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An AppvoacI lo lIe AnaIsis oJ FoIilicaI Sslens

AulIov|s) Bavid Easlon
Bevieved vovI|s)
Souvce WovId FoIilics, VoI. 9, No. 3 |Apv., 1957), pp. 383-400
FuIIisIed I Cambridge University Press
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AN AFFBOACH TO THE ANALYSIS
OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS*
B BAVIB EASTON
I. SOME ATTBIBUTES OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS
TN an eavIiev vovI I Iave avgued Jov lIe need lo deveIop genevaI,
enpivicaII ovienled lIeov as lIe nosl econonicaI va in lIe Iong
vun lo undevsland poIilicaI IiJe. Heve I pvopose lo indicale a poinl oJ
viev lIal, al lIe Ieasl, nigIl sevve as a spvingIoavd Jov discussion oJ
aIlevnalive appvoacIes and, al nosl, as a snaII slep in lIe diveclion oJ
a genevaI poIilicaI lIeov. I visI lo slvess lIal vIal I Iave lo sa is a
neve ovienlalion lo lIe pvoIIen oJ lIeov: oulside oJ econonics and
pevIaps pscIoIog, il vouId Ie pvesunpluous lo caII vev nucI in
sociaI science lIeov, in lIe slvicl sense oJ lIe levn.
FuvlIevnove, I sIaII oJJev onI a OeslaIl oJ n poinl oJ viev, so lIal
il viII Ie possiIIe lo evaIuale, in lIe IigIl oJ lIe vIoIe, lIose pavls
lIal I do slvess. In doing lIis, I Inov I vun lIe deJinile visI lIal lIe
neaning and inpIicalions oJ lIis poinl oJ viev na Ie onI supev-
JiciaII connunicaled: Iul il is a visI I sIaII Iave lo undevlaIe since I
do nol Inov Iov lo avoid il sensiII.
TIe slud oJ poIilics is concevned vilI undevslanding Iov aulIovila-
live decisions ave nade and execuled Jov a sociel. We can lv lo undev-
sland poIilicaI IiJe I vieving eacI oJ ils aspecls pieceneaI. We can
exanine lIe opevalion oJ sucI inslilulions as poIilicaI pavlies, inlevesl
gvoups, govevnnenl, and voling: ve can slud lIe naluve and con-
sequences oJ sucI poIilicaI pvaclices as nanipuIalion, pvopaganda, and
vioIence: ve can seeI lo veveaI lIe slvucluve vilIin vIicI lIese
pvaclices occuv. B conIining lIe vesuIls ve can oIlain a vougI
picluve oJ vIal Iappens in an seIJ-conlained poIilicaI unil.
In conIining lIese vesuIls, Iovevev, lIeve is aIvead inpIicil lIe
nolion lIal eacI pavl oJ lIe Iavgev poIilicaI canvas does nol sland aIone
Iul is veIaled lo eacI olIev pavl: ov, lo
pul il posiliveI, lIal lIe opeva-
lion oJ no one pavl can Ie JuII undevslood vilIoul veJevence lo lIe
va in vIicI lIe vIoIe ilseIJ opevales. I Iave suggesled in n IooI,
TIe FoIilicaI Sslen,' lIal il is vaIuaIIe lo adopl lIis inpIicil assunp-
*
In nodiJied Jovn, lIe suIslance oJ lIis avlicIe vas pvesenled lo a neeling oJ lIe
Nev EngIand FoIilicaI Science Associalion in Ma 1956 and lo a speciaI conJevence oJ
lIe InlevnalionaI FoIilicaI Science Associalion IeId in SvilzevIand in SeplenIev 1956.
1
Nev YovI, 1953.
384 WOBLB FOLITICS
lion as an avlicuIale pvenise Jov veseavcI and lo viev poIilicaI IiJe as a
sslen oJ inlevveIaled aclivilies. TIese aclivilies devive lIeiv veIaledness
ov sslenic lies Jvon lIe Jacl lIal lIe aII nove ov Iess inJIuence lIe
va in vIicI aulIovilalive decisions ave JovnuIaled and execuled Jov
a sociel.
Once ve Iegin lo speaI oJ poIilicaI IiJe as a sslen oJ aclivil, cevlain
consequences JoIIov Jov lIe va in vIicI ve can undevlaIe lo anaIze
lIe vovIing oJ a sslen. TIe vev idea oJ a sslen suggesls lIal ve can
sepavale poIilicaI IiJe Jvon lIe vesl oJ sociaI aclivil, al Ieasl Jov anaIli-
caI puvposes, and exanine il as lIougI Jov lIe nonenl il veve a seIJ-
conlained enlil suvvounded I, Iul cIeavI dislinguisIaIIe Jvon, lIe
envivonnenl ov selling in vIicI il opevales. In nucI lIe sane va,
aslvononevs considev lIe soIav sslen a conpIex oJ evenls isoIaled Jov
cevlain puvposes Jvon lIe vesl oJ lIe univevse.
FuvlIevnove, iJ ve IoId lIe sslen oJ poIilicaI aclions as a unil
IeJove ouv nind's ee, as il veve, ve can see lIal vIal Ieeps lIe sslen
going ave inpuls oJ vavious Iinds. TIese inpuls ave convevled I lIe
pvocesses oJ lIe sslen inlo oulpuls and lIese, in
luvn, Iave conse-
quences IolI Jov lIe sslen and Jov lIe envivonnenl in vIicI lIe
sslen exisls. TIe JovnuIa Ieve is vev sinpIe Iul, as I Iope lo sIov,
aIso vev iIIuninaling inpuls-poIilicaI sslen ov pvocesses-oulpuls.
TIese veIalionsIips ave sIovn
diagvannalicaII in
Figuve
i. TIis
0
N U
N
BEMANBS
AU
F
FOLITICAL
pIIONS
T
U
SUFFOBT
SYSTEM
oF OLICIES
U
T
T
\
B\3AC/ lYW?jOV
FIO. I
diagvan vepvesenls a
vev pvinilive
nodeI-lo
digniJ il vilI a
JasIionaIIe nane-Jov appvoacIing lIe slud oJ poIilicaI IiJe.
FoIilicaI sslens Iave cevlain pvopevlies Iecause lIe ave sslens.2
2
M conceplions veIaling lo sslen lIeov Iave Ieen envicIed lIvougI n pavlicipa-
lion in lIe SlaJJ TIeov Seninav oJ lIe MenlaI HeaIlI BeseavcI Inslilule al lIe Uni-
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 385
To pvesenl an ovev-aII viev oJ lIe vIoIe appvoacI, Iel ne idenliJ lIe
najov allviIules, sa a IillIe aIoul eacI, and lIen lveal one oJ lIese
pvopevlies al sonevIal gvealev IenglI, even lIougI sliII inadequaleI.
|i) Fvopevlies oJ idenliJicalion. To dislinguisI a poIilicaI sslen
Jvon olIev sociaI sslens, ve nusl Ie aIIe lo idenliJ il I descviIing
ils JundanenlaI unils and eslaIIisIing lIe Ioundavies lIal denavcale il
Jvon unils oulside lIe sslen.
|a) Unils oJ a poIilicaI sslen. TIe unils ave lIe eIenenls oJ
vIicI ve sa a sslen is conposed. In lIe case oJ a poIilicaI sslen,
lIe ave poIilicaI aclions. NovnaII il is useJuI lo IooI al lIese as lIe
slvucluve lIenseIves in poIilicaI voIes and poIilicaI gvoups.
|I) Boundavies. Sone oJ lIe nosl signiJicanl queslions vilI vegavd
lo lIe opevalion oJ poIilicaI sslens can Ie ansveved onI iJ ve Ieav in
nind lIe oIvious Jacl lIal a sslen does nol exisl in a vacuun. Il is
aIvas innevsed in a speciJic selling ov envivonnenl. TIe va in
vIicI a sslen vovIs viII Ie in pavl a Junclion oJ ils vesponse lo lIe
lolaI sociaI, IioIogicaI, and pIsicaI envivonnenl.
TIe speciaI pvoIIen vilI vIicI ve ave conJvonled is Iov lo dis-
linguisI sslenalicaII Ielveen a poIilicaI sslen and ils selling. Boes
il even naIe sense lo sa lIal a poIilicaI sslen Ias a Ioundav dividing
il Jvon ils selling? IJ so, Iov ave ve lo idenliJ lIe Iine oJ denavcalion?
WilIoul pausing lo avgue lIe nallev, I vouId suggesl lIal il is useJuI
lo conceive oJ a poIilicaI sslen as Iaving a Ioundav in lIe sane sense
as a pIsicaI sslen. TIe Ioundav oJ a poIilicaI sslen is deJined I
aII lIose aclions nove ov Iess diveclI veIaled lo lIe naIing oJ Iinding
decisions Jov a sociel: evev sociaI aclion lIal does nol pavlaIe oJ lIis
cIavaclevislic viII Ie excIuded Jvon lIe sslen and lIeveI viII aulo-
nalicaII Ie vieved as an exlevnaI vaviaIIe in lIe envivonnenl.
|2) Inpuls and oulpuls. FvesunaII, iJ ve seIecl poIilicaI sslens
Jov speciaI slud, ve do so Iecause ve IeIieve lIal lIe Iave cIavac-
levislicaII inpovlanl consequences Jov sociel, naneI, aulIovilalive
decisions. TIese consequences I sIaII caII lIe oulpuls. IJ ve judged lIal
poIilicaI sslens did nol Iave inpovlanl oulpuls Jov
sociel,
ve vouId
pvoIaII nol Ie inlevesled in lIen.
UnIess a sslen
is
appvoacIing
a slale oJ enlvop-and ve can
assune lIal lIis is nol lvue oJ nosl poIilicaI sslens-il nusl Iave
conlinuing inpuls lo Ieep il going.
WilIoul inpuls lIe sslen can do
no vovI: vilIoul oulpuls ve cannol idenliJ lIe vovI done I lIe
vevsil oJ MicIigan. TIeve Ias Ieen sucI
lIovougI ningIing
oJ ideas in lIis Seninav
lIal valIev lIan lv
lo lvace
palevnil,
I sIaII
sinpI
indicale
n oIIigalion lo lIe coI-
Ieclive eJJovls oJ lIe Seninav.
386 WOBLB FOLITICS
sslen. TIe speciJic veseavcI lasIs in lIis conneclion vouId Ie lo
idenliJ lIe inpuls and lIe Jovces lIal sIape and cIange lIen, lo lvace
lIe pvocesses lIvougI vIicI lIe ave lvansJovned inlo oulpuls, lo
descviIe lIe genevaI condilions undev vIicI sucI pvocesses
can Ie
nainlained, and lo eslaIIisI lIe veIalionsIip Ielveen oulpuls and suc-
ceeding inpuls oJ lIe sslen.
Fvon lIis poinl oJ viev, nucI IigIl can Ie sIed on lIe vovIing oJ
a poIilicaI sslen iJ ve laIe inlo accounl lIe Jacl lIal nucI oJ vIal
Iappens vilIin a sslen Ias ils IivlI in lIe eJJovls oJ lIe nenIevs oJ
lIe sslen lo cope vilI lIe cIanging envivonnenl. We can appveciale
lIis poinl iJ ve considev a JaniIiav IioIogicaI sslen sucI as lIe Iunan
ovganisn. Il is suIjecl lo conslanl slvess Jvon ils suvvoundings lo vIicI
il nusl adapl in one va ov anolIev iJ il is nol lo Ie conpIeleI de-
slvoed. In pavl, oJ couvse, lIe va in vIicI lIe Iod vovIs vepvesenls
vesponses lo needs lIal ave genevaled I lIe vev ovganizalion oJ ils
analon and Junclions: Iul in Iavge pavl, in ovdev lo undevsland IolI
lIe slvucluve and lIe vovIing oJ lIe Iod, ve nusl aIso Ie vev
sensilive lo lIe inpuls Jvon lIe envivonnenl.
In lIe sane va, lIe IeIaviov oJ evev poIilicaI sslen is lo sone
degvee inposed upon il I lIe Iind oJ sslen il is, lIal is, I ils ovn
slvucluve and inlevnaI needs. Bul ils IeIaviov aIso veJIecls lIe slvains
occasioned I lIe speciJic selling vilIin vIicI lIe sslen opevales.
Il na Ie avgued lIal nosl oJ lIe signiJicanl cIanges vilIin a poIilicaI
sslen Iave lIeiv ovigin in sIiJls anong lIe exlevnaI vaviaIIes. Since
I sIaII Ie devoling lIe IuII oJ lIis avlicIe lo exanining sone oJ lIe
pvoIIens veIaled lo lIe excIange Ielveen poIilicaI sslens and lIeiv
envivonnenls, I sIaII nove on lo a vapid descviplion oJ olIev pvopevlies
oJ poIilicaI sslens.
|3)
BiJJevenlialion vilIin a sslen. As ve sIaII see in a nonenl,
Jvon lIe envivonnenl cone IolI enevg lo aclivale a sslen and
inJovnalion vilI vegavd lo vIicI lIe sslen uses lIis enevg. In lIis
va a sslen
is aIIe lo do vovI. Il Ias sone sovl oJ oulpul lIal is
diJJevenl Jvon lIe inpul lIal enlevs Jvon lIe envivonnenl. We can
laIe il as a useJuI IpolIesis lIal iJ a
poIilicaI sslen is lo pevJovn
sone vovI Jov anlIing Iul a Iiniled inlevvaI oJ
line, a nininaI
anounl oJ diJJevenlialion in ils slvucluve nusl occuv. In Jacl, enpivi-
caII il is inpossiIIe lo Jind a signiJicanl poIilicaI sslen in vIicI lIe
sane unils aII pevJovn lIe sane aclivilies al lIe sane line. TIe nen-
Ievs oJ a sslen engage in al Ieasl sone nininaI division oJ IaIov lIal
pvovides a slvucluve vilIin vIicI aclion laIes pIace.
|4) Inlegvalion oJ a sslen. TIis Jacl oJ diJJevenlialion opens up a
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 387
najov avea oJ inquiv vilI vegavd lo poIilicaI sslens. SlvucluvaI
diJJevenlialion sels in nolion Jovces lIal ave polenliaII disinlegvalive
in lIeiv vesuIls Jov lIe sslen. IJ lvo ov nove unils ave pevJovning
diJJevenl Iinds oJ aclivil al lIe sane line, Iov ave lIese aclivilies
lo Ie IvougIl inlo lIe nininaI degvee oJ avlicuIalion necessav iJ lIe
nenIevs oJ lIe sslen ave nol lo end up in ullev disovganizalion vilI
vegavd lo lIe pvoduclion oJ lIe oulpuls oJ inlevesl lo us? We can
IpolIesize lIal iJ a slvucluved sslen is lo nainlain ilseIJ, il nusl
pvovide necIanisns vIeveI ils nenIevs ave inlegvaled ov induced lo
coopevale in sone nininaI degvee so lIal lIe can naIe aulIovilalive
decisions.
II. INFUTS BEMANBS
Nov lIal I Iave nenlioned sone najov allviIules oJ poIilicaI sslens
lIal I suggesl vequive speciaI allenlion iJ ve ave lo deveIop a genevaIized
appvoacI, I vanl lo considev in gvealev delaiI lIe va in vIicI an
exaninalion oJ inpuls and oulpuls viII sIed sone IigIl on lIe vovIing
oJ lIese sslens.
Anong inpuls oJ a poIilicaI sslen lIeve ave lvo Iasic Iinds denands
and suppovl. TIese inpuls give a poIilicaI sslen ils dnanic cIavaclev.
TIe JuvnisI il IolI vilI lIe vav naleviaI ov inJovnalion lIal lIe
sslen is caIIed upon lo pvocess and vilI lIe enevg lo Ieep il going.
TIe veason vI a poIilicaI sslen enevges in a sociel al aII-lIal
is, vI nen engage in poIilicaI aclivil-is lIal denands ave Ieing
nade I pevsons ov gvoups in lIe sociel lIal cannol aII Ie JuII
salisJied. In aII socielies one Jacl doninales poIilicaI IiJe scavcil pve-
vaiIs vilI vegavd lo nosl oJ lIe vaIued lIings. Sone oJ lIe cIains Jov
lIese veIaliveI scavce lIings nevev Jind lIeiv va inlo lIe poIilicaI
sslen Iul ave salisJied lIvougI lIe pvivale negolialions oJ ov sellIe-
nenls I lIe pevsons invoIved. Benands Jov pveslige na Jind
salisJaclion lIvougI lIe slalus veIalions oJ sociel: cIains Jov veaIlI ave
nel in pavl lIvougI lIe econonic sslen: aspivalions Jov povev Jind
expvession in educalionaI, JvalevnaI, IaIov, and siniIav pvivale ovganiza-
lions. OnI vIeve vanls vequive sone speciaI ovganized eJJovl on lIe
pavl oJ sociel lo sellIe lIen aulIovilaliveI na ve sa lIal lIe Iave
Iecone inpuls oJ lIe poIilicaI sslen.
Sslenalic veseavcI vouId vequive us lo addvess ouvseIves lo sevevaI
Ie queslions vilI vegavd lo lIese denands.
|i) Hov do denands avise and assune lIeiv pavlicuIav cIavaclev in
a sociel? In ansvev lo lIis queslion, ve can poinl oul lIal denands
Iave lIeiv IivlI in lvo seclovs oJ expevience eilIev in lIe envivonnenl
388 WOBLB FOLITICS
oJ a sslen ov vilIin lIe sslen ilseIJ. We sIaII caII lIese lIe exlevnaI
and inlevnaI denands, vespecliveI.
Lel us IooI al lIe exlevnaI denands Jivsl. I Jind il useJuI lo see lIe
envivonnenl nol as an undiJJevenlialed nass oJ evenls Iul valIev as
sslens cIeavI dislinguisIaIIe Jvon one anolIev and Jvon lIe poIilicaI
sslen. In lIe envivonnenl ve Iave sucI sslens as lIe ecoIog, econ-
on, cuIluve, pevsonaIil, sociaI slvucluve, and denogvapI. EacI oJ
lIese conslilules a najov sel oJ vaviaIIes in lIe selling lIal IeIps lo sIape
lIe Iind oJ denands enleving a poIilicaI sslen. Fov puvposes oJ
iIIuslvaling vIal I nean, I sIaII sa a Jev vovds aIoul cuIluve.
TIe nenIevs oJ evev sociel acl vilIin lIe JvanevovI oJ an on-
going cuIluve lIal sIapes lIeiv genevaI goaIs, speciJic oIjeclives, and
lIe pvoceduves lIal lIe nenIevs JeeI ougIl lo Ie used. Evev cuIluve
devives pavl oJ ils unique quaIil Jvon lIe Jacl lIal il enpIasizes one
ov nove speciaI aspecls oJ IeIaviov and lIis slvalegic enpIasis sevves
lo diJJevenliale il Jvon olIev cuIluves vilI vespecl lo lIe denands lIal
il genevales. As Jav as lIe nass oJ lIe peopIe is concevned, sone cuIluves,
sucI as ouv ovn, ave veigIled IeaviI on lIe side oJ econonic vanls,
success, pvivac, Ieisuve aclivil, and valionaI eJJicienc. OlIevs, sucI as
lIal oJ lIe Fox Indians, slvive lovavd lIe nainlenance oJ Iavnon,
even iJ in lIe pvocess lIe goaIs oJ eJJicienc and valionaIil na Ie
sacviJiced. SliII olIevs, sucI as lIe KacIins oJ IigIIand Buvna, slvess
lIe puvsuil oJ povev and pveslige. TIe cuIluve enIodies lIe slandavds
oJ vaIue in a sociel and lIeveI navIs oul aveas oJ polenliaI conJIicl,
iJ lIe vaIued lIings ave in sIovl suppI veIalive lo denand. TIe lpicaI
denands lIal viII Jind lIeiv va inlo lIe poIilicaI pvocess viII concevn
lIe nallevs in conJIicl lIal ave IaIeIed inpovlanl I lIe cuIluve. Fov
lIis veason ve cannol Iope lo undevsland lIe naluve oJ lIe denands
pvesenling lIenseIves Jov poIilicaI sellIenenl unIess ve ave vead lo
expIove sslenalicaII and inlensiveI lIeiv conneclion vilI lIe cuIluve.
And vIal I Iave said aIoul cuIluve appIies, vilI suilaIIe nodiJicalions,
lo olIev pavls oJ lIe selling oJ a poIilicaI sslen.
Bul nol aII denands oviginale ov Iave lIeiv najov Iocus in lIe
envivonnenl. Inpovlanl lpes slen Jvon silualions occuvving vilIin a
poIilicaI sslen ilseIJ. TpicaII, in evev on-going sslen, denands
na enevge Jov aIlevalions in lIe poIilicaI veIalionsIips oJ lIe nenIevs
lIenseIves, as lIe vesuIl oJ dissalisJaclion slenning Jvon lIese ve-
IalionsIips. Fov exanpIe, in a poIilicaI sslen Iased upon vepvesenla-
lion, in vIicI equaI vepvesenlalion is an inpovlanl poIilicaI novn,
denands na avise Jov equaIizing vepvesenlalion Ielveen uvIan and
vuvaI voling dislvicls. SiniIavI, denands Jov cIanges in lIe pvocess
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 389
oJ vecvuilnenl oJ JovnaI poIilicaI Ieadevs, Jov nodiJicalions oJ lIe va
in vIicI conslilulions ave anended, and lIe IiIe na aII Ie inlevnaII
inspived denands.
I Jind il useJuI and necessav lo dislinguisI lIese Jvon exlevnaI
denands Iecause lIe ave, slviclI speaIing, nol inpuls oJ lIe sslen
Iul sonelIing lIal ve can caII vilIinpuls, iJ ve can loIevale a
cunIevsone neoIogisn, and Iecause lIeiv consequences Jov lIe cIav-
aclev oJ a poIilicaI sslen ave nove divecl lIan in lIe case oJ exlevnaI
denands. FuvlIevnove, iJ ve veve nol avave oJ lIis diJJevence in cIasses
oJ denands, ve nigIl seavcI in vain Jov an expIanalion oJ lIe
enevgence oJ a given sel oJ inlevnaI denands iJ ve luvned onI lo lIe
envivonnenl.
|2) Hov ave denands lvansJovned inlo issues? WIal delevnines
vIelIev a denand Iecones a nallev Jov sevious poIilicaI discussion ov
venains sonelIing lo Ie vesoIved pvivaleI anong lIe nenIevs oJ
sociel? TIe occuvvence oJ a denand, vIelIev inlevnaI ov exlevnaI,
does nol lIeveI aulonalicaII convevl il inlo a poIilicaI issue. Man
denands die al IivlI ov Iingev on vilI lIe suppovl oJ an insigniJicanl
Jvaclion oJ lIe sociel and ave nevev vaised lo lIe IeveI oJ possiIIe poIili-
caI decision. OlIevs Iecone issues, an issue Ieing a denand lIal lIe
nenIevs oJ a poIilicaI sslen ave pvepaved lo deaI vilI as a signiJicanl
ilen Jov discussion lIvougI lIe vecognized cIanneIs in lIe sslen.
TIe dislinclion Ielveen denands and issues vaises a nunIev oJ
queslions aIoul vIicI ve need dala iJ ve ave lo undevsland lIe pvoc-
esses lIvougI vIicI cIains lpicaII Iecone lvansJovned inlo issues.
Fov exanpIe, ve vouId need lo Inov sonelIing aIoul lIe veIalionsIip
Ielveen a denand and lIe Iocalion oJ ils inilialovs ov suppovlevs in lIe
povev slvucluves oJ lIe sociel, lIe inpovlance oJ secvec as conpaved
vilI puIIicil in pvesenling denands, lIe nallev oJ lining oJ denands,
lIe possession oJ poIilicaI sIiIIs ov Inov-Iov, access lo cIanneIs oJ
connunicalion, lIe alliludes and slales oJ nind oJ possiIIe puIIics,
and lIe inages IeId I lIe inilialovs oJ denands vilI vegavd lo lIe
va in vIicI lIings gel done in lIe pavlicuIav poIilicaI sslen. Ansvevs
lo nallevs sucI as lIese vouId possiII ieId a convevsion index veJIecl-
ing lIe pvoIaIiIil oJ a sel oJ denands Ieing convevled inlo Iive poIilicaI
issues.
IJ ve assune lIal poIilicaI science is pvinaviI concevned vilI lIe
va in vIicI aulIovilalive decisions ave nade Jov a sociel, denands
vequive speciaI allenlion as a najov lpe oJ inpul oJ poIilicaI sslens. I
Iave suggesled lIal denands inJIuence lIe IeIaviov oJ a sslen in a
nunIev oJ vas. TIe conslilule a signiJicanl pavl oJ lIe naleviaI upon
390 WOBLB FOLITICS
vIicI lIe sslen opevales. TIe ave aIso one oJ lIe souvces oJ cIange
in poIilicaI sslens, since as lIe envivonnenl JIucluales il genevales nev
lpes oJ denand-inpuls Jov lIe sslen. AccovdingI, vilIoul lIis allen-
lion lo lIe ovigin and delevninanls oJ denands ve vouId Ie al a Ioss
lo Ie aIIe lo lveal vigovousI nol onI lIe opevalion oJ a sslen al a
nonenl oJ line Iul aIso ils cIange ovev a speciJied inlevvaI. BolI lIe
slalics and IislovicaI dnanics oJ a poIilicaI sslen depend upon a
delaiIed undevslanding oJ denands, pavlicuIavI oJ lIe inpacl oJ lIe
selling on lIen.
III. INFUTS SUFFOBT
Inpuls oJ denands aIone ave nol enougI lo Ieep a poIilicaI sslen
opevaling. TIe ave onI lIe vav naleviaI oul oJ vIicI JinisIed pvod-
ucls caIIed decisions ave nanuJacluved. Enevg in lIe Jovn oJ aclions
ov ovienlalions pvonoling and vesisling a poIilicaI sslen, lIe denands
avising in il, and lIe decisions issuing Jvon il nusl aIso Ie pul inlo
lIe sslen lo Ieep il vunning. TIis inpul I sIaII caII suppovl.3 WilIoul
suppovl, denands couId nol Ie salisJied ov conJIicls in goaIs conposed.
IJ denands ave lo Ie acled upon, lIe nenIevs oJ a sslen undevlaIing
lo piIol lIe denands lIvougI lo lIeiv lvansJovnalion inlo Iinding
decisions and lIose vIo seeI lo inJIuence lIe veIevanl pvocesses in an
va nusl Ie aIIe lo counl on suppovl Jvon olIevs in lIe sslen. Jusl
Iov nucI suppovl, Jvon Iov nan and vIicI nenIevs oJ a poIilicaI
sslen, ave sepavale and inpovlanl queslions lIal I sIaII loucI on
sIovlI.
WIal do ve nean I suppovl? We can sa lIal A suppovls B eilIev
vIen A acls on IeIaIJ oJ ov vIen Ie ovienls IinseIJ JavovaII lovavd
B's goaIs, inlevesls, and aclions. Suppovlive IeIaviov na lIus Ie oJ lvo
Iinds. Il na consisl oJ aclions pvonoling lIe goaIs, inlevesls, and
aclions oJ anolIev pevson. We na vole Jov a poIilicaI candidale, ov
deJend a decision I lIe IigIesl couvl oJ lIe Iand. In lIese cases, suppovl
naniJesls ilseIJ lIvougI ovevl aclion.
On lIe olIev Iand, suppovlive IeIaviov na invoIve nol exlevnaI
oIsevvaIIe acls, Iul lIose inlevnaI Jovns oJ IeIaviov ve caII ovienlalions
ov slales oJ nind. As I use lIe pIvase, a suppovlive slale oJ nind is a
deep-sealed sel oJ alliludes ov pvedisposilions, ov a veadiness lo acl on
IeIaIJ oJ sone olIev pevson. Il exisls vIen ve sa lIal a nan is IoaI
3TIe concepl suppovl Ias Ieen used I TaIcoll Favsons in an unpuIIisIed papev en-
lilIed BeJIeclions on lIe Tvo-Favl Sslen. I an pIeased lo nole lIal in lIis avlicIe
FvoJessov Favsons aIso seens lo Ie noving in lIe diveclion oJ inpul-oulpul anaIsis oJ
poIilicaI pvoIIens, aIlIougI lIe exlenl lo vIicI Ie uses olIev aspecls oJ sslen lIeov
is nol cIeav lo ne.
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 391
lo Iis pavl, allacIed lo denocvac, ov inJused vilI palviolisn. WIal
sucI pIvases as lIese Iave in connon is lIe Jacl lIal lIe veJev lo a
slale oJ JeeIings on lIe pavl oJ a pevson. No ovevl aclion is invoIved al
lIis IeveI oJ descviplion, aIlIougI lIe inpIicalion is lIal lIe individuaI
viII puvsue a couvse oJ aclion consislenl vilI Iis alliludes. WIeve lIe
anlicipaled aclion does nol JIov Jvon ouv pevceplion oJ lIe slale oJ
nind, ve assune lIal ve Iave nol penelvaled deepI enougI inlo lIe
lvue JeeIings oJ lIe pevson Iul Iave neveI sIinned oJJ Iis suvJace
alliludes.
Suppovlive slales oJ nind ave vilaI inpuls Jov lIe opevalion and
nainlenance oJ a poIilicaI sslen. Fov exanpIe, il is oJlen said lIal
lIe slvuggIe in lIe inlevnalionaI spIeve concevns naslev ovev nen's
ninds. To a cevlain exlenl lIis is lvue. IJ lIe nenIevs oJ a poIilicaI
sslen ave deepI allacIed lo a sslen ov ils ideaIs, lIe IiIeIiIood oJ
lIeiv pavlicipaling in eilIev doneslic ov Joveign poIilics in sucI a va
as lo undevnine lIe sslen is veduced I a Iavge Jaclov. FvesunaII,
even in lIe Jace oJ considevaIIe pvovocalion, ingvained suppovlive
JeeIings oJ IoaIl na Ie expecled lo pvevaiI.
We sIaII need lo idenliJ lIe lpicaI necIanisns lIvougI vIicI
suppovlive alliludes ave incuIcaled and conlinuousI veinJovced vilIin
a poIilicaI sslen. Bul ouv pviov lasI is lo speciJ and exanine lIe
poIilicaI oIjecls in veIalion lo vIicI suppovl is exlended.
|I) THE BOMAIN OF SUFFOBT
Suppovl is Jed inlo lIe poIilicaI sslen in veIalion lo lIvee oIjecls
lIe connunil, lIe vegine, and lIe govevnnenl. TIeve nusl Ie con-
vevgence oJ allilude and opinion as veII as sone viIIingness lo acl
vilI vegavd lo eacI oJ lIese oIjecls. Lel us exanine eacI in luvn.
|a) TIe poIilicaI connunil. No poIilicaI sslen can conlinue lo
opevale unIess ils nenIevs ave viIIing lo suppovl lIe exislence oJ a
gvoup lIal seeIs lo sellIe diJJevences ov pvonole decisions lIvougI
peaceJuI aclion in connon. TIe poinl is so oIvious-Ieing deaIl vilI
usuaII undev lIe Ieading oJ lIe gvovlI oJ nalionaI unil-lIal il na
veII Ie ovevIooIed: and el il is a pvenise upon vIicI lIe conlinualion
oJ an poIilicaI sslen depends. To veJev lo lIis pIenonenon ve can
speaI oJ lIe poIilicaI connunil. Al lIis IeveI oJ suppovl ve ave nol
concevned vilI vIelIev a govevnnenl exisls ov vIelIev lIeve is IoaIl
lo a conslilulionaI ovdev. Fov lIe nonenl ve
onI asI vIelIev lIe
nenIevs oJ lIe gvoup lIal ve ave exanining ave suJJicienlI ovienled
lovavd eacI olIev lo vanl lo conlviIule lIeiv coIIeclive
enevgies lovavd
paciJic sellIenenl oJ lIeiv vaving denands.
392 WOBLB FOLITICS
TIe Anevican CiviI Wav is a concvele iIIuslvalion oJ lIe cessalion oJ
inpul oJ suppovl Jov lIe poIilicaI connunil. TIe vav ilseIJ vas deJini-
live evidence lIal lIe nenIevs oJ lIe Anevican poIilicaI sslen couId
no Iongev conlviIule lo lIe exislence oJ a slale oJ aJJaivs in vIicI peace-
JuI soIulion oJ conJIicling denands vas lIe vuIe. Mallevs Iad cone lo
lIe poinl vIeve il vas no Iongev a queslion oJ vIelIev lIe SoulI
vouId suppovl one ov anolIev aIlevnalive govevnnenl, ov vIelIev il
couId envision ils denands Ieing salisJied lIvougI lIe novnaI conslilu-
lionaI pvoceduves. TIe issue luvned on vIelIev lIeve vas suJJicienl
nuluaI idenliJicalion anong lIe nenIevs oJ lIe sslen Jov lIen lo Ie
aIIe lo vovI logelIev as a poIilicaI connunil. TIus in an poIilicaI
sslen, lo lIe exlenl lIal lIeve is an in-gvoup ov ve-gvoup JeeIing and
lo lIe exlenl lIal lIe nenIevs oJ lIe sslen idenliJ one anolIev as pavl
oJ lIis unil and excIude olIevs accovding lo sone connonI accepled
cvilevia, sucI as levviloviaIil, IinsIip, ov cilizensIip, ve sIaII sa lIal
lIe ave pulling in suppovl Jov lIe poIilicaI connunil.
|I) TIe vegine. Suppovl Jov a second najov pavl oJ a poIilicaI sslen
IeIps lo suppI lIe enevg lo Ieep lIe sslen vunning. TIis aspecl oJ
lIe sslen I sIaII caII lIe vegine. Il consisls oJ aII lIose avvangenenls
lIal veguIale lIe va in vIicI lIe denands pul inlo lIe sslen ave
sellIed and lIe va in vIicI decisions ave pul inlo eJJecl. TIe ave lIe
so-caIIed vuIes oJ lIe gane, in lIe IigIl oJ vIicI aclions I nenIevs
oJ lIe sslen ave Iegilinaled and accepled I lIe IuII oJ lIe nenIevs
as aulIovilalive. UnIess lIeve is a nininun convevgence oJ alliludes in
suppovl oJ lIese JundanenlaI vuIes-lIe conslilulionaI pvincipIes, as ve
caII lIen in Weslevn sociel-lIeve vouId Ie insuJJicienl Iavnon in
lIe aclions oJ lIe nenIevs oJ a sslen lo neel lIe pvoIIens genevaled
I lIeiv suppovl oJ a poIilicaI connunil. TIe Jacl oJ lving lo sellIe
denands in connon neans lIal lIeve nusl Ie Inovn pvincipIes gov-
evning lIe va in vIicI vesoIulions oJ diJJevences oJ cIains ave lo laIe
pIace.
|c) TIe govevnnenl. IJ a poIilicaI sslen is going lo Ie aIIe lo
IandIe lIe conJIicling denands pul inlo il, nol onI nusl lIe nenIevs
oJ lIe sslen Ie pvepaved lo suppovl lIe sellIenenl oJ lIese conJIicls in
connon and possess sone consensus vilI vegavd lo lIe vuIes govevning
lIe node oJ sellIenenl: lIe nusl aIso Ie vead lo suppovl a govevn-
nenl as il undevlaIes lIe concvele lasIs invoIved in negolialing sucI
sellIenenls. WIen ve cone lo lIe oulpuls oJ a sslen, ve sIaII see lIe
vevavds lIal ave avaiIaIIe lo a govevnnenl Jov noIiIizing suppovl. Al
lIis poinl, I jusl visI lo dvav allenlion lo lIis need on lIe pavl oJ a
govevnnenl Jov suppovl iJ il is going lo Ie aIIe lo naIe decisions vilI
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 393
vegavd lo denands. OJ couvse, a govevnnenl na eIicil suppovl in nan
vas lIvougI pevsuasion, consenl, ov nanipuIalion. Il na aIso inpose
unsuppovled sellIenenls oJ denands lIvougI lIveals oJ Jovce. Bul il is
a JaniIiav axion oJ poIilicaI science lIal a govevnnenl Iased upon
Jovce aIone is nol Iong Jov lIis vovId: il nusl Iullvess ils posilion I
inducing a JavovaIIe slale oJ nind in ils suIjecls lIvougI Jaiv ov JouI
neans.
TIe Jacl lIal suppovl divecled lo a poIilicaI sslen can Ie IvoIen
dovn concepluaII inlo lIvee eIenenls-suppovl Jov lIe connunil,
vegine, and govevnnenl-does nol nean, oJ couvse, lIal in lIe concvele
case suppovl Jov eacI oJ lIese lIvee oIjecls is independenl. In Jacl ve
nigIl and novnaII do Jind aII lIvee Iinds oJ suppovl vev cIoseI
inlevlvined, so lIal lIe pvesence oJ one is a Junclion oJ lIe pvesence oJ
one ov IolI oJ lIe olIev lpes.
Fov exanpIe, vilIdvavaI oJ suppovl Jvon lIe govevnnenl oJ Louis
7VI in eJJecl aIso neanl lIal nenIevs oJ lIe FvencI nonavcIicaI
sslen veve cIaIIenging al Ieasl lIe vegine: as il luvned oul in lIe
ensuing vevoIulion and civiI vav, lIeve vas even douIl vIelIev lIe
nenIevs oJ lIe sslen vouId conlinue lo suppovl a uniJied poIilicaI
connunil. In lIis case, vIal vas iniliaII opposilion lo lIe vuIing
soveveign-lIal is, lo lIe govevnnenl-quicII luvned oul lo signiJ
a IacI oJ suJJicienl suppovl Jov lIe vegine and uIlinaleI, lo sone exlenl,
Jov lIe poIilicaI connunil. Bul lIis is nol aIvas so and JovlunaleI,
Jvon lIe poinl oJ viev oJ sociaI ovdev, il is nol lpicaII lIe case. We
ave accusloned lo caIIing Jov a cIange oJ govevnnenl vilIoul lIeveI
suggesling dissalisJaclion vilI lIe vegine ov connunil. And al lines,
aIlIougI lIis is Iess JvequenlI lvue, lIe connunil sIovs suJJicienl
inlenlion lo conlinue as a coopevaling gvoup lo Ie aIIe lo accepl a
cIaIIenge lo lIe vegine. Fvon i832 lo lIe i88o's EngIand undevvenl a
sevious nodiJicalion in ils vegine, inlvoducing lIe Iasic eIenenls oJ a
sslen oJ popuIav denocvac, vilIoul sevious dininulion oJ inpul oJ
suppovl al lIe connunil IeveI. Il is aIvas a nallev Jov enpivicaI
enquiv lo discovev lIe degvee lo vIicI suppovl al an one IeveI is
dependenl upon suppovl al lIe olIevs.
TIis vev IvieJ discussion oJ suppovl poinls up one najov Jacl. IJ a
sslen is lo aIsovI a vaviel oJ denands and negoliale sone sovl oJ
sellIenenl anong lIen, il is nol enougI Jov lIe nenIevs oJ lIe sslen
lo suppovl onI lIeiv ovn denands and lIe pavlicuIav govevnnenl lIal
viII undevlaIe lo pvonole lIese denands. Fov lIe denands lo Ie pvoc-
essed inlo oulpuls il is equaII essenliaI lIal lIe nenIevs oJ lIe sslen
394 WOBLB FOLITICS
sland vead lo suppovl lIe exislence oJ a poIilicaI connunil and sone
slaIIe vuIes oJ connon aclion lIal ve caII lIe vegine.
|2) QUANTITY ANB SCOFE OF SUFFOBT
Hov nucI suppovl needs lo Ie pul inlo a sslen and Iov nan oJ
ils nenIevs need lo conlviIule sucI suppovl iJ lIe sslen is lo Ie aIIe
lo do lIe joI oJ convevling denands lo decisions? No vead ansvev can
Ie oJJeved. TIe acluaI silualion in eacI case vouId delevnine lIe
anounl and scope vequived. We can, Iovevev, visuaIize a nunIev oJ
silualions lIal viII Ie IeIpJuI in divecling ouv allenlion lo possiIIe
genevaIizalions.
Undev cevlain civcunslances vev Jev nenIevs need lo suppovl a
sslen al an IeveI. TIe nenIevs nigIl Ie duII and apalIelic, indiJJev-
enl lo lIe genevaI opevalions oJ lIe sslen, ils pvogvess ov decisions. In a
IooseI connecled sslen sucI as India Ias Iad, lIis nigIl veII Ie lIe
slale oJ nind oJ I Jav lIe Iavgesl segnenl oJ lIe nenIevsIip. EilIev
in Jacl lIe Iave nol Ieen aJJecled I nalionaI decisions ov lIe Iave
nol pevceived lIal lIe veve so aJJecled. TIe na Iave IillIe sense oJ
idenliJicalion vilI lIe pvesenl vegine and govevnnenl and el, vilI
vegavd lo lIe inpul oJ denands, lIe sslen na Ie aIIe lo acl on lIe
Iasis oJ lIe suppovl oJJeved I lIe Inovn 3 pev cenl oJ lIe Weslevn-
ovienled poIilicians and inleIIecluaIs vIo ave poIilicaII aclive. In olIev
vovds, ve can Iave a snaII ninovil pulling in quanlilaliveI suJJicienl
suppovlive enevg lo Ieep lIe sslen going. Hovevev, ve can venluve
lIe IpolIesis lIal vIeve nenIevs oJ a sslen ave pulling in nunevous
denands, lIeve is a slvong pvoIaIiIil lIal lIe viII acliveI oJJev
suppovl ov IosliIil al one oJ lIe lIvee IeveIs oJ lIe sslen, depending
upon lIe degvee lo vIicI lIese denands ave Ieing nel lIvougI ap-
pvopviale decisions.
AIlevnaliveI, ve na Jind lIal aII lIe nenIevs oJ a sslen ave
pulling in suppovl, Iul lIe anounl na Ie so Iov as lo pIace one ov aII
aspecls oJ lIe sslen in
jeopavd. Modevn Fvance is pevIaps a cIassic
iIIuslvalion. TIe inpul oJ suppovl al lIe IeveI oJ lIe poIilicaI connunil
is pvoIaII adequale Jov lIe nainlenance oJ Fvance as a nalionaI
poIilicaI unil. Bul Jov a vaviel oJ IislovicaI and conlenpovav veasons,
lIeve is considevaIIe douIl as lo vIelIev lIe nenIevs oJ lIe FvencI
poIilicaI sslen ave pulling
in
anlIing Iul a Iov ovdev oJ suppovl lo
lIe vegine ov
an pavlicuIav govevnnenl.
TIis Iov anounl oJ suppovl,
even lIougI spvead ovev a
veIaliveI Iavge segnenl oJ lIe popuIalion,
Ieaves lIe FvencI
poIilicaI sslen
on sonevIal Iess secuve
Joundalions
lIan is lIe case vilI India. TIeve
suppovl
is Iess
videspvead Iul nove
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 395
aclive-lIal is, quanlilaliveI gvealev-on lIe pavl oJ a ninovil. As lIis
iIIuslvalion indicales, lIe anounl oJ suppovl is nol necessaviI pvopov-
lionaI lo ils scope.
Il na seen Jvon lIe aIove discussion as lIougI lIe nenIevs oJ a
poIilicaI sslen eilIev pul in suppovl ov vilIIoId il-lIal is, denon-
slvale IosliIil ov apalI. In Jacl, nenIevs na and novnaII do
sinuIlaneousI engage in suppovlive and IosliIe IeIaviov. WIal ve
nusl Ie inlevesled in is lIe nel IaIance oJ suppovl.
IV. MECHANISMS OF SUFFOBT
To lIis poinl I Iave suggesled lIal no poIilicaI sslen can ieId lIe
inpovlanl oulpuls ve caII aulIovilalive decisions unIess, in addilion lo
denands, suppovl Jinds ils va inlo lIe sslen. I Iave discussed lIe
possiIIe oIjecl lo vIicI suppovl na Ie divecled, and sone pvoIIens
vilI vegavd lo lIe donain, quanlil, and scope oJ suppovl. We ave nov
vead lo luvn lo lIe nain queslion vaised I ouv allenlion lo suppovl
as a cvuciaI inpul Iov do sslens lpicaII nanage lo nainlain a slead
JIov oJ suppovl? WilIoul il a sslen viII nol aIsovI suJJicienl enevg
Jvon ils nenIevs lo Ie aIIe lo convevl denands lo decisions.
In lIeov, lIeve nigIl Ie an inJinile vaviel oJ neans lIvougI vIicI
nenIevs couId Ie induced lo suppovl a sslen: in
pvaclice, cevlain veII-
eslaIIisIed cIasses oJ necIanisns ave used. BeseavcI in lIis avea needs lo
Ie divecled lo expIoving lIe pvecise va in vIicI a pavlicuIav sslen
uliIizes lIese necIanisns and lo veJining ouv undevslanding oJ lIe va
in vIicI lIe conlviIule lo lIe naIing oJ aulIovilalive poIic.
A sociel genevales suppovl Jov a poIilicaI sslen in lvo vas lIvougI
oulpuls lIal neel lIe denands oJ lIe nenIevs oJ sociel: and lIvougI
lIe pvocesses oJ poIilicizalion. Lel us IooI al oulpuls Jivsl.
|I) OUTFUTS AS A MECHANISM OF SUFFOBT
An oulpul oJ a poIilicaI sslen, il viII Ie vecaIIed, is a poIilicaI de-
cision ov poIic. One oJ lIe najov vas oJ slvenglIening lIe lies oJ lIe
nenIevs lo lIeiv sslen is lIvougI pvoviding decisions lIal lend lo
salisJ lIe da-lo-da denands oJ lIese nenIevs. FundanenlaII lIis
is lIe lvulI lIal Iies in lIe apIovisn lIal one can JooI sone oJ lIe
peopIe sone oJ lIe line Iul nol aII oJ lIen aII oJ lIe line. WilIoul
sone nininaI salisJaclion oJ denands, lIe avdov oJ aII Iul lIe nosl
JanalicaI palviol is suve lo cooI. TIe oulpuls, consisling oJ poIilicaI
decisions, conslilule a Iod oJ speciJic inducenenls Jov lIe nenIevs
oJ a sslen lo suppovl lIal sslen.
Inducenenls oJ lIis Iind na Ie posilive ov negalive. WIeve nega-
396 WOBLB FOLITICS
live, lIe lIvealen lIe nenIevs oJ lIe sslen vilI vavious Iinds oJ
sanclions vanging Jvon a snaII nonelav Jine lo pIsicaI delenlion,
oslvacisn, ov Ioss oJ IiJe, as in ouv ovn sslen vilI vegavd lo lIe case
oJ IegaII deJined lveason. In evev sslen suppovl slens in pavl Jvon
Jeav oJ sanclions ov conpuIsion: in aulocvalic sslens lIe pvopovlion oJ
coevced suppovl is al a naxinun. Fov vanl oJ space I sIaII conJine n-
seIJ lo lIose cases vIeve posilive incenlives Ioon Iavgesl.
Since lIe speciJic oulpuls oJ a sslen ave poIic decisions, il is upon
lIe govevnnenl lIal lIe JinaI vesponsiIiIil JaIIs Jov nalcIing ov
IaIancing oulpuls oJ decisions againsl inpul oJ denand. Bul il is cIeav
lIal lo oIlain lIe suppovl oJ lIe nenIevs oJ a sslen lIvougI posilive
incenlives, a govevnnenl need nol neel aII lIe denands oJ even ils
nosl inJIuenliaI and avdenl suppovlevs. Mosl govevnnenls, ov gvoups
sucI as poIilicaI pavlies lIal seeI lo conlvoI govevnnenls, succeed in
IuiIding up a vesevve oJ suppovl. TIis vesevve viII cavv lIe govevnnenl
aIong even lIougI il oJJends ils JoIIovevs, so Iong as ovev lIe exlended
sIovl vun lIese JoIIovevs pevceive lIe pavlicuIav govevnnenl as one lIal
is in genevaI JavovaIIe lo lIeiv inlevesls. One Jovn lIal lIis vesevve
suppovl laIes in Weslevn sociel is lIal oJ pavl IoaIl, since lIe pavl
is lIe lpicaI inslvunenl in a nass induslviaIized sociel Jov noIiIizing
and nainlaining suppovl Jov a govevnnenl. Hovevev, conlinuous IacI
oJ speciJic vevavds lIvougI poIic decisions uIlinaleI Ieads lo lIe
dangev lIal even lIe deepesl pavl IoaIl na Ie sIaIen.
Fov exanpIe, IaIov Ias conlinued lo suppovl lIe Benocvalic Favl
even lIougI nucI oJ lIe IegisIalion pvonoled I nenIevs oJ lIal pavl
Ias nol sevved lo neel IaIov's denands. In sone neasuve, Iavge seclions
oJ IaIov na conlinue lo vole and canpaign vigovousI on IeIaIJ oJ
lIe Benocvalic Favl Iecause lIe Iave no veaIislic aIlevnalive olIev
lIan lo suppovl lIis pavl: Iul in addilion lIe Benocvals Iave IuiIl up
in vecenl eavs, especiaII duving lIe BooseveIl eva, a considevaIIe Iod
oJ good viII. Il vouId laIe vepealed negIecl oJ IaIov's denands on lIe
pavl oJ lIe Benocvalic Favl lo undevnine lIe slvong uvIan vovIing-
cIass suppovl divecled lovavd il and lIe govevnnenl lIal lIe pavl
doninales Jvon line lo line.
TIus a sslen need nol neel aII lIe denands oJ ils nenIevs so Iong
as il Ias sloved up a vesevve oJ suppovl ovev lIe eavs. Nov need il
salisJ even sone oJ lIe denands oJ aII ils nenIevs. Jusl vIose de-
nands a sslen nusl seeI lo neel, Iov nucI oJ lIeiv denands, al
vIal line, and undev vIal condilions ave queslions Jov speciaI veseavcI.
We can sa in advance lIal al Ieasl lIe denands oJ lIe nosl inJIuenliaI
nenIevs vequive salisJaclion. Bul lIis leIIs us IillIe unIess ve Inov
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 397
Iov lo discovev lIe inJIuenliaIs in a poIilicaI sslen
and Iov nev sels
oJ nenIevs vise lo posilions oJ inJIuence.'
TIe cvilicaI signiJicance oJ lIe decisions oJ govevnnenls Jov lIe
suppovl oJ lIe olIev lvo aspecls oJ a sslen-naneI, lIe poIilicaI con-
nunil and lIe vegine-is cIeav Jvon vIal I Iave said aIove. Nol aII
vilIdvavaI oJ suppovl Jvon a govevnnenl Ias consequences Jov lIe
success ov JaiIuve oJ a vegine ov connunil. Bul pevsislenl inaIiIil oJ a
govevnnenl lo pvoduce salisJaclov oulpuls Jov lIe nenIevs oJ a sslen
na veII Iead lo denands Jov cIanging oJ lIe vegine ov Jov dissoIulion
oJ lIe poIilicaI connunil. Il is Jov lIis veason lIal lIe inpul-oulpul
IaIance is a vilaI necIanisn in lIe IiJe oJ a poIilicaI sslen.
|2) FOLITICIZATION AS A MECHANISM OF SUFFOBT
Il vouId Ie vvong lo considev lIal lIe IeveI oJ suppovl avaiIaIIe lo a
sslen is a Junclion excIusiveI oJ lIe oulpuls in lIe Jovn oJ eilIev
sanclions ov vevavds. IJ ve did so concIude, ve couId scavceI accounl
Jov lIe nainlenance oJ nunevous poIilicaI sslens in vIicI salisJaclion
oJ denands Ias Ieen naniJeslI Iov, in vIicI puIIic coevcion is
Iiniled, and el vIicI Iave enduved Jov epocIs. AIlevnaleI, il nigIl
Ie diJJicuIl lo expIain Iov poIilicaI sslens couId enduve and el
nanage lo JIoul ov lIvavl uvgenl denands, JaiIing lIeveI lo vendev
suJJicienl quid pvo quo Jov lIe inpul oJ suppovl. TIe Jacl is lIal vIal-
evev vesevve oJ suppovl Ias Ieen accunuIaled lIvougI pasl decisions is
incveased and veinJovced I a conpIicaled nelIod Jov sleadiI nanu-
Jacluving suppovl lIvougI vIal I sIaII caII lIe pvocess oJ poIilicizalion.
Il is an avIvavd levn, Iul nevevlIeIess an appvopvialeI descviplive
one.
As eacI pevson gvovs up in a sociel, lIvougI a nelvovI oJ vevavds
and punisInenls lIe olIev nenIevs oJ sociel connunicale lo and
insliII in Iin lIe vavious inslilulionaIized goaIs and novns oJ lIal
sociel. TIis is veII Inovn in sociaI veseavcI as lIe pvocess oJ sociaIiza-
lion. TIvougI ils opevalion a pevson Ieavns lo pIa Iis vavious sociaI
voIes. Favl oJ lIese goaIs and novns veIale lo vIal lIe sociel considevs
desivaIIe in poIilicaI IiJe. TIe vas in vIicI lIese poIilicaI pallevns
ave Ieavned I lIe nenIevs oJ sociel conslilule vIal I caII lIe pvocess
oJ poIilicizalion. TIvougI il a pevson Ieavns lo pIa Iis poIilicaI voIes,
vIicI incIude lIe aIsovplion oJ lIe pvopev poIilicaI alliludes.
Lel us exanine a IillIe nove cIoseI sonelIing oJ vIal Iappens
duving lIe pvocess oJ poIilicizalion. As nenIevs oJ a sociel naluve, lIe
nusl aIsovI lIe vavious ovienlalions lovavd poIilicaI nallevs lIal one
4See C. W. MiIIs, TIe Fovev EIile, Nev YovI, I956.
398 WOBLB FOLITICS
is expecled lo Iave in lIal sociel. IJ lIe expeclalions oJ lIe nenIevs
oJ sociel vilI vegavd lo lIe va eacI sIouId IeIave in speciJic poIilicaI
silualions divevged Ieond a cevlain vange, il vouId Ie inpossiIIe lo
gel connon aclion vilI vegavd lo lIe naIing oJ Iinding decisions.
Il is essenliaI Jov lIe viaIiIil oJ an ovdevI poIilicaI sslen lIal lIe
nenIevs oJ lIe sslen Iave sone connon Iasic expeclalions vilI
vegavd lo lIe slandavds lIal ave lo Ie used in naIing poIilicaI evaIua-
lions, lo lIe va peopIe viII JeeI aIoul vavious poIilicaI nallevs, and lo
lIe va nenIevs oJ lIe sslen viII pevceive and inlevpvel poIilicaI
pIenonena.
TIe necIanisn lIvougI vIicI lIis Ieavning laIes pIace is oJ con-
sidevaIIe signiJicance in undevslanding Iov a poIilicaI sslen genevales
and accunuIales a slvong vesevve oJ suppovl. AIlIougI ve cannol
puvsue lIe delaiIs, ve can nenlion a Jev oJ lIe veIevanl dinensions.
In lIe Jivsl pIace, oJ couvse, lIe Ieavning ov poIilicizalion pvocess does
nol slop al an pavlicuIav peviod Jov lIe individuaI: il slavls vilI lIe
cIiId and, in lIe IigIl oJ ouv InovIedge oJ Ieavning, na Iave ils
deepesl inpacl lIvougI lIe leen age. TIe slud oJ lIe poIilicaI ex-
peviences oJ and lIe inJIuences opevaling on lIe cIiId and lIe adoIes-
cenl enevges as an inpovlanl and negIecled avea oJ veseavcI.5
In lIe second pIace, lIe acluaI pvocess oJ poIilicizalion al ils nosl
genevaI IeveI Ivings inlo opevalion a conpIex nelvovI oJ vevavds and
punisInenls. Fov adopling lIe covvecl poIilicaI alliludes and pevJovn-
ing lIe vigIl poIilicaI acls, Jov conJovning lo lIe genevaII accepled
inlevpvelalions oJ poIilicaI goaIs, and Jov undevlaIing lIe inslilulion-
aIized oIIigalions oJ a nenIev oJ lIe given sslen, ve ave vaviousI
vevavded ov punisIed. Fov conJovning ve ave nade lo JeeI vovlI,
vanled, and vespecled and oJlen oIlain naleviaI advanlages sucI as
veaIlI, inJIuence, inpvoved oppovlunilies. Fov devialing Ieond lIe
pevnissiIIe vange, ve ave nade lo JeeI unvovlI, vejecled, disIonoved,
and oJlen suJJev naleviaI Iosses.
TIis does nol nean lIal lIe pallevn oJ vevavds and punisInenls is I
an neans aIvas eJJeclive: iJ il veve, ve vouId nevev Iave cIanged
Jvon lIe Slone Age. A neasuve oJ non-conJovnil na al cevlain slages
in lIe IiJe Iislov oJ a poIilicaI sslen ilseIJ Iecone a vespecled novn.
5
I an Iapp lo sa lIal, since I vvole lIis slalenenl, lIe negIecl Ias Iegun lo Ie
venedied. M coIIeagues al lIe Univevsil oJ CIicago, BoIevl Hess oJ lIe Connillee
oJ Hunan BeveIopnenl and Felev Bossi oJ lIe Bepavlnenl oJ SocioIog, and I Iave
undevlaIen a queslionnaive-inlevviev slud oJ lIe deveIopnenl oJ lIe poIilicaI alli-
ludes, opinions, and inages IeId I cIiIdven and adoIescenls. TIis veseavcI is an al-
lenpl lo deveIop sone useJuI genevaIizalions aIoul najov aspecls oJ lIe pvocesses oJ
poIilicizalion in lIe Anevican poIilicaI sslen and lo JovnuIale a design lIal, Jov
conpavalive puvposes, couId Ie appIied in olIev poIilicaI sslens as veII.
ANALYSIS OF FOLITICAL SYSTEMS 399
Even vIeve lIis is nol lIe case, lIe nosl seduclive vevavds and lIe
sevevesl punisInenls viII nevev succeed in pvevenling sone oJ lIe nen-
Ievs oJ a sslen Jvon puvsuing vIal lIe considev lo Ie lIeiv inex-
linguisIaIIe inlevesls and Jvon seeIing, vilI vaving degvees oJ success,
lo cIange lIe goaIs and novns oJ lIe sslen. TIis is one oJ lIe inpov-
lanl souvces oJ poIilicaI cIange cIoseI associaled vilI cIanges in lIe
inpuls oJ denands lIal ave due lo a cIanging envivonnenl. Bul ve
cannol puvsue lIis cvuciaI nallev oJ lIe naluve oJ poIilicaI cIange, as
il vouId Iead us oJJ in a nev diveclion.
In lIe lIivd pIace, lIe neans used Jov connunicaling lIe goaIs and
novns lo olIevs lend lo Ie vepelilive in aII socielies. TIe vavious poIilicaI
nlIs, doclvines, and pIiIosopIies lvansnil lo eacI genevalion a pav-
licuIav inlevpvelalion oJ lIe goaIs and novns. TIe decisive IinIs in lIis
cIain oJ lvansnission ave pavenls, siIIings, peevs, leacIevs, ovganizalions,
and sociaI Ieadevs, as veII as pIsicaI snIoIs sucI as JIags ov lolens,
cevenonies, and viluaIs JveigIled vilI poIilicaI neaning.
TIese pvocesses lIvougI vIicI allacInenls lo a poIilicaI sslen
Iecone IuiIl inlo lIe naluving nenIev oJ a sociel I Iave Iunped
logelIev undev lIe vuIvic oJ poIilicizalion. TIe iIIuslvale lIe va in
vIicI nenIevs oJ a sslen Ieavn vIal is expecled oJ lIen in poIilicaI
IiJe and Iov lIe ougIl lo do vIal is expecled oJ lIen. In lIis va
lIe acquive InovIedge aIoul lIeiv poIilicaI voIes and a desive lo pev-
Jovn lIen. In slaIIe sslens lIe suppovl lIal accvues lIvougI lIese
neans adds lo lIe vesevvoiv oJ suppovl Ieing accunuIaled on a da-lo-
da Iasis lIvougI lIe oulpuls oJ decisions.6 TIe suppovl oIlained
lIvougI poIilicizalion lends lo Ie veIaliveI-aIlIougI, as ve Iave seen,
nol vIoII-independenl oJ lIe vagavies oJ da-lo-da oulpuls.
WIen lIe Iasic poIilicaI allacInenls Iecone deepI vooled ov in-
slilulionaIized, ve sa lIal lIe sslen Ias Iecone accepled as Iegilinale.
FoIilicizalion lIeveJove eJJecliveI suns up lIe va in vIicI Iegilinac
is cvealed and lvansnilled in a poIilicaI sslen. And il is an enpivicaI
oIsevvalion lIal in lIose inslances vIeve poIilicaI sslens Iave suvvived
lIe Iongesl, suppovl Ias Ieen nouvisIed I an ingvained IeIieJ in lIe
Iegilinac oJ lIe veIevanl govevnnenls and vegines.
WIal I an suggesling Ieve is lIal suppovl vesling on a sense oJ lIe
Iegilinac oJ a govevnnenl and vegine pvovides a necessav vesevve iJ
lIe sslen is lo vealIev lIose Jvequenl slovns vIen lIe nove oIvious
oulpuls oJ lIe sslen seen lo inpose gvealev IavdsIips lIan vevavds.
Ansvevs lo queslions concevning lIe Jovnalion, nainlenance, lvansnis-
6
In pvinilive sslens, poIilicizalion, nol oulpuls oJ decisions, is novnaII lIe cIieJ
necIanisn.
400 WOBLB FOLITICS
sion, and cIange oJ slandavds oJ Iegilinac viII conlviIule genevousI
lo an undevslanding oJ lIe va in vIicI suppovl is suJJicienlI insli-
lulionaIized so lIal a sslen na veguIavI and vilIoul excessive
expendiluve oJ eJJovl lvansJovn inpuls oJ denand inlo oulpuls oJ
decisions.
TIal lIeve is a need Jov genevaI lIeov in lIe slud oJ poIilicaI IiJe
is appavenl. TIe onI queslion is Iov Iesl lo pvoceed. TIeve is no one
voaI voad lIal can Ie said lo Ie eilIev lIe covvecl one ov lIe Iesl. Il
is onI a nallev oJ vIal appeavs al lIe given IeveI oJ avaiIaIIe InovI-
edge lo Ie lIe nosl useJuI. Al lIis slage il appeavs lIal sslen lIeov,
vilI ils sensilivil lo lIe inpul-oulpul excIange Ielveen a sslen and
ils selling oJJevs a JvuilJuI appvoacI. Il is an econonicaI va oJ ovgan-
izing pvesenlI disconnecled poIilicaI dala and pvonises inlevesling
dividends.