hey were not Gu!t tin4ering
with or re5orming 2eha6iori!m< they were replacing it 2y putting the !igni5icance o5
meaning and 6alue! 2ac4 into the center o5 human p!ychology. )hey 2egan a Cue!t to
di!co6er and de!cri2e 5ormally how human 2eing! create meaning. (n !o doing, they
clim2ed into 2ed with thin4er! who had 2een 2ani!hed 5rom p!ychology;! hou!e 5or mo!t
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o5 thi! century: philo!opher!, hi!torian!, anthropologi!t!, lingui!t!, no6eli!t!, poet!, and
dramati!t!.
)he re!ult ha! 2een the po!iting o5 the now widely held con!tructi6i!t theory o5 learning
2a!ed on the recognition that 4nowledge i! con!tructed 2y each learner. 1! children
acti6ely engage in e3periencing the world, they are Gu!t a! acti6ely con!tructing model! in
their mind! to account 5or what they are undergoing. )he way they thin4 i! literally
tran!5ormed 2y their e3perience and 2y their attempt! to ma4e !en!e o5 it, and e!pecially
2y tho!e e3perience! that call 5or re!pon!e! that are Gu!t 2eyond what they can generate
on their own. E3cept 5or tho!e p!ychologi!t! who in the la!t Cuarter century ha6e !hi5ted
5rom the con!truction o5 meaning to the proce!!ing o5 in5ormation, li4ening the 2rain to a
computer, maGor learning theori!t! 4eep the ma4ing o5 meaning at the center o5 their
under!tanding o5 how the human mind wor4! %Bruner, />>,, p. .&.
Con!tructi6i!t theory po!it! that human 2eing! acti6ely create their own model! or
hypothe!e! a! to how the world wor4! not Gu!t with the mental !tu55 o5 their 2iological 2rain
2ut in dialogue with the culture in which they li6e. 1! Bruner %/>0A& !ugge!t!, human!
con!truct meaning in the pre!ence o5 three world!: %/& the world they are 2orn with, their
innate human propen!ity to ma4e !en!e o5 the world and their capacity to acCuire
language< %+& the o2Gecti6e reality o5 the real world< and %H& the culture in which they are
immer!ed.
1ccording to Bruner, all theory in !cience and all narrati6e and interpreti6e 4nowing in the
humanitie! are dependent on the human capacity to create-to imagine a world. )hi! i! the
ama:ing capacity that mar4edly !et! u! o55 5rom other mem2er! o5 the animal 4ingdom.
1! =u!anne 'anger %/>L?, p. L?& put! it, D(magination i! the primary talent o5 the human
mind, the acti6ity in who!e !er6ice language ha! e6ol6ed.E
Children are acti6e meaning-ma4er! 2oth in their play and in their wor4. )hey imagine
how thing! wor4, and they te!t out tho!e imagining!. (n other word!, learner! are acti6e,
goal-oriented, hypothe!i!-generating !ym2ol manipulator!.
'earner! e3pre!! the under!tanding! they ha6e con!tructed in !ym2ol!-in ge!ture! 5ir!t,
then in !po4en word!, drawing!, and, 5inally, in written language. 1! they are pre!!ured to
5ind an!wer! on their own, they are acti6ely learning. 1 recent comparati6e !tudy o5 the
di55erence! 2etween Japane!e and .=. math le!!on! !howed that teacher! in Japan 5ir!t
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a!4 !tudent! to !ol6e a pro2lem on their own 2e5ore they teach a le!!on. .=. teacher!
tend to teach the le!!on 5ir!t and then a!4 the !tudent! to apply what they ha6e learned.
)he Japane!e !tudent! learn 5a!ter and more thoroughly. "rama i! more li4e the
Japane!e math le!!on. Each drama create! a pro2lem 5or !tudent! 2e5ore they ha6e
2een taught how to re!pond. )hey act 5ir!t and then re5lect on their action!. -erhap! thi!
account! 5or drama;! power in e55ecting learning.
1nother characteri!tic o5 drama i! it! emotional component. Becau!e o5 the immediacy o5
the dramatic pre!ent and the pre!!ure to re!pond aptly in role in a !ocial !etting,
participant! 2ecome 6i6idly ali6e to the moment and alert to what i! e3pected o5 them. 1!
they get caught up in the emotion o5 the dramatic acti6ity, they are o5ten a2le to e3pre!!
them!el6e! in a more mature manner and language than they could otherwi!e.
$one o Pro%imal Development
Both dramatic impro6i!ation and a dialogue with a teacher or more 4nowledgea2le peer
can pro6ide the lure to learn in what Iygot!4y %/>?0, p. 0A& call! a learner;! :one o5
pro3imal de6elopment-the le6el Gu!t 2eyond the one at which one can 5unction on one;!
own. Watch children in their !pontaneou! play. )hey typically ta4e on adult role!. -erhap!
2ecau!e they are little and powerle!!, they want to 2e the captain o5 the roc4et !hip, the
mo!t power5ul FinGa, the 2o!!y mother who 4now! what e6eryone need! and !hould 2e
doing.
1! children engage in !pontaneou! !ym2olic play or cla!!room drama directed 2y a
teacher, they a!!ume not only the language 2ut al!o the per!onae o5 important adult!. (n
the proce!!, they are catapulted into a de6elopmental le6el that i! a2o6e their actual one.
1! they impro6i!e, they are pre!!ured to 2eha6e and u!e language in new and pre6iou!ly
untried way!.
8or e3ample, 'ee #alda and 1nthony -ellegrini %/>>,& report on a threeyear-old-girl and a
5our-year-old girl who are playing doctor together. 1! they ta4e o55 the doll;! imaginary
diaper, one reprimand! the other 5or u!ing the word Dpoo pooE when in role a! the doctor
%p. >.&. )he act o5 ta4ing on a new per!ona demand! a word choice 2eyond the language
o5 her e6eryday li5e. )he e3perience! the child ha! had in the !ociety o5 adult! i! 2rought
to 2ear on the ta!4 at hand, and the pull i! toward internali:ing a diction that had not e6er
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2e5ore 2een part o5 the child;! own repertoire. )hi! e3perience i! not di55erent in 4ind 5rom
that o5 the 5oreign-language learner! who mu!t try on a new way o5 e3pre!!ing idea!.
9ow i! an impro6i!ational drama di55erent 5rom a !tory the child hear! or read!7 "rama i!
done not Gu!t with word! 2ut al!o with the 2ody and ge!ture. (t can 2e engaged in long
2e5ore the child i! ready to read and write. )here5ore, Iygot!4y !ee! it a! the power5ul
prelude to and appropriate e3ten!ion o5 literacy. 1lthough young children o5ten role-play
alone, accompanying their action! with a 5lood o5 egocentric !peech, when they !tart
dramatic play with other children, they ha6e to me!h their !peech with that o5 other!. (t will
no longer do to !ay only what they want to !ay. )hey mu!t re!pond appropriately to the
action and !peech o5 other!. "ramatic play i! a pro5oundly challenging !ocial e6ent.
-layer! mu!t negotiate a !ingle 6i!ion o5 what the drama i! a2out, what the !etting loo4!
li4e, who ta4e! which role!, and !o on.
O5ten in impro6i!ational drama, we 5ind children !ca55olding, that i!, pro6iding a 5ramewor4
on which other children can !tand a! they are pre!!ured into their :one o5 pro3imal
de6elopment. 9olly #i55in %/>0.& pre!ented an e3ample o5 thi! in an o2!er6ation o5 a child
in role a! Cueen
who i! playing with a 2oy who i! not Cuite yet a2le to imagine him!el5 in hi! role. =he
order! him to 2ring her a 6ial o5 poi!on, and he come! 2ac4 with a paper cup with real
water. 9e grin! !heepi!hly and !mile!, D(t;! only water.E Without 5or a moment !tepping
out o5 role, the Cueen ta4e! it, !ni55! it, and decide!, DJou;re rightM #o get me the other
6ial.E )he ne3t time her page come! in and 2ow!, he i! 5irmly in role. D9ere i! the poi!on,
your MaGe!ty.E "rama can challenge children to u!e 2oth ge!ture and language they ha6e
ne6er needed 2e5ore. #e!ture i! a communication !y!tem e6en more 2a!ic to human!
than language.
The &ole o 'esture
Our 5ir!t e3perience! 2oth 2e5ore and a5ter 2irth were centered in our 2odie!. 1!
new2orn!, we 4new when we were hungry, dry, com5orta2le, held in !trong and lo6ing
arm!. 1! in5ant!, e6ery part o5 our 2ody wa! engaged in ma4ing !en!e o5 our world-in
con!tructing meaning.
Be5ore we could tal4, we u!ed ge!ture! to communicate. Iygot!4y !ee! the!e a! the
earlie!t !ym2olic 2eha6ior. We reached toward and pointed at what we wanted. We
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wa6ed E2ye, 2yeE 2e5ore we had a word to go with the ge!ture. )hu! mo6ement and
ge!ture, e6en 2e5ore 6ocali:ation, are the 2eginning o5 communication. #e!ture !tart! a!
random mo6ement and end! a! preci!e !ym2ol. Bandom 6ocali:ation grow! into !peech<
ge!ture de6elop! into drawing and, later, writing. Writing 2egin! with a 2a2y;! ge!ture! in
the air< the!e are !ign! and !ym2ol! Gu!t a! our later picture! and writing! on paper are
al!o.
Watch a child turn a 2loc4 into an airplane or roc4et. )he ge!ture 2ecome! the thing, and
the child who i! ma4ing thi! happen 4now! per5ectly well thi! i! a game o5 pretend.
Becau!e o5 the way he i! mo6ing the o2Gect, it ha! 2ecome 5or the moment a !ym2ol 5or
!omething el!e. (5 you a!4 him i5 thi! i! a real roc4et, he;ll loo4 at you li4e you are !tupid.
O5 cour!e, it i! not. But, plea!e, let;! 4eep the game going< don;t !top the pretending to
a!4 dum2 Cue!tion! li4e that.
#e!ture-2ecau!e it i! done with the hand-al!o lead! to drawing. )he 5ir!t drawing!
children do are not repre!entational< rather, they are metaphorical !ym2ol!. )hi! circle
!tand! 5or a 5ace. Mo!t young children go through the 5amiliar !tage o5 drawing tadpole
people. )he!e !imple drawing! are not repre!entation! o5 the real people they !ee.
(n!tead they are !imply !horthand !ym2ol!. 1rm! and leg! are Gu!t !tic4! attached to the
circle. 1! 9oward #ardner put! it, their early picture! D!tand 5or the entire cla!! or
repre!ent an ideal type, in!tead o5 depicting particular! that can 2e identi5ied and then
paired up with their reali:ation in the Nreal world; D %#ardner, />0,, p. AL&. Iygot!4y !ee!
2oth drawing and drama a! de6eloping 5rom ge!ture. 8rom the !ym2oli:ing in drawing and
drama, it i! Gu!t a !hort !tep to writing.
Enactive! (conic! and S"mbolic &epresentations o the )orld
Fow let;! con!ider the theory o5 the !econd maGor con!tructi6i!t, Jerome Bruner. 9e !ee!
ge!ture a! enacti6e repre!entation-one o5 the three maGor way! human 2eing! thin4-way!
they repre!ent and deal with reality: enacti6e, iconic, and !ym2olic or repre!entational.
Enacti"e re#resentation. Enacti6e i! with the hand, iconic with the eye, and !ym2olic with
the 2rain. (n enacti6e 4nowing we learn D2y doing,E 2y e3periencing with our 2ody. (conic
4nowing i! 4nowing through an imageeither in the mind, in drawing, or in ge!ture.
=ym2olic 4nowing encompa!!e! tran!lation into language, the !ym2ol !y!tem #ar
e$cellence. 9owe6er, all three 4ind! o5 4nowing are actually !ym2olic.
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We can ea!ily !ee that drama in6ol6e! all three 4ind! o5 repre!entation. Bole player! u!e
their 2odie!, create image! in their mind! and with their ge!ture!, and u!e language to
!ym2oli:e e3perience. O5ten in educational drama, participant! !top to create drawing! to
help them 6i!uali:e their common e3perience. )hu!, participant! in drama engage in
enacti6e, iconic, and !ym2olic repre!entation.
(n Chicago, in addition to the reading comprehen!ion program de!cri2ed earlier, the
Whirlwind arti!t! !howed 5ir!t-grader! how to ma4e letter! with their 2odie!-enacti6ely
learning to connect !hape! with !ound!, an e!!ential 5or early reading de6elopment. 1
!tati!tical !tudy %Bo!e, />>>& !howed that a5ter twenty !e!!ion!, the children who
phy!ically repre!ented !ound! 2y ma4ing !hape! with their 2odie! impro6ed !igni5icantly
more than control !tudent! in their a2ility to recogni:e 2oth con!onant and 6owel !ound!
and to !eparate !po4en word! into their phoneme!. Enacti6e learning i! 6ery e55ecti6e
with young children.
Iconic re#resentation. Fow let;! loo4 at iconic repre!entation-4nowing through image!.
'i4e role-playing, drawing !tem! 5rom ge!ture. (t i! ge!ture cry!talli:ed. But not only
drawing or drama create! image!. Without imaging in our mind! we cannot read or write
either. =o li4e enacti6e repre!entation, iconic 4nowing i! not uniCue to drama.
)he growth o5 repre!entational or !ym2olic thought i! largely dependent on the a2ility to
create mental image!. (mage 2egin! a! 5leeting !en!ate happening, neural 5iring!, and
!en!orimotor rehear!al. With the on!et o5 the !tage o5 de6elopment -iaget ha! termed
o2Gect permanence, the child can hold the image and recall it when a2!ent. )hi! gi6e!
way to !ym2olic thought and dramatic play. #i6ing children a good en6ironment that
encourage! them to imitate and !ym2olically play will enhance imagery !4ill! and
cogniti6e de6elopment.
/,

=tudie! !how that the a2ility to 5anta!i:e 5reely i! a cogniti6e !4ill related to concentration,
5luency, and the a2ility to organi:e and integrate di6er!e !timuli. "rama in5luence!
imagery toward increa!ed di!crimination and 6i6idne!!, and enhance! the !tudent!; a2ility
to control their image!.
Writing, li4e reading, i! dependent on iconic repre!entation. )he challenge, e!pecially 5or
the 5iction writer and poet, i! in large part to create picture! with word!.
/, =ee Chapter L, DBe5lection and Cognition,E in Wagner, Educational Drama, pp. ??-0>.
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Symbolic re#resentation. 1! noted earlier, 2oth dramatic play and drawing are way!
children enter imaginati6ely into their world!. (n 2oth, they are engaging in !ym2oli!m.
Becau!e dramatic play and drawing are way! o5 !aying thi! !tand! 5or that, Iygot!4y !ee!
2oth a! a precur!or to writing. 'i4e ge!ture!, all three-dramatic play, drawing, and writing-
are !ym2olic act!. (t i! Gu!t a !tep 5rom drawing and drama to u!ing letter! !ym2olically,
2ecau!e writing i! !imply another way o5 !ym2oli:ing, and li4e drama and drawing, it ha!
it! root! in ge!ture. (t i! done with the hand, not the 6oice. (t i! putting onto a page
!omething that !tand! 5or !omething el!e. 1 letter o5 the alpha2et i! !imply a !ym2ol 5or a
!peech !ound.
'i4e drawing and writing, in impro6i!ational drama one thing !tand! 5or another. )he only
di55erence i! that the !etting 5or drama mu!t 2e a !ocial one. E6en here, howe6er, there i!
an o6erlap with reading and writing. 'iteracy e6ent! 5or young children tend to 2e highly
!ocial occa!ion! a! well, a! 1.9. "y!on %/>>,& ha! !o richly documented.
The irst scream
)o illu!trate the power o5 drama and the other art! in helping !tudent! learn enacti6ely
and iconically, ( clo!e with an illu!tration o5 a cla!!room impro6i!ational drama. )he 5ocu!
on the concrete !ym2ol led to an under!tanding 2y the children o5 a much larger and more
a2!tract i!!ue-the need 5or !a5ety regulation! in 5actorie!.
)hi! i! an account o5 an eight-year-old;! re!pon!e to a well-de6eloped wee4long unit o5
!tudy incorporating drama a! well a! other art! in Brad5ord, England. Chri!topher 8ord
conducted thi! hi!tory le!!on 5or a group o5 !e6ento nine-year-old!. 9e u!ed a true !tory
a2out an e6ent in the hi!tory o5 the !chool a! the theme 5or the 5ir!t wee4 o5 the !chool
year. )he e6ent wa! a tragic one !et in /0A>, when the 2oiler e3ploded in a 2o22in mill
that had !tood ne3t door to the !chool the !tudent! now attended. )he !a5ety 6al6e o5 thi!
!team 2oiler had 2een 2lowing o55 5reCuently in the wee4! leading up to the tragedy. 'ocal
!hop4eeper! had complained. )he manager o5 the mill told the 2oiler4eeper to do
!omething to !top the complaint!. 9e did. 9e put weight! on top o5 the !a5ety 6al6e and
tied them down with hea6y rope.
1t /,:+L on a Wedne!day morning, Gu!t a! the primary children went out into the
playground ne3t to the mill 5or rece!!, the 2oiler e3ploded. (t demoli!hed the mill, 4illing
many wor4er! in!ide, including the manager;! !on. )he wall collap!ed onto the
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playground 4illing eight children and inGuring many more. )he 2odie! o5 two 5i6e-year-old
2oy! were 5ound with the ho22yhor!e on which they were playing. )he hea6y !a5ety 6al6e
5rom the 2oiler wa! 5ound o6er a Cuarter o5 a mile away in a railway good! yard. )he
country wa! outraged. Few law! a2out 5actory !a5ety were pa!!ed a! a re!ult.
)he cla!! o5 children e3plored thi! !tory through drama, reading, and writing 5or the entire
wee4. Mr. 8ord led them through enacti6e, iconic, and !ym2olic repre!entation! o5 the
e6ent. )he children loo4ed at Iictorian photograph! and 5ound out a2out Iictorian
!chool!. )hey read the local new!paper! o5 the day and paid !pecial attention to the
'ondon )ime! o5 /0A> to !ee what the children or their parent! might ha6e tal4ed a2out at
the 2rea45a!t ta2le on the day o5 the tragedy. )hey loo4ed 5or new! item! that children o5
that day might ha6e noticed.
)hen they u!ed the enacti6e !ym2oli:ation o5 dance to e3plore a theme o5 5orce and
power again!t the 5ragility o5 people. )hey e3plored though drama the action! o5 town
per!on! who heard a2out the tragedy and the reaction! o5 relati6e! and 5riend! o5 tho!e
who were 4illed or inGured. )hey too4 on the role! o5 tho!e who were near rather than
actually in the e3plo!ion.
One !ource o5 in5ormation pu::led them. (t wa! the original !chool log2oo4, which the
!chool !till 4eep!. )here they read the headma!ter;! comment! o5 that day. (t merely !aid,
DWa! o2liged to !end the children home today owing to the 2oiler e3plo!ion, eight o5 the
children ha6ing 2een 4illed and many inGured.E Fothing more. )he ne3t entry wa! 5or three
wee4! later and read, DCommenced !chool today with a 6ery 5air attendance.E
15ter a 5ew day! o5 a2!or2ing in5ormation a2out thi! e6ent, the children 5ocu!ed on the
5ir!t !cream. 9ere the wor4 2ecame iconic, to u!e Bruner;! term. )he children u!ed art
material! to create an image o5 the 5ir!t !cream. 'ydia;! clay piece wa! a !tar4 pro5ile o5 a
5ace with a wide-open mouth.
)hen they dramati:ed that 5ir!t !cream, mo6ing to enacti6e repre!entation. )hen they
5ro:e the action to capture a moment in time. )hey !hared with each other their !plit-
!econd picture! created with their 2odie!. )he teacher a!4ed them to thin4 a2out a piece
o5 writing that could capture a !plit !econd o5 the whole e6ent, 2ut that would !omehow tell
people e6erything they needed to 4now a2out what happened. 'ydia;! poem !how! the
way her iconic and enacti6e learning 5ed into her u!e o5 word!:
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The first scream
%ne day&
An ordinary school day&
Wednesday 'th July ()*'+ an eight year old screamed in the
,ational School on -ar. Road&
Children in the school were as still
and silent as mice and stared across the room
to where Emily /rey was standing&
,ow+ Emily /rey was a nice girl&
She had blond curly hair+ blue
eyes+ rosy red chee.s and #in.y!red smooth li#s
But now she had wide+ #eeled eyes+ #ale 0ace and a dry sore
throat&
Emily /rey was #etri0ied&
She had her eyes 0i$ed outside& All .inds o0 thoughts were
1umbled in her mind&
Astonished+ #u22led+ con0used+ hurt&
In the #layground below+ bric.s #iled high&
3ea"y+ 1agged+ shar#+ rough& And underneath a 0ace&
So0t+ gentle+ delicate+ smooth
Blond hair+ blue eyes+ rosy chee.s& 3er sister&
By Lydia+ aged )
)hi! young child wa! a2le to capture the ordinarine!! o5 the !cene and the !en!e that thi!
little girl did not de!er6e thi! 5ate - !he wa! Enice.E )he poem 2uild! 5rom the !ound o5 the
!cream that ri6eted the attention o5 the cla!! to Emily #rey;! 5ace, then to what !he !aw
out!ide, and 5inally to the denouement o5 the la!t two word!. )he Gu3tapo!ition o5
adGecti6e! painted the picture graphically: Ehea6y, Gagged, !harp, roughE 6er!u! E!o5t,
gentle, delicate, !mooth.E Economy o5 language, !en!ory imagery, dramatic Gu3tapo!ition,
and the !hoc4 o5 the la!t line-all lead to the power5ul impact o5 thi! pro5ound re!pon!e to a
real 2ut at 5ir!t di!tant hi!torical e6ent.
=oon a5ter thi! wee4, the !chool held one o5 many open hou!e! 5or children to !hare their
wor4 with their parent!. )he teacher e3plained to 'ydia;! mother that it had ta4en a whole
wee4 to write tho!e 5ew line!, and that no other writing had 2een done during that wee4.
9e a!4ed her how !he 5elt a2out that. "id !he mind the 5act that her daughter only wrote a
5ew line! in a whole wee47 =he replied that !he had !pent all her li5e ne6er writing line!
li4e that, !o her daughter only ta4ing a 5ew day! to do it wa! a wonder, not a worry.
(n conclu!ion, drama aid! thin4ing 2ecau!e it ha! the !ame goal a! that o5 all cognition-to
under!tand, to gain a larger per!pecti6e on, and to engage more pro5oundly with the
world. )hi! i! the goal o5 5oreign-language teaching at it! 2e!t, and it !hould 2e no
!urpri!e that 5or reaching thi! goal, drama i! a highly e55ecti6e teaching !trategy.
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&eerences
Barne!, "ougla!. %/>A0&. Drama in the English classroom. r2ana, (': Fational Council o5
)eacher! o5 Engli!h.
Beeler, 1manda. %/>>>, July /0&. Whirlwind program put! new !pin on reading cla!!.
Chicago ribune, =ection /, pp. /, H.
Blanch, Emma. J. %/>?.&. "ramatic! in the 5oreign-language cla!!room. EB(C 5ocu!
report! on the teaching o5 5oreign language!, Fo. +H. %EB(C "ocument Beproduction
=er6ice Fo. E" ,>A 0.?&.
Britton, Jame!. %/>?,&. 'anguage and learning. Baltimore: -enguin.
Bruner, Jerome =. %/>0H&. Child4s tal.: Learning to use language. Few Jor4: Forton.
Bruner, Jerome =. %/>0A&. -lay, thought, and language. -ro!pect!, /A, ??-0H.
Bruner, Jerome =. %/>>,&. Acts o0 meaning. Cam2ridge, M1: 9ar6ard ni6er!ity -re!!.
Byram, Michael, * 8leming, Michael. %/>>0&. Language learning in intercultural
#ers#ecti"e: A##roaches through drama and ethnogra#hy. Few Jor4: Cam2ridge
ni6er!ity -re!!.
"ewey, John. %/>L>&. Art as e$#erience. Few Jor4: -utnam;!.
"y!on, 1nne 9aa!. %/>>,&. )al4ing up a writing community: )he role o5 tal4 in learning to
write. (n =. 9ynd! * ". '. Bu2in %Ed!.&, -ers#ecti"es on thought and learning %pp. >>-//.&.
r2ana, (': Fational Council o5 )eacher! o5 Engli!h.
Erdman, 9arley. %/>>/&. Con5lict! o5 intere!t: Bringing drama into the elementary 5oreign
language cla!!room. 5outh heatre Journal, 6 %H&, /+-/..
#alda, 'ee, * -ellegrini, 1nthony ". %/>>,&. -lay tal4, !chool tal4, and emergent literacy.
(n =u!an 9ynd! * "onald '. Bu2in %Ed!.&, -ers#ecti"es on thought and learning %pp. >/-
>?&. r2ana, (': Fational Council o5 )eacher! o5 Engli!h.
#ardner, 9oward. %/>0,&. Art0ul scribbles. Few Jor4: Ba!ic Boo4!.
#audart, 9yacinth. %/>>,&. 7sing drama techni8ues in language teaching. Mala!ia. %EB(C
"ocument Beproduction =er6ice Fo. E" HLL 0+H&.
#e55en, Mit:i. %/>>0&. "rama in Engli!h: 1n enriching e3perience. English eachers4
Journal %(!rael&, L+, LH-L?.
/A
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#i55in, 9olly. %/>0.&. Coordination o5 meaning in !hared ma4e 2elie6e. (n (. Bretherton
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1cademic -re!!.
@i!himoto, )o!hi4o. %/>>+&. eaching business Ja#anese and culture using authentic
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=er6ice Fo. E" H.0 0A?&.
'anger, =u!anne '. %/>L?&. -hiloso#hy in a new .ey. Cam2ridge, M1: 9ar6ard ni6er!ity
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-ar4!, Michaela, * Bo!e, "ale. %/>>?&. he im#act o0 Whirlwind4s Reading
Com#rehension hrough Drama #rogram on 9th grade students4 reading s.ills and
standardi2ed test scores. =an 8ranci!co: H-" #roup.
-iaget, Jean. %O/>.LP />A+&. -lay+ dreams+ and imitation in childhood. Few Jor4: Forton.
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=ome recollection!. :c/ill Journal o0 Education, H+ %H&, +?H-+00.
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0irst grade students4 basic reading s.ills: Study II. =an 8ranci!co: H-" #roup.
=poerl, -eter M. %+,,,&. =pelun4enp$dagogi4: 1 per!onal account o5 dramatic
per5ormance in the 5oreign language cla!!room. Corres#ondence, HL/HA, L-/,.
Iygot!4y, 'e6 =. %/>AA&. -lay and it! role in the mental de6elopment o5 the child. So"iet
-sychology, /+, A+-?A.
Iygot!4y, 'e6 =. %/>?0&. :ind in society: he de"elo#ment o0 higher #sychological
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M1: 9ar6ard ni6er!ity -re!!.
Wagner, Betty Jane. %/>>,&. "ramatic impro6i!ation in the cla!!room. (n =u!an 9ynd! *
"onald '. Bu2in %Ed!.&, -ers#ecti"es on tal. and learning %pp. />L-+//&. r2ana, (':
Fational Council o5 )eacher! o5 Engli!h.
/?
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Wagner, Betty Jane. %/>>.&. "rama and writing. (n 1. C. -ur6i! %Ed.&, he encyclo#edia o0
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