Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
and G
C
are opposite to each other in their reactance.
'he total opposition offered by the &, G
and G
C
is called the i-pedance which is denoted
by F. @nit of impedance is ohm.
+.5 Resonant freCuency
&esonant fre6uency is a very important term used in radio theory. Construction of many
radio circuits such as filters, oscillators and even antenna depend upon the resonant fre6uency.
Ahat is resonant freCuencyR We have learned that both capacitors and inductors offer
varying degrees of reactance 4opposition5 to flow of current through them.
Capacitors totally block DC and offer lesser and lesser reactance to increasing AC
fre6uencies. Putting this in a formula will be (
#
V +=.Wf# 40\ is a constant5
(nductors offer Kero reactance to DC and offer higher and higher reactance to increasing AC
fre6uencies. Putting this in a formula will be (
L
V .WfL 40\ is a constant5
When an inductor and capacitor are connected in a circuit 4series or parallel, depending
upon the circuit re6uirements5, both will offer reactance to the input signal depending upon the
values of C, and f 4f T signal fre6uency5. (f C and are kept constant and f is varied, there must
be one particular fre6uency for which G
T G
C
. Since G
and G
C
are opposite to each other, they
cancel each other totally at this particular fre6uency. 'his fre6uency is called the resonant
freCuency. Putting the resonant fre6uency in a formula<
?!
fr
0
*
!
where
f is the fre6uency in "ertK
] is the wavelength in metres
*A?
C is the speed of >7 wave in space which is constant /+,++,++,+++ metres2sec.
<xample< %re6uency of an >7 wave is *+ 7ega "K. What is its wavelengthV
.nswer<
] T
BH
;etres
*++++++ *+
*++++++++ /
T /+ metres
N )ne 7ega "K is *+
?
"K
<xample< (f the wavelength of a radio wave is /++++ metres, what is the fre6uency of the waveV
.nswer<
f T
;etres
;etres
/++++
*++++++++ /
T *++++ "K T *+ ;"K 4* ;"K T *+++ "K5
Dy the above e!amples, it can be seen that lower fre6uencies have longer wave lengths and
higher fre6uencies have shorter wavelengths.
..5 Antenna
'his e6uation is very important in designing the radio e6uipment, especially the antenna.
ength of an antenna depends upon the fre6uency it is supposed to radiate. 'he correct length of the
antenna will determine the efficiency with which it radiates ma!imum energy without wastage.
'hus, if either fre6uency or wavelength is given, the other can be calculated by using the above
formula.
A radiating antenna is most efficient when its length is e!actly e6ual to half wavelength of
the fre6uency it radiates. A half wavelength antenna is known as a dipole antenna.
<xample< What is the length of a dipole antenna re6uired to radiate *++ 7"KV
.nswer< @sing the formula we get a full wavelength<
4/ ! *+
B
5 = 4*++ ! *+
?5
T / mtr
'herefore, the dipole length will be /20 T *.3 mtr
>ven a dipole antenna is considered large to be installed on aircraft. An antenna called
unipole has a length e6ual to a 6uarter wavelength. 'hus, smallest length of an antenna for a given
fre6uency is one 6uarter of the wavelength, i.e. a unipole. 'his is the most favoured antenna on
aircraft. A unipole antenna is usually installed 1ertically 4or perpendicular to the surface of
installation5 because it uses its own reflection on the installed surface to act as a dipole antenna. (n
the above e!ample, the unipole antenna length will be A3 cms.
..6 %olarisation
As already mentioned, an >7 wave has two oscillating fields mutually perpendicular to
each other and to the direction of propagation. 'he electric field 4>5 will be parallel to the antenna
wire from which it was radiated and the magnetic field 4"5 will be perpendicular to the antenna
wire. An >7 wave whose > component is perpendicular to ground is called a 1ertically polarised
wave and an >7 wave whose > component is parallel to the ground is called a horiDontally
polarised wave. A vertical antenna radiates vertically polarised waves 4since the " field surrounds
the antenna wire and is perpendicular to it5 and a horiKontal antenna radiates horiKontally polarised
waves.
..7 Audio and Radio FreCuency Spectru-
%re6uencies within the fre6uency range from 0+ "K to 0+ ;"K are called audio freCuencies
4AF5. %re6uencies within this band in the form of sound energy can be heard by the human ear.
&adio fre6uency spectrum is divided into different fre6uency ranges or fre6uency bands.
'he different bands and their respective fre6uency ranges are given below<
*AA
,ery ow %re6uency 4,%5 / # /+ ;"K
ow %re6uency 4%5 /+ # /++ ;"K
7edium %re6uency 47%5 /++ ;"K # / 7"K
"igh %re6uency 4"%5 / # /+ 7"K
,ery "igh %re6uency 4,"%5 /+ # /++ 7"K
@ltra "igh %re6uency 4@"%5 /++ 7"K # / 9"KN
Super "igh %re6uency 4S"%5 / # /+ 9"K
>!tremely "igh %re6uency 4>"%5 /+ # /++ 9"K
N* 9"K T *+++ 7"K T *+
-
"K
&adio waves of fre6uency /9"K and above are called microwaves because of their small
wavelengths. etter identifiers are designated to fre6uency bands used for radar. Different
organisations give different designations and there is no universal agreement on these designations.
Commonly used designations are given below<
band *.+ # *.3 9"K
S band *.3 # /.- 9"K
C band /.- # B.+ 9"K
G band B.+ # *0.3 9"K
;u band *0.3 # *B.+ 9"K
; band *B.+ # 0?.3 9"K
;a band 0?.3 # .+.+ 9"K
, band .+.+ # B+.+ 9"K
1 band B+.+ # *A+.+ 9"K
A band Above *A+.+ 9"K
..8 Radio Aa1e %ropa/ation
Antenna of a transmitter radiates &% waves in the form of electromagnetic energy. 'hese &%
waves travel through different media until they reach the antenna of a receiver. 'his travel is termed
as the propagation or the >7 waves. 'he various methods of propagation depend largely on the
fre6uency of the &% wave and also on the earth environment. Different methods of radio wave
propagation are discussed in the paragraphs below.
..8.+ Ground (Surface) Aa1es
9round waves progress along the surface of the earth. 'he reasons for the ground waves
propagating along the curved surface of the earth are two<
4a5 A phenomenon called diffraction which causes the wave to bend around any obstacle it passes.
4b5 Due to diffraction, the wave starts tilting towards the ground. As the tilting increases with
distance, and short circuiting of the electrical component causes currents to flow in the earthFs
surface. 'his is loss of energy for the wave and it bends over more. 'his phenomenon is called
surface attenuation.
%re6uencies of ,%, % and lower end of 7% bands propagate as ground waves. 9round
waves are used for navigation systems working in ,%, % and lower portion of the 7% bands.
..8.. Sky Aa1es
>7 waves are prone to a phenomenon called refraction. When there is change in the
density of the medium through which the >7 wave is propagating, the wave changes direction.
'his phenomenon is similar to the refraction of light. When >7 waves of "% and upper end of 7%
bands travel upwards towards the sky, they enter the ionosphere. 'he ionosphere density changes
with altitude and as the >7 wave travels upwards it starts bending due to refraction. @nder
favourable conditions, the wave will return back to earth at an angle by which it seems that the
*AB
wave has been reflected by the ionosphere. Such >7 waves which are returned to earth by the
ionosphere are called sky a1es. %re6uencies of higher portion of 7% and "% bands behave as sky
waves.
'he ionosphere has four main layers namely, D at the lowest level, >, %
*
and %
0
at the
highest level. Density of ions is least in the D layer and increases as we go higher up and is the
highest in the %
0
layer. (mportance of these layers is as follows<
4a5 2 layer # e!ists at an average height of A+ km with thickness of *+ km. Disappears at night.
&eflects some ,% and % waves and absorbs 7% and "% waves to a certain e!tent.
4b5 ! layer # e!ists at an average height of *++ km with thickness of around 03 km. Disappears
during night. 'his layer helps the 7% ground wave propagation and reflects some "% waves
during day.
4c5 F
+
layer # e!ists at a height of *B+ km during day time and combines with %
0
layer during night.
Daytime thickness is about 0+ km. Absorbs "% waves.
4d5 F
.
layer # e!ists at height from 03+ km to .++ km during daytime and /++ km during night.
'hickness is about 0++ km. 7ain effect of this layer is to reflect 4by gradual refraction5 the "%
waves back towards the earth.
'he ionosphere is also responsible for attenuation 4reduction in strength5 of the >7 wave.
>7 waves are absorbed on the way up and also on the way down after reflection.
..8...+ #ritical FreCuency
'he highest fre6uency that will be returned to earth by a layer after having been transmitted
towards the sky 4any fre6uency higher than this would pass through the ionosphere into space5.
Critical fre6uency is particular for a layer. (t can be seen from figure 0.0 that lower fre6uencies are
refracted at lower levels of the ionosphere and higher fre6uencies travel higher up before being
refracted.
Fi/ ... #ritical freCuency and an/le
..8.... #ritical An/le
'he highest take off angle 4to the normal5 that will return a sky wave to earth under specific
ionospheric conditions is called critical an/le. (f the angle is any higher, the sky wave will escape
into space without being refracted.
..8...0 Skip 2istance
Skip distance is the shortest distance from a transmitter, measured along the surface of earth,
at which the first sky wave returns to earth.
*A-
..8...5 Skip Fone
(t is also known as silent Done or dead space. When using 7% and "%, the waves will travel
both as ground waves and sky waves. A skip Kone is a region between the furthest points at which
the ground wave can be received and the nearest point at which the refracted sky waves can be
received. (n this Kone, ground waves would have died down 4due to attenuation5 and sky waves do
not reach because of the larger angle of return. 1o signal can be received in the skip Kone.
Fi/ ..0 Skip distance and skip Done
..8...6 Sin/le *op and )ulti *op %ropa/ation
'he sky wave refracted from the ionosphere can be reflected back to the ionosphere by the
earthFs surface. %or this reflection to take place, the signal must be sufficiently strong. So the sky
wave may have a single hop or multi hop propagation. 'his way, the wave can reach very far
distances.
Fi/ ..5 Sin/le and -ultiple hop propa/ation
..8...7 Fadin/
When two waves, of the same signal which left the transmitter at the same time but reach the
receiver through different paths, will have difference in phase. (f both are in$phase, signal strength
will increase and if both are out$of$phase, signal strength will decrease. (f both waves are e!actly
out of phase and of the same amplitude, they may totally cancel each other. 'his fluctuation of
signal strength when it arrives at the receiver is called fadin/. 'he different paths taken by the
waves are due to<
4a5 refraction by different layers of ionosphere
4b5 sky waves arriving after different number of hops
4c5 wave reaching the receiver as ground wave and sky wave
*B+
..8...8 2ay and $i/ht FreCuencies
A problem that e!ists with sky wave communication is the change in density of ionosphere
during day and night. )n the night side of the earth, solar radiation does not reach the lower layers
of ionosphere. "ence, the ions which were created during day by the solar radiation bombardment,
recombine to form molecules which are electrically neutral. 'his brings down the ion density
appreciably. 'he effect is that the sky wave which would have been refracted by a lower
ionospheric layer during day time 4high ion density5 will travel further up into the ionosphere before
being refracted back to earth. 'he angle of refraction increases and the wave reaches the ground
much farther than it would have reached during the day. 'his problem is greater during sun rise and
sun set due to the rapidly changing ion density.
Solution to this problem is using a higher fre6uency during the day and a lower fre6uency
during the night. 'his is what is done in aircraft "% communication. >ach &DA&A and 7WA&A
has different fre6uencies for day and night use.
..8...9 Ad1anta/es and 2isad1anta/es of Sky Aa1es
7ain advantage of sky wave is the long range of communication possible. )ther advantage
of "% is that a single transmission can be received at different distances. Disadvantages are many<
"% band is more susceptible to atmospheric interference, bandwidth available is small, change of
fre6uencies during day and night, skip Kone and fading of signal. Dandwidth problem is somewhat
reduced by single side band 4SSD5 techni6ue. Sky wave communication is gradually being replaced
by SA'C)7 and &CA9 in aviation.
..8.0 Space Aa1es
,"% and above fre6uencies travel in straight lines. 'his is termed as Line of Si/ht 4L"S5
communication because the transmitting antenna must see the receiving antenna for the waves to
reach. 'hese waves do not bend along with the curvature of earth and if aimed at the ionosphere,
they will pass through to space rather than being refracted. Such waves are called space a1es. Any
tall or massive ob:ect in between the transmitting and receiving antennae will obstruct the waves
from reaching the receiving antenna. 'he area on the other side of the obstructing ob:ect 4or beyond
the horiKon5, looked from the transmitting side, will receive no signal and this is called the shado
Done.
Fi/ ..6 Space a1e co--unication
'hus, the range of communication using space waves depends on the height of transmitter
and receiver antennae. 'he formula which gives the range of communication using space waves is<
*.0/4 hr O ht 5 17
Where h
r
is the height 4in feet5 of the receiver antenna above sea level
h
t
is the height 4in feet5 of the transmitter antenna above sea level
17 is nautical miles.
*B*
(f an aircraft is flying at *+,+++ ft, appro!imate ma!imum range of communication using
,"% would be *0/ 17 400- ;m5 with the ground stations at sea level. Similarly, for an aircraft
flying at *+++ ft altitude, the ma!imum communication range would be /- 17 4A/ ;m5 with the
ground station at sea level.
With the above e!amples, it can be seen that the height of the aircraft plays an important
role in the range of space wave communications. 'hough the limited range of communications of
,"% is a disadvantage, it also enables the usa/e of sa-e freCuencies at different places. %or
e!ample, A'S units at Chennai, Delhi, ;olkata and 7umbai use the same fre6uency for their
services 4'W& # **B.* 7"K, APP # *0A.- 7"K, S7C # *0*.- 7"K5
..8.0.+ Superrefraction (2uctin/)
@nder certain atmospheric conditions such as temperature inversion, complete bending
down of the space waves takes place from the layer of atmosphere as low as :ust /+ metres from the
ground. 'hus, space waves are refracted back to the earth and reflected back by the surface,
continuously, and they propagate around the curvature of the earth for a long distance which
sometimes e!ceeds *+++ km. 'his phenomenon is called superrefraction. (t is also called ductin/
because the earth surface and the refracting layer of the atmosphere act like a duct for propagation
of waves.
Fi/ ..7 2uctin/ pheno-enonX space a1e tra1els ?eyond horiDon
..9 Basic Radio %rinciples
Audio fre6uencies 4such as a pilotFs speech5 are converted into electrical energy by a
microphone. (f attempt is made to radiate this energy directly, it will pose certain problems< audio
fre6uencies are low fre6uencies with large wavelengths, this would re6uire enormous siKe of
antenna to radiate the energy efficiently. %or e!ample human speech which is normally in the range
of / ;"K would re6uire an antenna length of *,++,+++ metres 4*++ ;7s5. >ven if half or 6uarter
wavelength antenna is used it would still be 3+ or 03 ;7s long. Another problem is that the A%
band is 0+ "K to 0+;"K which is a bandwidth of *-.BB ;"K. ,ery few channels can be
accommodated and even then, all the transmissions would be hopelessly mi!ed up. 'hird problem is
that very high power would be re6uired to transmit such low fre6uencies to enable them to travel
long distances. 'o overcome these problems a process called -odulation is used for radio
communications.
..9.+ )odulation
7odulation is the process of superimposing audio fre6uency over radio fre6uency.
Advantages are< &% has higher fre6uencies which re6uire shorter antennae8 &% spectrum has very
large bandwidth which can accommodate a large number of channels8 transmission power will be
very less because of the higher fre6uencies. 7odulation is done in the transmitter. Dasically there
are two types of modulation in analogue radio communications8 4i5 Amplitude modulation 4ii5
Angle modulation. Angle modulation has two types namely, fre6uency and phase modulations.
..9.+.+ A-plitude )odulation (A))
(n this type of modulation, the amplitude of the &% is made to change as per the amplitude
of the A%. 1ormal &' communication is amplitude modulated. %igure below illustrates the concept.
*B0
'he &% carrier, which has a much higher fre6uency than the A%, gets shaped according to
the shape of the A% which is the modulating wave. (t can be seen that, if the peaks of the modulated
result wave are :oined by a line, it takes the shape of the modulating wave.
Fi/. ..8 A-plitude -odulation
..9.+.. FreCuency )odulation (A))
(n this type of modulation, the fre6uency of the carrier is varied according to the amplitude
of the A% wave. When the amplitude of the modulating wave increases, the fre6uency of the carrier
&% increases and when the amplitude of the modulating wave decreases, the fre6uency of the carrier
&% decreases. %igure below illustrates the concept.
Fi/. ..9 FreCuency -odulation
%re6uency modulation is used in commercial %7 broadcast 4BB$*+B 7"K5 and also satellite
communications. SA'C)7 e6uipment fitted in aircraft use %7 in con:unction with the ,"%
communication e6uipment.
*B/
..9.+.0 %hase )odulation (%))
'his is a variant of %re6uency 7odulation in which the phase of the &% carrier is varied as
per the amplitude of the amplitude of the modulating wave 4A%5. Phase and %re6uency modulations
fall under the broad category of An/le -odulation.
Fi/. ..: %hase -odulation
..9.+.5 %ulse )odulation
'here is another class of modulation which is called pulse modulation in which the carrier is
a series of pulses and not sinusoidal. 'his can be further categorised into Pulse Amplitude
7odulation 4PA75, Pulse Width 7odulation 4PW75, Pulse Position 7odulation 4PP75 and Pulse
Code 7odulation 4PC75.
(n pulse modulation, the &% carrier pulses are modulated depending upon the amplitude of
the modulating wave.
Fi/ ..+; Types of pulse -odulation
*B.
..9.. 2e-odulation
Demodulation is the separation of A% from the carrier &%. 'his is the reverse process of
modulation. Demodulation is done in the receiver.
..9.0 Basic Trans-itter
A basic transmitter must accept the audio input, convert it into A%, modulate it with &%,
amplify the modulated signal to sufficient power and then transmit it. 'his is in very brief the
process of transmission of intelligence in the form of >7 waves. %igure 0.** puts the process in
block diagram form.
Fi/. ..++ Basic trans-itter ?lock dia/ra-
(n the A% chain microphone converts the speech into A% and feeds into the audio levelling
and processing circuits. %re6uency and amplitude of the A% are standardised here. 'he output of
this circuit is a weak signal which is pre$amplified and then fed to the A% amplifier. "ere, the A% is
further amplified and fed to the modulator. (n the modulator the level of A% is raised again to be
sufficient to modulate the &% carrier. 'hough this block is called the modulator, actual process of
modulation does not take place here.
(n the &% chain, the &% oscillator 4mostly a crystal oscillator5 provides the &% carrier.
Similar to the A%, this carrier signal is amplified in multiple stages and fed to the &% output power
amplifier. 'his is where the actual process of modulation takes place. 'he &% carrier is shaped as
per the type of modulation used and fed to the antenna from where it is radiated.
..9.5 Side Bands
Whenever two fre6uencies 4such as A% and &%5 are mi!ed together, as in the process of
modulation, the result will be generation of many fre6uencies. Assuming f
1
and f
'
are the &% and
A% fre6uencies being mi!ed, the output of such a process will consist of not only the original
fre6uencies but also the sum 4f
1
Y f
2
5 and difference 4f
1
& f
2
5 of those two fre6uencies and their
har-onics 4harmonics are multiples of the original, sum and difference fre6uencies5. 'hus the
output fre6uencies will be
f
1
, f
2
, 4f
1
Y f
2
5, 4f
1
& f
2
5, and multiples 4harmonics5 of these fre6uencies ^0f
1
, /f
1
U. 0f
'
, /f
'
U
04f
1
O f
'
5, /4f
1
O f
'
5, 04f
1
# f
'
5, /4f
1
# f
'
5Uetc_
'he harmonics are not of importance in A7 4in %7, harmonics are re6uired for clarity of
reception5. A% is not re6uired at the output and &% is the unmodulated carrier. Doth the sum and
difference fre6uencies are the modulated signals at radio fre6uencies. f
1
# f
'
will be a lower
fre6uency than the &% carrier 4f
1
5 and f
1
O f
'
will be higher than the &% carrier 4f
1
5. 'hese two
fre6uencies are called the side bands to the &% carrier. 'he lower fre6uency is the Loer Side
Band 4LSB5 and the higher fre6uency is called 4pper Side Band 44SB5. Doth side bands carry the
identical information obtained from the A%.
(n figure 0.*0, the sum, difference bands and the &% carrier are shown. A% is not shown
because it is a very low fre6uency and will be much distant on the left side of difference fre6uency.
*B3
Fi/ ..+. Su- and difference freCuency ?ands ith RF carrier in the centre
7odulation can be carried out anywhere in the &% chain and the reason why it is done in the
last stage is to simplify the circuits of all the blocks so that they do not have to operate in a wider
bandwidth.
(n ,"% communication, both the side bands are transmitted along with the carrier. 'his type
of communication which contains both side bands is called 2ou?le Side Band 42SB5. "owever, in
"% only one side band is transmitted to conserve bandwidth 4See paragraph 0.A.0.B above5. 'his is
called Sin/le Side Band 4SSB5 techni6ue. 'his also re6uires loer poer for transmission.
..9.6 Basic Recei1er
A basic receiver must receive the >7 waves transmitted by the transmitter antenna, process
the received signal and present2display the output for the user. As the >7 waves cross the receiver
antenna, voltages are induced in the antenna. 'hese voltages are fed to the &% stage. &% stage
consists of filters and amplifier circuits. (n the &% stage, all the unwanted signals are filtered out
and the re6uired signal is amplified to a suitable level. 'his amplified signal is then demodulated to
separate the A% from the carrier &%. 'his is done in the demodulator stage. )utput of the
demodulator is A% which is fed to the audio amplification stage. )utput of the audio amplifier is fed
to the speaker2headset.
A practical receiver is much more complicated than the one described above. A practical
receiver has a stage called -i,er after the &% stage. 'he purpose of mi!er is to reduce the
fre6uency of the received signal to a lower fre6uency. %or this, the mi!er receives a fre6uency from
a signal source called the local oscillator. Doth the fre6uencies are mi!ed in the mi!er and the
outcome is e!actly as described in 0.?./.0. )riginal two fre6uencies, sum fre6uency, difference
fre6uency and harmonics will be the outputs. All these are passed through a filter which passes only
the difference fre6uency and blocks all others. 'he output of mi!er 4the difference fre6uency5 is
called the 'nter-ediate FreCuency 4'F5 which will be much lesser than the received &%. 'he
process of mi!ing two fre6uencies to get a third fre6uency is called superheterodynin/. (% has the
same waveform as the original modulated &%. (% is fed to the demodulator stage where the signal is
detected and the A% is separated from the carrier. 'he separated audio is fed to the audio amplifier
stage and finally fed to the speaker. %igure 0.*/ shows the process in a block diagram.
..9.6.+ Gan/ed Tunin/
When a particular fre6uency is to be received, the receiver has to be tuned to that particular
fre6uency. Since voltages due to many signals will be present at the antenna, only the re6uired
fre6uency must be passed through and the rest should be blocked. &% filters, &% amplifier, 7i!er
and the ocal )scillator are tuned together to the re6uired fre6uency by /an/ed tunin/.
..9.6.. Local "scillator
'he local oscillator 4.)5 provides a fre6uency which is always e6ual to the sum of the
received signal fre6uency and the (%. (f the receiver is tuned to *+++ ;"K, .) will produce *.33
;"K and if the receiver is tuned to *0++ ;"K, the .) will produce *?33 ;"K. 'hus, the (% 4.) #
*B?
&%5 will always be .33 ;"K. A constant fre"uenc# difference is maintained between the .) and
&% circuits. 'his constant fre6uency difference is always e6ual to the (%.
Fi/. ..+0 Superheterodyne recei1er
..9.6.0 Superheterodynin/
7ain purposes of superheterodyning are<
4a5 to bring down the received signal to a lower fre6uency which re6uires simpler components and
circuit designs
4b5 to avoid tuning of the stages after the &% 4and 7i!er5 to new fre6uencies whenever a channel
change is re6uired.
Some receivers employ more than one stage of mi!er8 such receivers are called double or
triple superheterodyne receivers.
..9.6.5 Auto-atic Gain #ontrol
'he phenomenon of fading has been discussed in 0.3.0.?. 'o overcome the effect of fading,
a circuit called A9C is employed in a receiver. (t keeps the audio output constant by providing
feedback to the &%, 7i!er and (% stages during variation in the strength of the received signal.
Weaker signals are amplified more and stronger signals are amplified less, thereby ensuring a
constant audio output. 'his is also called the Auto-atic Volu-e #ontrol 4AV#5.
..9.6.6 Beat FreCuency "scillator
A communication receiver may be re6uired to receive 7orse code transmissions, i.e. pulse
modulated &% carrier. Since there is no audio component in the pulse modulated &% carrier, the
?eat freCuency oscillator 4BF"5 provides the demodulator with a fre6uency * ;"K 4or .++ "K5
above or below the (%. 'his enables the receiver to produce whistling tones 4in dots and dashes5
whenever pulse modulated &% carrier is received. D%) function can be switched on2off by a switch.
..9.6.7 SCuelch
When there is no signal to be received, the receiver will receive atmospheric noise. When
this noise reaches the headset, it will be very annoying to the operator. 'o avoid this, a circuit called
sCuelch is used which switches off the audio stage when there is no carrier present at the
demodulator stage. 'his prevents the audio stage from amplifying the noise and feeding it to the
speaker. 'his is also called )ute.
..9.6.8 Eualities of a Good Recei1er
A good receiver must have the following four 6ualities<
4a5 Sensiti1ity< Ability to receive weak signals and amplify them.
*BA
4b5 Selecti1ity< Ability to select the desired fre6uency and re:ect all others from the signals that are
present at the antenna.
4c5 Sta?ility< Ability to stay tuned to the desired fre6uency, without drifting, over a period of time.
4d5 Fidelity< Ability to faithfully reproduce the original audio from the received signal.
..9.7 Transcei1ers
'ransceiver 4also called transrecei1er5 is an e6uipment which is a combination of a
transmitter and a receiver. During transmission, the transmitter part is active and at other times, by
default, the receiver is active.
Some circuits of a receiver and transmitter can be commonly utilised. 'he antenna has to be
switched between the transmitter and the receiver for transmission and reception respectively. 'he
local oscillator also can be utilised by both. A typical transceiver block diagram is shown in figure
0.*..
Fi/ ..+5 Transcei1er ?lock dia/ra-
'he transceiver consists of a transmitter block and a receive block. 'he transmitter block
contains all the stages of a transmitter shown in figure 0.** e!cept the &% source oscillator.
Similarly, the receiver block consists of all the stages of a receiver shown in figure 0.*/ e!cept the
local oscillator.
A local oscillator 4.)5 provides a stable fre6uency to a device called Synthesiser. 'he
synthesiser produces re6uired fre6uencies and feeds it to the transmitter as the &% carrier. 'he
synthesiser also feeds the fre6uency to the receiver for mi!ing in the receiver.
When the pilot selects a channel on the control unit in the cockpit, the tuning signals are
sent to the synthesiser, transmitter and receiver blocks. All the relevant components get tuned to the
re6uired fre6uencies.
'he transmit$receive relay 4'!$&! &elay5 keeps the antenna connected to the receiver by
default. 'o transmit, pilot presses a %ress>To>Talk or %ush>To>Talk 4%TT5 button, usually located
on the control column. 'his operation activates the '!$&! relay and the antenna is connected to the
transmitter block and the signal is radiated out. As soon as the P'' is released, the relay connects
the antenna back to the receiver.
..: Types of #o--unication
Communications can be in only one direction or two directions, using one fre6uency for
both transmit and receive or two fre6uencies, simultaneous transmit and receive or non$
simultaneous, etc.
*BB
4a5 Si-ple,< A method in which telecommunication between two stations takes place in one
direction at a time. When applying this term to aeronautical communication, it is further subdivided
as<
4i5 Sin/le #hannel Si-ple, 4S.#.S5< Simple! using the same fre6uency channel in each direction.
Communication in which a station can either transmit or receive at a time, but not simultaneous,
using the same fre6uency for both transmit and receive and one single antenna for both functions.
4'his is also called half>duple,5. &' communication of aircraft and Walkie$talkie are e!amples of
S.C.S.
4ii5 2ou?le #hannel Si-ple, 42.#.S5< Simple! using two fre6uency channels, one in each
direction. Communication using two different fre6uencies, one for transmit and one for receive, but
not simultaneous. Aircraft e6uipped with SA'C)7 will have %7 D.C.S in addition to A7 S.C.S.
'his is also called cross ?and.
4iii5 "ffset FreCuency Si-ple,< A variation of single channel simple! wherein telecommunication
between two stations is effected by using in each direction fre6uencies that are intentionally slightly
different but contained within a portion of the spectrum allotted for the operation.
4b5 Full 2uple,< A method in which telecommunication between two stations can take place in
both directions simultaneously. Simultaneous two$way communication using two different
fre6uencies, one each for transmit and receive. and line and cell phones are e!amples of this
techni6ue.
..+; !-ission 2esi/nators
('@ has assigned designators for the types of >7 waves that are used in radio
communication. 'his includes the simplest type of transmissions i.e. unmodulated carrier to the
comple! types which include digital data transmissions. 'he emission designators are listed below<
First sy-?ol > type of -odulation of the -ain carrierB
$ >mission of an unmodulated carrier
>missions in which the main carrier is amplitude$modulated 4including cases where sub$carriers are
angle$modulated5<
A Double$sideband
* Single$sideband, full carrier
I Single$sideband, suppressed carrier
>mission in which the main carrier is angle modulated<
F %re6uency modulation
G Phase modulation
2 >mission in which the main carrier is amplitude$ and angle$modulated either simultaneously
or in a pre$established se6uence
>mission of pulses
% Se6uence of unmodulated pulses
K Se6uence of pulses modulated in amplitude
L Se6uence of pulses modulated in width2duration
) Se6uence of pulses modulated in position2phase
( Cases otherwise not covered
*B-
Second sy-?ol > nature of si/nal(s) -odulatin/ the -ain carrier
; 1o modulating signal
+ A single channel containing 6uantiKed or digital information ithout the use of a
modulating sub$carrier
. A single channel containing 6uantiKed or digital information ith the use of a modulating
sub$carrier
0 A single channel containing analogue information
8 'wo or more channels containing 6uantiKed or digital information
9 'wo or more channels containing analogue information
: Composite system with one or more channels containing 6uantiKed or digital information,
together with one or more channels containing analogue information
( Cases not otherwise covered
Third sy-?ol > type of infor-ation to ?e trans-itted
$ 1o information transmitted
A 'elegraphy $ for aural reception
B 'elegraphy $ for automatic reception
# %acsimile 4%a!5
2 Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand
! 'elephony 4including sound broadcasting5
F 'elevision 4video5
A Combination of the above
( Cases not otherwise covered
..+;.+ Aircraft #o--unication and $a1i/ation Syste- !-ission 2esi/nators
1on Directional Deacon 41DD5 1+1 A*A, 1+1 A0A
"% C/>
S>CA "0D
,"% A/>
>' A/G
,D% A/%
(S ABW
,)& A-W
D7> P+1
> > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >
*-+
#*A%T!R 0
A'R#RAFT #"))4$'#AT'"$ A$2 V"'#! S3ST!)S
0.+ 'ntroduction
An aircraft must have provision to carry out two$way communication with the ground
control during any phase of its flight. (t means, both the aircraft and ground control must be able to
call the other at any phase. Droadly speaking, flight of an aircraft involves two phases< terminal
phase and the en$route phase. During the terminal phase, aircraft is within the range of ,"%
communication, therefore this is called terminal communication. During the en$route phase when
the aircraft is out of range of ,"% communication, the advantage of "% is used to maintain
communication, and is called en$route communication. Advantages and disadvantages of both types
of communications have been discussed in the previous chapter. (n this chapter, the airborne voice
communication and associated systems will be discussed. Also, >mergency ocator 'ransmitter
4>'5 used for Search and &escue 4SA&5 will be discussed. %re6uency ranges used for the voice
communication systems are given below.
Syste- FreCuency ?and
"% communication 0.B 7"K # 00 7"K
,"% communication **A.-A3 7"K # */A 7"K
0.. V*F #o--unication Syste-
,"% communication has the advantages of being less susceptible to atmospheric noise and
wider bandwidth. ,"% system utilises the Double Side Dand %ull Carrier 4DSD %C5 techni6ue in
which both the side bands and the full carrier are transmitted. Channel spacing can be 03 ;"K or
B.// ;"K. 'he principle of a transceiver has been discussed in the last chapter. (n this chapter, the
installation, controls and operations of this system will be discussed. &eceivers designed for
military purposes will also work in @"% range.
0...+ 'nstallation
A small aircraft will have at least one ,"% communication system and a larger aircraft will
have two 4or even three5 identical ,"% systems for redundancy. 'he system usually has three sub$
assemblies, v.i.K., transceiver, control unit and the antenna. 'ransceiver is fitted in the avionics rack
and the control unit is fitted in the cockpit. (n some systems, the transceiver and the control unit are
combined into one bo! and fitted in the cockpit. (n some other systems, the ,"% communication
and the ,"% 1avigation system 4,)&2(S5 are combined together in one unit.
'he antenna is fitted on the e!ternal of the aircraft. Antenna length is designed for mid$
fre6uency of the ,"% fre6uency band. 'ype of antenna can be hip or ?lade.
'ransmitted power output ranges from 03$3+ Watts. &eceiver sensitivity may be
appro!imately 0 micro volts.
0.... Guard Recei1er
7ost of the ,2@"% transceivers will have a built in guard$receiver which guards the distress
fre6uencies of *0*.3 7"K and 0./ 7"K. (f there is any transmission on these two channels, the
receiver automatically receives the signals though it is tuned to another fre6uency appropriate to the
terminal operations.
0...0 #ontrols and "peration< Controls and operations of a typical ,"% system are discussed in
the following paragraphs. 'he design and locations of the controls may vary in different models.
4*5 "n="ff & Volu-e control< @sed for switching on and off the system and controlling the system
audio volume.
*-*
405 FreCuency display< Displays the selected fre6uency and D('> results.
4/5 #hannel selector< 'o select any of the preloaded fre6uencies. 7anual position is used for in$
flight programming.
4.5 )ode selector< @sed to select the mode of operation. 7ay have different modes 4depending
upon the manufacturer5 such as Continuous Wave, 7odulated Continuous Wave, A7 DSD,
"oming, &adio &elay and Data. When this knob is placed in CW position, internal BF" is
activated.
435 2ata entry keypad< @sed to enter the fre6uency. Some older models may have rotary knobs
instead of keypads.
Fi/ 0.+ V=4*F co--unication syste- control unit
4?5 SCuelch< 'o switch on2off the s6uelch function. During weak signal reception or reduced
receiver sensitivity conditions, the pilot may choose to keep the s6uelch in off.
4A5 B'T!< Built>'n>Test>!Cuip-ent is a self$diagnostics system incorporated within the
transceiver. (t checks the whole system for errors and provides indications for the same.
(n older models, where channel selector is not available, two fre6uencies can be selected.
)ne fre6uency is Acti1e freCuency and the other is Stand?y freCuency. (n case the pilot wants a
fast change of fre6uency, he can do so by transferring the standby fre6uency into active mode with
the help of a Transfer sitch.
(n modern aircraft, the controls and displays of most of the communication and navigation
systems are provided in one unit called the )ulti Function #ontrol 2isplay 4nit 4)#245 or
)ulti Function 2isplay 4)F25. Different controls are selected by menus.
0.0 *F #o--unication Syste-
"% system takes advantage of the long range of the sky wave communication and is used for
en$route communication. 1arrow bandwidth of "% is overcome by SSD and reduced channel
spacing which can be * ;"K or even as less as *++ "K. 'his sacrifices the voice clarity to a certain
e!tent. 'he transmitter and the receiver basics are the same as described in the previous chapter.
0.0.+ 'nstallation
ight aircraft may have one low powered "% communication system whereas large airliners
may have twin high powered systems for redundancy. "% communication system usually consists
of a transceiver, antenna tuning unit, control unit and antenna. (n some installations, there may be a
separate power amplifier unit to amplify the transmission signals. 'he control unit is fitted in the
cockpit 4or available in the 7CD@5, rest of the units, e!cept the antenna, are fitted in avionics
racks.
'he antenna type depends on the type of aircraft. ight aircraft with low powered "% system
may have hip antenna. ow$speed aircraft may have a long ire antenna. arge aircraft have
*-0
notch antenna which is a slot cut into the aircraft structure. (n this type, the aircraft body itself acts
as antenna. Another type is a pro?e antenna fitted at either of the wing$tips or on top of vertical
stabiliser.
'he antenna tuning unit 4A'@5 is re6uired due to the large difference in wavelength at both
ends of the "% band. 4*3+ metres at 07"K and *+ metres at /+7"K5. A'@ electrically tunes the
antenna to the selected fre6uency.
'ransmitter power output may be as low as *+W to as high as 3++W. &eceiver sensitivity
may be 0$. micro volts.
0.0.. #ontrols and "peration
Controls described below are of a typical "% system. 'hey may vary in different models by
different manufacturers.
4*5 "n="ff='ntensity< @sed for switching on and off the system. Also, varies the brightness of the
fre6uency display. Some control units may have a St?y selection for keeping the system on
standby.
405 Volu-e control< @sed for controlling the audio output level of the system.
4/5 SCuelch< S6uelch control is provided in steps. Pilot can choose the level of s6uelch. (n "ff
position, s6uelch is switched off. (n position 7, ma!imum s6uelch is provided and only strong
signals reach the headset.
Fi/ 0.. *F co--unication syste- control unit
4.5 #hannel selector< Provides selection of pre$programmed fre6uencies. (n ) 47anual5 position,
in$flight fre6uency entry can be done.
435 )ode selector< Selects the mode of operation. (n CW position, internal D%) is switched on.
A7 position provides reception of A7 DSD signals. @SD and SD positions provide selection of
upper or lower side band signal reception. D position is for data communication.
4?5 FreCuency display< Displays the selected fre6uency and test result indications.
4A5 2ata entry key pad< @sed for fre6uency input.
4B5 Test< D('> switch for testing the system. When switched to )1 position, tests the receiver
chain. When pressed together with P'' switch, tests the transmitter chain.
4-5 %TT< Push$to$talk switch.
0.5 Selecti1e #allin/ (S!L#AL) Syste-
Aircraft operating on long2transoceanic routes are out of ,"% coverage areas for ma:or part
of their flights. 7aintaining a listening watch on the en$route fre6uencies 4"%5 is mandatory for
*-/
such flights. Since "% channel is high in static noise, it will be very annoying to the flight crew to
continuously monitor these channels. 'o avoid this, S>CA system is installed on the aircraft.
With the help of S>CA, a ground station can call a particular aircraft.
0.5.+ %rinciple of "peration
S>CA system can function with both "% and ,"% communication systems. (n (ndia,
S>CA facility is available only with "% system.
S>CA decoder e6uipment is fitted to the audio output of "%2,"% system on the aircraft.
>ach aircraft has a particular S>CA code, which is selected on the decoder 4hard$wired or knob
selected5. A ground station that desires to call a particular aircraft transmits a S>CA code signal
on the appropriate "% 4or ,"%5 channel. All the aircraft tuned to that fre6uency and within
coverage area will receive this signal. )nly the aircraft on which the decoder is set to the code that
matches the received code will give the pilot a visual 4a blinking lamp in the cockpit5 and audio
4chime in the headset5 indications. 'his alerts the pilot about the call.
'he coded signal transmitted from the ground consists of two pulses and each pulse is
modulated by two audio tones8 thus, there are four tones per call. 'he tones are designated by letters
A to S, e!cept letters (, 1 and ). 'otal number of codes available is *+,-0+. >ach tone has a
fre6uency and is designated by a colour and letter as follows<
2esi/nation FreCuency (*D) 2esi/nation FreCuency (*D)
&ed A /*0.? &ed C A*?.*
&ed D /.?.A &ed ; A-../
&ed C /B..? &ed BB*.+
&ed D .0?.? &ed 7 -AA.0
&ed > .A/.0 &ed P *+B/.-
&ed % 30..B &ed E *0+0./
&ed 9 3B0.* &ed & *///.3
&ed " ?.3.A &ed S *.A-.*
'ransmission of S>CA coded signals is possible only from ground to air and not vice$
versa.
0.5.. 'nstallation
@sually, a single S>CA decoder is installed on the aircraft. "owever, large airliners will
have two identical decoders for redundancy. Different types of installations are available. 1ormally,
the codes are selected on the front panel of the decoder. 'he control unit provides access to the pilot
to choose the communication system with which the S>CA system should be coupled. Control
units with the code selectors are also available. A typical S>CA installation is shown in figure
/./.
*-.
Fi/ 0.0 Typical S!L#AL installation
'he ,"% and "% audio outputs are connected to the S>CA decoders. Second decoder is
not shown in the figure. Whenever a S>CA call addressed to the aircraft is received, the lamp on
the control unit starts blinking and an aural alert is heard in the headset. 'f the recei1er connected
to the S!L#AL ?eco-es unser1icea?le< the S!L#AL ill not ?e a?le to /i1e an indication.
0.6 Satellite #o--unication (SAT#"))
SA'C)7 systems on board aircraft e!tend the range of ,"% communications. Dy the use
of SA'C)7, en$route communication can take place using ,"% fre6uencies. (n addition to the
voice communication, SA'C)7 can also send2receive data pertaining to the aircraft systems.
0.6.+ %rinciple of operation
SA'C)7 system consists of three segments namely, aircraft earth staion 4A>S5, ground
earth station 49>S5 and the satellite.
,"% communication system audio is integrated with the SA'C)7 system. SA'C)7 also
receives data from different aircraft systems. SA'C)7 mi!es all the inputs by a process called
-ultiple,in/. 'his multiple!ed data is freCuency -odulated on an $band carrier and transmitted
towards a satellite 4(17A&SA'5 which is meant for providing satellite communication. 'he
satellite acts as a repeater. (nside the satellite, receivers demodulate the received signal, fre6uency
modulate the data on a C$band carrier, amplify the signal and transmit it towards a ground station.
'he ground station will have its own network linking all the consumers who use the data from the
received signal. %or e!ample, A'C is the consumer for voice communication component, airline
companies are consumers for aircraft system data components. Worldwide distribution of
information is through telephone e!changes.
;nowing the satellite position is very important here because the SA'C)7 antenna on the
aircraft focuses its transmission energy into a beam towards the satellite. Since both the aircraft and
the satellite are moving ob:ects in space, satellite position relative to the aircraft are computed in the
SA'C)7 computer.
SA'C)7 comes under the service category of Aeronautical )o?ile Satellite (Route)
Ser1ice 4A)SS5
Fi/ 0.5 SAT#") se/-ents
*-3
0.6.. 'nstallation
A typical SA'C)7 installation consists of a Satellite Data @nit 4SD@5, "igh Power
Amplifier 4"PA5, Control Display @nit 4CD@5 and an antenna with a steerable beam. ,"% audio
and other data coming from different aircraft systems are connected to the SD@. SD@ output is
connected to the "PA for amplification. Amplified signal is fed to the antenna. 'he antenna signal
beam is steered towards the satellite during transmission and reception. &eceived signal is given to
the SD@ from the antenna. ,"% audio is routed to the ,"% communication system. CD@ provides
human interface to various functions of the SA'C)7 system.
0.7 !-er/ency Locator Trans-itter (!LT)
>mergency ocator 'ransmitter 4>'5 is a transmitter which helps the Search and &escue
4SA&5 Service to home in on crashed aircraft. >' works on *0*.3 7"K, 0./ 7"K and .+? 7"K
fre6uencies.
>' transmitters working on *0*.3 and 0./ 7"K are no longer a part of #"S%AS>
SARSAT satellite system. C)SPAS$SA&SA' satellite system has ceased processing the >'
signals of *0*.3 and 0./ 7"K since +* %eb 0++-. 1ow the satellite system only monitors and
processes the >' transmission on .+? 7"K fre6uency.
0.7.+ %rinciple of "peration
(t is a simple transmitter which gets activated automatically on impact and transmits an
anony-ous siren tone. 'he tone is modulated on two carriers< *0*.3 7"K and its first harmonic,
0./ 7"K. Since most of the aircraft ,"% communication systems guard these two fre6uencies,
such a transmission will be picked up. )n being informed, the SA& service organises the search and
rescue, based upon homing of the >' transmission. 'he transmissions on *0*.3 7"K and 0./
7"K are analogue and carry no information or identity of the aircraft.
)n recommendation by '#A" and 'nternational )ariti-e "r/anisation 4')"5, latest
versions of >' transmit on .+? 7"K. 'his transmission is digital and consists of data
transmission.
0.7.. 'nstallation
>' is a compact bo! which is incorporated with a gravity switch. 'he gravity switch
automatically operates the >' transmitter if it senses an impact of 3g or above. 'he installation
normally includes a remote switch located in the cockpit. 'he switch has three positions< AR)>
"FF>"$. During normal operations, the switch is placed in A&7 position. (n this position, >' is
ready to be activated upon impact. (n the )%% position, the system is powered off and cannot be
switched$on upon impact.
)1 position manually operates the transmitter. 'his position can also be used to test the
>'. ,"% communication system must be turned on 4tuned to *0*.3 7"K, if re6uired5 and then the
>' must be activated momentarily. Sweeping 4siren5 tone can be heard on the headset. %rior
per-ission fro- the Air Traffic #ontrol is -andatory for testin/ the !LT. A blinking lamp
may be provided with the switch to indicate the transmission condition of >'.
An identical switch 4or a switch which switches )12)%% the >'5 may be provided on the
>' bo!. Also, a &>S>' switch may be provided to reset the >' in case of inad1ertent
operation.
Different types of >' are<
4i5 Auto-atic Fi,ed !LT G!LT(AF)H which is permanently attached to the aircraft and is
automatically activated upon impact.
4ii5 Auto-atic %orta?le !LT G!LT(A%)H which is rigidly attached to the aircraft but can be
removed easily.
4iii5 Auto-atic 2eploya?le !LT G!LT(A2)H which is rigidly attached to the aircraft and is
automatically activated by impact. Some models may be designed to be activated by water
ingression.
*-?
4iv5 Sur1i1al !LT G!LT(S)H which is removable from the aircraft and can be manually activated
by survivors.
When the >' is installed on the aircraft, it may be connected to an e!ternal antenna.
Portable type >'s will have a pull$out antenna. Colour of the >' is international oran/e.
0.7.0 Ad1anta/es and 2isad1anta/es of !LT
Disadvantages of >' 4*0*.3 and 0./ 7"K5 and advantages of >' operating on .+? 7"K
are given in the table below<
Ta?le 0.+ #o-parison of !LT syste-s
+.+.6 )*D and .50 )*D ?eacon 5;7 )*D ?eacon
Si/nal
Analog< no data encoded, higher
false alert rate
Digital< uni6ue identification,
registration data provides
information on the owner2vessel or
aircraft
Si/nal %oer +.* Watts continuous 4typical5 3 Watts pulse
#o1era/e &egional 9lobal
%osition Accuracy Within 0+ km 4Doppler only5
*++m if 91SS 49PS5 position is
encoded in message.
Alert Ti-e
Waiting time for >) satellite
pass .3 minutes average
9>) alert within 3 minutes
%or more information on the Search and &escue )rganisation, refer Part ((, Chapter 0,
paragraph 0.?.
0.8 'nterco--unication Syste- (A'S)
'he system which provides communication between the pilots and the rest of the crew of the
aircraft is the intercommunication system. (t is also called the Audio 'nte/ratin/ Syste-. 7ain
function of this system is to take audio from different sources such as headset microphones,
communication system audio, cabin crew audio etc., and route them to selected destinations. %or
e!ample, when the pilot wants to transmit on ,"%*, appropriate selection is made on the (ntercom
system. (ntercom system connects the audio from mic of pilot headset to the ,"%* transceiver.
Similarly, if the co$pilot desires to listen to the AD%* audio, selection is made on the intercom
system and the intercom system connects the AD%* receiver audio to co$pilotFs headset speakers. A
typical audio integration system control unit is shown in figure /...
0.8.+ 'nstallation
(ntercom system usually consists of an audio :unction bo! and a control unit. (n most of the
cases there will be two identical control units in the cockpit, one each for the pilot and co$pilot. 'he
control unit provides access to the pilot for selecting the transmission and reception of
communication systems and monitoring of navigation system audio.
0.8.. #ontrols and "peration
4*5 T( Select< A transmitter select knob allows the pilot to select the system on which he wishes to
transmit. PA position connects the headset microphone to the passenger address system for making
announcements.
405 )onitor Select< Push buttons that route the selected system audio to the headset. PA button
allows listening to PA system audio. ,oice button activates a *+0+ "K filter to filter out the 7orse
code from 1av receivers. 4See Part (((, Chapter ., paragraph ../...*5
4/5 Volu-e< @sed for varying the volume of audio coming to the headset.
*-A
Fi/. 0.6 Audio 'nte/ratin/ Syste- control unit
0.9 %assen/er Address Syste- (%A)
Passenger address 4P.A5 system consists of amplifiers and loud speakers fitted in the cabin.
'he system allows the pilot2cabin crew to make announcements to the passengers. Appropriate
selection has to be made on the intercom system to route the pilot2cabin crew mic audio to the
amplifiers and then to the speakers. Commercial airliners may have PA systems with pre$recorded
announcement and music play back facilities.
0.: #ockpit Voice Recorder (#VR)
A cockpit voice recorder 4C,&5 is an e6uipment for recording the audio to and from the
flight crew. (t records the audio in four channels< pilot, co$pilot, cockpit area and flight engineer2PA
system. 'he duration of recording is either /+ minutes or 0 hours depending on the type of C,&.
C,& colour is international oran/e or yello. C,& bo! is designed to withstand high temperatures
for a long duration and is water resistant. (nstallation of the C,& will be in such a location on the
aircraft that in case of crash, minimum damage will be caused to C,&. (n case of an aircraft
accident, the C,& provides the investigating team with the audio interchanges during the last /+
minutes20 hours before the crash.
0.+; #ontroller %ilot 2ata Link #o--unication (#%2L#)
(n very busy air traffic environment, a number of aircraft will be operating on one fre6uency
for a particular air traffic service. )n the other end, a single controller will be controlling all the
traffic unless the air space is divided into sectors and each sector traffic handled by a dedicated
controller. >ventually, saturation will occur on the channel. 'o prevent saturation of a
communication channel and reduce the work load of the controller, CPDC is implemented.
Controller Pilot Data ink Communications 4CPDC5 is a means of communication which
replaces the air2ground voice communications. (t uses data link for transmitting and receiving data
which includes controller initiated instructions2clearances and pilot initiated
re6uests2acknowledgements. 'hrough CPDC, both the controller and the pilot can e!change a
se6uence of messages e.g. a re6uest and its clearance, in &' phraseology. 'his se6uence of message
is termed as a JdialogueF. 'he dialogues are displayed on display units in the format of &'
phraseology. Also, there is a provision for sending Jfree te!tF for communications which has no
standard phraseology.
CPDC supports emergency alerts, downlink 4pilot to controller5 position reports and
clearance re6uests, uplink 4controller to pilot5 A'C clearances and instructions and free$te!t as
supplement to pre$formatted message elements.
CPDC, is available in Chennai, ;olkata and 7umbai %(& to all %uture Air 1avigation
System 4%A1S5 *2A 4or e6uivalent5 e6uipped aircraft.
0.+;.+ %rinciple of "peration
CPDC can work with both "% and ,"% communication systems. CPDC e6uipment that
will be installed on the aircraft should be compatible with the aircraft "% and ,"% communication
systems 4which depends on the A&(1C standard5. CPDC display can be integrated into the
*-B
7%D27ulti Control Display @nit 47CD@5 or the >ngine (ndication and Crew Alerting System
4>(CAS5 display. Doth the pilot and controller can select from a list of pre$formatted message
elements 4which correspond to standard &' phraseology5 which are displayed on the display unit.
'his data is converted to a suitable format and fed to the ,"% or "% communication system,
depending upon the installation. &eceived data is displayed on the display unit. 7essage
transactions can be stored and printed if re6uired. When "% is used with CPDC, it is known as "%
datalink 4"%D5 and when ,"% is used, it is known as ,"% datalink 4,D5.
0.+;.. 'nstallation
A typical installation may consist of a Communication 7anagement @nit 4C7@5 which will
connect the data coming from the 7CD@ to the "%2,"% communication systems. "%2,"% system
will transmit the data towards the ground and receive the data from the ground which will be sent to
the C7@. C7@ will send these data to the display unit.
(n case of the CPDC is integrated with the ,"% system, normally it will be through the
SA'C)7. Depending upon the aircraft and airline operatorFs re6uirement, the installation may also
include aircraft identification module, ,"% Data &adio 4,D&5.
> > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >
*--
#*A%T!R 5
A'R#RAFT $AV'GAT'"$ S3ST!)S
5.+ 'ntroduction
Aeronautical navigation is said to be flying an aircraft from one point on the earth to another
along a prescribed route safely, and landing at the destination. With the above definition, it is
obvious that navigational indications are re6uired in the cockpit to provide guidance to the flight
crew. Dy following these indications, the flight crew should be able to fly the aircraft from the
source station to the destination, along the route prescribed by the appropriate authorities. Since the
definition also speaks about the safety of the flight, there should be e6uipment on board the aircraft
which should provide warnings to the flight crew about adverse weather, mid$air traffic and
unanticipated closing$in of terrain. %urther, indications should be available to e!ecute a safe landing
even in poor visibility conditions.
(n this chapter, radio systems which provide navigational data and safety warnings to the
flight crew will be discussed. Different navigational systems along with their fre6uency bands are
given below<
Syste- FreCuency ?and
)mega *+$*. ;"K
Decca A+$*/+ ;"K
oran C *++ ;"K
AD% 0++$*A++ ;"K
7arker beacon A3 7"K
(S 4ocaliser5 *+B$**0 7"K
,)& *+B$**B 7"K
(S 49lideslope5 /0+$/.+ 7"K
D7> -?+$*0*3 7"K
SS& *+/+ and *+-+ 7"K
&adio altimeter ..0$... 9"K
Weather radar 4C band5 3.3 9"K
Doppler 4G band5 B.B 9"K
Weather radar 4G band5 -.. 9"K
Doppler 1avigation 4; band5 */./ 9"K
5.. Auto-atic 2irection Finder 4A2F5
Automatic direction finding system provides the pilot an indication of the direction of a
particular transmitting station. AD% operates in the %27% band 40++$0+++ ;"K5. 'ransmitting
station transmits a modulated continuous wave in all directions, this is the reason it is called $on
2irectional Beacon 4$2B5. An AD% receiver which is tuned to the transmission fre6uency
receives the signal. A pointer in the cockpit indicates the direction from which the signal was
transmitted and also the identity of the transmitting station in the form of morse code can be heard
in the headset. (n (ndia, 1DDs operate in the fre6uency band of 0++$.3+ ;"K 4Dimapur 1DD
having the highest fre6uency at present # .00 ;"K5. Channel spacing is 3++ "K. Since the All (ndia
&adio 4A(&5 7edium Wave 47W5 broadcast at different cities are also within AD% band, AD% can
be tuned to the A(& stations to find the direction of a particular location. A list of A(& stations with
corresponding fre6uencies is given in the A>&AD().
5...+ %rinciple of "peration
AD% system utilises the receiving properties of a loop antenna to find the direction of
arrival of signal. When the plane of a loop antenna is perpendicular to the direction of arriving
0++
wave, minimum or Kero voltage is induced in the loop. 'his is called a -ini-u- or a null. When
the plane of the loop is parallel to the direction of arriving wave, ma!imum voltage is induced in the
loop. 'his is called a -a,i-u-. (f the loop antenna is made to rotate through /?+
o
, it will give rise
to two minima and two ma!ima because the loop will be perpendicular twice and parallel twice to
the arriving wave. 'he nulls are much sharply defined than the ma!ima. (f an arrangement is made
so that a pointer points to the direction at which the loop is induced ma!imum voltage 4ma!ima5,
the pointer will point at two directions which are opposite to each other8 only one of them is true
and the other is in the opposite direction.
Fi/ 5.+ A2F principle of operation
'o resolve this ambiguity, the AD% system uses another antenna called the sense antenna.
'he sense antenna is an omnidirectional antenna which receives the signal in e6ual strength from all
directions. When the loop and sense antenna outputs are combined, there will be one null and one
ma!imum. 'his is because at one ma!imum position of the loop, the sense voltage will be e6ual and
in phase8 therefore loop and sense voltages add up to form a ma!imum. At the opposite ma!imum
of the loop, sense and loop voltage will be e6ual and opposite8 therefore they cancel each other to
form a null. 'his null is sharply defined than the ma!imum8 it is used to indicate the direction of the
transmitting station. Principle of operation is illustrated in figure ..*.
Pattern of signal reception 4and transmission5 of an antenna is called its polar dia/ra-.
Polar diagram of a loop antenna is in the shape of B. Polar diagram of a sense antenna is circular.
When the polar diagrams of both loop and sense antennae are combined, a cardioid 4heart shape5 is
obtained.
'his combined signal is fed to a double superheterodyne receiver and demodulated. Audio
component of the received signal is routed to the (ntercom system 4A(S5 for the headsets. Another
component of the received signal is processed and converted into a signal which is fed to the
&D(2&7( for indication.
Previously, the 1DD were of 1+12A*A emission type in which the carrier was interrupted
to send the identification. Disadvantage of this was when the carrier is interrupted, since there is no
signal, the indicator pointer may hunt. Also, D%) is re6uired to produce an audio tone. 1+12A*A
1DD are being replaced by A0A emission type 1DD in which the carrier is modulated with *+0+
"K tone for identification. Since carrier is always present, the pointer will not hunt and D%) is not
re6uired in receivers designed for A0A emissions. Disadvantage with A0A emission is, the range is
lesser than that of 1+12A*A 1DD for a given transmission power output.
0+*
5.... 'nstallation
An AD% system installation consists of an AD% receiver, a control unit, a loop antenna, a
sense antenna and an indicator. Antennae are installed on the e!ternal of the aircraft. (n some
models, the receiver and the control unit may be combined into one unit and installed in the cockpit.
(ndicators are fitted in the cockpit. 'here are two types of indicators< 4i5 Relati1e Bearin/
'ndicator 4RB'5 in which the compass card does not rotate. 'he indication is the relative bearing
4angle5 between the longitudinal a!is of the aircraft and the direction of the station. +++ degree of
the compass card is always aligned with the lubber line. 4ii5 Radio )a/netic 'ndicator 4R)'5 in
which the compass card rotates as per the heading of the aircraft. 'he indication is the magnetic
bearing of the 1DD. &elation between relative bearing, magnetic bearing and aircraft magnetic
heading is given as<
)a/netic Bearin/ (of $2B) V Relati1e Bearin/ Y )a/netic *eadin/ (of aircraft)
arge aircraft have twin AD% installation for redundancy. (n such installations, the indicator
will have two pointers. %igure ..0 4A5 illustrates an &D( with a single pointer. %igure ..0 4D5
illustrates an &7( with two pointers. Such an &7( may also have push buttons for selecting the
mode of operation between AD% and ,)&.
5...0 #ontrols and "perations
A typical AD% control unit is shown in figure ../. (n a twin installation, two such units will
be installed in the cockpit. (n modern aircraft, the controls may be provided in the 7CD@.
(A) (B)
Fi/ 5.. A2F indicatorsB (A) RB' (B) R)'
4*5 "$="FF='$T=V"L4)!< )n$)ff$(ntensity button is used to switch on2off the receiver and
vary the intensity of the fre6uency display. ,olume control is used to vary the system audio level
405 FreCuency 2isplay< Displays the selected fre6uency
4/5 FreCuency Select< &otary knobs which are used to select the desired fre6uency
Fi/ 5.0 A2F #ontrol unit
4.5 #hannel Select< %or selecting the pre$programmed fre6uencies stored in appropriate channels.
7anual 475 position is used for in$flight programming.
435 BF" "$="FF< Switch is used to switch$on the D%) when CW reception is desired.
4?5 T!ST< D('> switch. When pressed, the pointer on the indicator parks at a pre$determined
position and an audio tone is heard in the headset.
0+0
5...5 Factors affectin/ the perfor-ance of A2F syste-
'here are various factors such as the transmitter power, atmospheric conditions, choice of
fre6uency, terrain characteristics, time of the day, etc. which affect the performance of the AD%
system. 7ain sources of system error are discussed below.
4*5 $i/ht effect< 'his is due to the 1DD wave being reflected from the ionosphere and arriving at
the loop antenna. 'wo voltages will be induced in the loop< one due to the ground wave arriving
directly and the other being reflected from the ionosphere. 'his will result in a non$Kero or shifted
null. 'here will be bearing error or hunting of the pointer. 'his effect is prominent during sunrise
and sunset due to rapid changes in ionosphere.
% and 7% ground waves are contaminated beyond 0++ miles at 0++ ;"K and 3+ miles at
*?++ ;"K during day time. At night, the contamination is much worse due to the arrival of sky
waves. 'o overcome this, AD% should be used only with ground wave signals and at night time,
lower end of the AD% fre6uency range should be used. Also, flying at higher altitudes and tuning to
stations within *++ miles will improve the bearing.
405 #oastal refraction< When >7 waves travel over land and then over sea, refraction occurs and
there is a change in the direction of propagation. AD% indicator will show a bearing different from
the actual direction of the transmitter.
4/5 )ountain effect< 'his is due to the wave being reflected from mountains, hills or large
structures. AD% indicator will point towards the direction of reflection rather than the actual
direction.
4.5 Station interference< (f a number of 1DD stations are located closely and transmit signals with
narrow fre6uency spacing, station interference may result. AD% receiver should be designed so as to
have high selectivity to overcome this effect.
435 Static interference< Static build$up on the airframe and thunderstorms reduce the effective
range and accuracy of the system.
4?5 'nstallation error< (f the loop antenna is not installed properly on the airframe or the
connections of the loop antenna are not proper, this will give rise to bearing errors.
5...6 Locators
A locator 4or locator beacon5 is an %27% 1DD used as an aid to final approach for landing.
&adius of coverage of a locator is usually between *+ 17 to 03 17. ocator transmitters may be
co$located with the )uter and 7iddle 7arker beacons of (S. (n such cases, they are called as
ocator )uter 4)5 and ocator 7iddle 475. (n the absence of (S, locators are installed at the
locations where the 7iddle and )uter markers are installed. (f the aircraft is not e6uipped with
,)&2(S, locator beacon signals can be used as approach and landing aids.
5...7 *o-in/
During flights, the controllers often instruct the aircraft to home$in to 1DD and fly over or
hold at them. 'o home$in to an 1DD, the aircraft should be manoeuvred so that the AD% indicator
pointer should point directly at the lubber line i.e. directly ahead and the aircraft should maintain
this heading. (n an &D(, the pointer will point to +
o
and in an &7(, the pointer will coincide with the
lubber line. 'his means the relative bearing to the 1DD is Kero.
5.0 V*F "-nidirectional Ran/e (V"R)
,)& system is a navigation system operating in ,"% band. (t overcomes the anomalies in
direction finding using %27% signals because of the space wave properties of ,"%. ,)& system
is integrated with (nstrument anding System 4(S5. ,)& operates in the band *+B$**B 7"K out of
which *+B$**0 7"K band is shared with (S. %re6uencies in which tenths of 7"K 4first digit after
the decimal5 is even is used for ,)& and odd for (S. %or e!ample, *+B.0+, *+B.03, *+B..+, *+B..3
0+/
etc. are ,)& fre6uencies and *+B.*+, *+B.*3, *+B./+, *+B./3 etc. are (S fre6uencies. Channel
spacing of ,)& is 3+ ;"K.
Some ,)& stations are designed for high power output 40++W5 and are used for en$route
navigation, having coverage of 0++ 17. ,)& with low power output 43+W5 are for terminal
navigation 4called TV"R5 which have coverage of about 03 17.
5.0.+ %rinciple of operation
,)& operates on the principle of measurement of phase difference between two signals.
,)& transmits a composite signal consisting of<
4*5 /+ "K, %7, called the reference phase signal
405 /+ "K, A7, called the variable phase signal
4/5 *+0+ "K A7, identification of the station in morse code 4three letters5
4.5 ,oice, A7, can be used for ground$to$air communication or weather broadcast 4See ../...*5
'he reference signal has the same phase at any bearing throughout /?+
o
around the ,)&
station. 'he variable phase signal has a changing phase of *
o
for every *
o
of bearing around the
,)& station, starting at +
o
at due 1orth. (f an aircraft is flying due north from2to 4+
o
bearing5 the
,)& station, the ,)& receiver on board the aircraft will read Kero phase difference between the
two signals. An aircraft flying at ++*
o
bearing from2to the ,)& station, the receiver will read *
o
phase difference between the two signals. 'his phase difference gives the bearing of the station.
'here will be *
o
increment in phase difference between the two signals as we rotate around the
,)& station. 'his can be imagined as /?+ spokes of a wheel, spaced at *
o
from each other. >ach
degree is called a radial. Due east, phase difference will be -+
o
, due south # *B+
o
and due west it
will be 0A+
o
.
'his phase difference is converted into the appropriate form and sent to the &7( for
indicating the direction of ,)& station. 'he actual reading presented to the pilot is the phase
difference Y *B+
o
because the &7( pointer should indicate the JtoF bearing to the ,)& station rather
than JfromF. 'his is illustrated in figure ...
Fi/. 5.5 T"=FR") )a/netic ?earin/s of a V"R station
(n addition to the bearing 4to the ,)& station5, the ,)& also provides steering information
to the pilot. 'his information can be used to approach or depart from a station on a particular
bearing. Also, the ,)& provides indication of whether the aircraft is flying towards or flying away
from a ,)& station with the help of ')2%&)7 indicator. 'he steering information and ')2%&)7
indications are available on an instrument called *oriDontal Situation 'ndicator 4*S'5. Provisions
0+.
for coupling the ,)&2(S system with the autopilot is also possible8 ,"% 1av system provides the
steering information to autopilot for flying on desired radial or course.
5.0.. 'nstallation
,)& system has a receiver, a control unit and antenna. 'he ,)& receiver is combined with
the (S receiver in one bo!. Small aircraft may have ,"% 1av combined with ,"% communication
4Jall ,"% in one bo!F concept5. arge aircraft will have dual ,"% nav installation. 'he control unit
may be independent or provided in the 7CD@.
'wo unipole antennae are installed horiKontally back to back on the vertical stabiliser.
"oriKontal installation is because Conventional ,)& 4C,)&5 radiates horiKontally polarised >7
waves.
5.0.0 #ontrols and "peration
A typical ,)& control will be able to select (S fre6uencies too. 'he control unit will have
controls such as )12)%%, ,olume, (ntensity, %re6uency select, Self test 4D('>5, Active2Standby
fre6uency transfer, etc.
,)& indicators include &7( 4which has been discussed in AD% section5 and an
"-ni?earin/ Selector 4"BS5 or an "S(. )nly the "S( will be discussed here.
4*5 #ourse Select %ointer< (ndicates the selected course. Pilot can select a particular radial with this
pointer.
405 T"=FR") 'ndicator< (ndicates whether the aircraft is flying ') or %&)7 a ,)& station. (f
the indicator is pointing upwards 4as in figure ...5, it is ') and if it is pointing downwards, it is
%&)7.
Fi/. 5.6 *oriDontal Situation 'ndicator (*'S)
4/5 V"R=L"# 2e1iation Bar< (ndicates the magnitude by which the aircraft is off its course i.e.
from the selected radial. 7ovement of the bar is lateral along the V"R=L"# de1iation scale.
When a course is selected, the bar moves left or right. 'his indication is called %P$>%' or %P$
&(9"'. Pilot has to manoeuvre the aircraft so as to bring the bar to the centre. )nce the bar is in
the centre, the aircraft is on course, flying the desired radial.
4.5 #ourse Select Kno?< %or selecting the course. &otating this knob rotates the course select
pointer.
0+3
435 $a1 Aarnin/ Fla/< (ndicates the usability of the received ,)& signal. 'he flag comes into
view when the ,)& signal is very weak or absent. When the signal is good, flag goes out of view.
4?5 #o-pass Aarnin/ Fla/< Similar to 1av warning flag. %lag comes into view when compass
signal not usable or absent. 9oes out of view when the signal is usable.
Compass signal is used to rotate the co-pass card of "S( so as to indicate the heading of the
aircraft. 'he heading of the aircraft is the reading on the compass card that is aligned with the
lu??er line.
4A5 *eadin/ Select Kno? and Bu/< When "S( is coupled to the autopilot system, the aircraft can
be steered towards a desired heading by placing the headin/ ?u/ 4by rotating the headin/ select
kno?5.
)peration of ocaliser and 9lideslope will be discussed in the (S topic.
5.0.5 Ad1anta/es and 2isad1anta/es
5.0.5.+ Ad1anta/es
,)& has many advantages over the AD% based on %27% 1DD.
4*5 Provides magnetic bearing of the station, ')2%&)7 indication, steering information, provision
for coupling with autopilot.
405 1o drawbacks of ground waves and sky waves such as night effect, coastal refraction,
atmospheric noise.
4/5 ,)& system has made possible the formation of JairwaysF which are tracks :oining ,)&
stations. Air traffic management is much easier due to airways.
4.5 Provision for ground$to$air voice communication 4such as weather broadcast5 is available in
,)&. When both voice and morse code 4station identity5 are being received, by pressing the
,)(C> button on the A(S, the morse code gets suppressed and only the voice communication is
heard. 7>'A& broadcast over ,)& channels is available in Delhi 4**?.* 7"K5, ;olkata 4**0.3
7"K5 and 7umbai 4**?.? 7"K5 using A/> emission.
5.0.5.. 2isad1anta/es
,)& system has its own drawbacks.
4*5 Since ,)& works on space waves, )S is mandatory for reception. &ange becomes limited.
"igh altitudes improve the range.
405 Due to the small wavelength of ,)& signal, they are easily reflected by buildings and hills.
Doth direct and reflected waves reach the receiver and give rise to errors called -ultipath errors.
4/5 %re6uent air$calibration is necessary to reduce the error margin.
4.5 Directly over the ,)& station, there will be a cone shaped region where the ,)& signal will be
weak and unusable. 'his region is called the #one of #onfusion. When flying in this area, the
')2%&)7 indicator will toggle between these two positions and the deviation indicator will
oscillate or indicate full scale.
5.0.6 2oppler V"R 42V"R5
D,)& overcomes the multipath errors that e!ist with C,)&. (n D,)&, the reference
signal is /+ "K A7 and the variable phase signal is /+ "K %7. 'he modulations are so arranged
that D,)& transmission is compatible with C,)& receiver i.e. same receivers can work with both
D,)& and C,)& transmissions. DSD$D,)& transmits the reference signal from an
omnidirectional antenna. ,ariable phase signal is radiated from diametrically opposite antennae in a
ring of fifty antennae. Dy measuring the Doppler shift, the receiver calculates the phase difference.
5.5 'nstru-ent Landin/ Syste- 4'LS5
(S is a landing aid for approaching aircraft. (t complements the ,)& en$route navigation
by guiding the aircraft for final approach and landing, even during poor weather conditions. (S has
three segments<
0+?
4*5 Localiser< Provides lateral guidance to align with the centre of runway.
405 Glideslope< Provides vertical guidance to maintain the correct angle of descent.
4/5 )arker< Provides indications of distance from touchdown.
5.5.+ #ate/ories of 'LS
'here are different categories of (S, based on their accuracy of service. 'he least accurate
provides guidance to a point from where the pilot has to perform the landing with visual contact.
"igher the accuracy, shorter the altitude and distance of visual approach. 'he accuracy is defined in
terms of 2ecision *ei/ht 42*5 and Runay Visual Ran/e 4RVR5. 'he most accurate category
provides guidance with no D" and &,&. (S categories and their specifications are given below<
Ta?le 5.+ #ate/ories of 'LS
#ate/ory 2* Visi?ility RVR
( 1ot ` ?+ m 40++ ft5 B++ m 1ot ` 33+ m
(( ` ?+ m but not ` /+ m 4*++ ft5 $$ 1ot ` /++ m
(((A ` /+ m or no D" $$ 1ot ` *A3 m
(((D ` *3 m or no D" $$ ` *A3m but not ` 3+ m
(((C 1o D", cloud base or visibility restrictions
5.5.. Localiser
ocaliser works in the fre6uency band *+B.*+ # ***.-3 7"K with 3+ ;"K channel spacing.
%re6uency band is shared with ,)& 4see paragraph ../5. When an aircraft comes in for landing
and starts receiving the localiser signals, it is called esta?lishin/ the localiser. &ange of localiser is
03 17 within O *+
o
from the runway centre line. Within *A 17, it can be received up to O /3
o
from
the centre line.
5.5...+ %rinciple of "peration
ocaliser works on the principle of measurement of difference in depth of -odulation
422)5. ocaliser transmits a signal modulated by tones of -+ "K and *3+ "K. %or an aircraft flying
to the left of the e!tended runway centre line, -+ "K modulation predominates and for an aircraft
flying to the right of the centre line, *3+ "K modulation predominates. 7agnitude of deviation from
the centre line is calculated by the DD7 of both modulations. %or an aircraft flying e!actly on the
centre line, both modulations will be e6ual i.e. the DD7 will be Kero.
Fi/. 5.7 Localiser co1era/e (top 1ie) and "BS indications
0+A
'he measured DD7 is converted into a voltage which is used to drive the lateral de1iation
?ar of the )DS2"S( 4,)&2)C deviation bar in figure ..35. "igher DD7 will result in larger
movement of the bar. (f the aircraft is flying to the right of the centre line, the bar will move to left,
thereby indicating to the pilot to Lfly leftM and if the aircraft is to the left of the centre line, the bar
will move to the right giving a Lfly ri/htM indication. Pilot has to maintain the bar in the centre to
make the proper approach.
ocaliser also transmits a station identification tone of *+0+ "K morse code. @sually the
identification consists of four letters, transmitted at least si! times per minute.
5.5.... Localiser Backcourse
)lder ,)& installations using less directional antennae allows a runway to have a non$
precision approach called a localiser ?ackcourse. 'his lets aircraft land using the signal transmitted
from the back of the localiser array, i.e. from the opposite end of the runway. )n normal ,)&
indicators, the lateral deviation indicator swing will be reversed. Dackcourse can also be used for
take$off.
5.5.0 Glideslope
9lideslope works in the @"% band, /0B.? # //3.. 7"K at *3+ ;"K channel spacing. >ach
9S fre6uency is paired with a localiser fre6uency, so there is no separate selection of 9S fre6uency.
When a localiser fre6uency is selected, the paired 9S fre6uency also gets selected automatically.
5.5.0.+ %rinciple of "peration
9lideslope works on the similar principle as localiser. Above the correct glide path -+ "K
tone will predominate and below the glide path, *3+ "K tone will predominate. Along the correct
glide path, the DD7 will be Kero. A nominal glide path angle should be /
o
. (f the approaching
aircraft is lower than the correct glide slope, the 9S pointer 49lide Slope pointer in figure ..35 will
move up indicating Lfly upM and if the aircraft is above the correct glide slope, the 9S pointer will
move down, indicating Lfly donM. Pilot must ad:ust the engine power to climb2descend to align
along the correct glide path which will be indicated by the 9S pointer moving to the centre of the
9S Deviation scale.
Fi/. 5.8 Glideslope and "BS indications
5.5.5 )arker Beacons
7arker beacons provide range information to the approaching aircraft. 'here are three
beacons along the e!tended centre line of the runway< )uter 7arker 4)75, 7iddle 7arker 4775
and (nner 7arker 4(75. 7arkers radiate signals of A3 7"K carrier.
0+B
5.5.5.+ %rinciple of "peration
7arker beacons radiate directly upwards &% beams which are called pencil beam
transmissions. Polar diagram of such transmissions will be in the shape of inverted cone. When an
aircraft approaches along the e!tended centre line, it passes over the marker beacons. 7arker
receiver receives the beams and after processing the signal, provides aural and visual 4lamp5
indications to the pilot.
Fi/. 5.9 Glideslope specifications
)7 is so located as to provide distance, height and e6uipment functioning check point for
the aircraft on intermediate and final approach. 77 is located so as to provide indication of the
pro!imity of visual approach guidance in low visibility conditions. (7 is located so as to provide
indication of the pro!imity of runway threshold in low visibility conditions.
7odulating fre6uencies, distances from threshold, light indications and the identity codes
are given in the table below<
Ta?le 5.. )arker ?eacon specifications
)arker
2istance fro-
threshold
Li/ht indication
)odulatin/
freCuency
'dentity code
()orse=Sec)
)uter /.- 17 4A.0 km5 Dlue2Purple .++ "K 'wo dashes
7iddle /3++ ft O 3++ ft Amber */++ "K
Dots and dashes
4continuous5
(nner 03+ ft to *3++ ft White /+++ "K Si! dots
5.5.5.. Fan )arkers
%an markers are also called Airays or F marker. %an marker is a position aid for en$route
navigation. (t is located on airways or at holding points. Carrier of A3 7"K is modulated by /+++
"K tone. Some aircraft have the marker lights as A 4Airways5, ), 7 instead of (, ), 7.
5.5.6 'nstallation
,)& and (S 4ocaliser, 9lideslope and 7arker beacon5 receivers are usually combined in
one bo!. (n older models, they may be separate units. Some manufacturers put both the receiver and
control unit in one bo!, installed in the cockpit. As mentioned earlier, ,"% communication and
,"% 1av units are also combined together in one bo! by certain manufacturers. ,)&2(S2D7>
control units may be combined together
0+-
Antenna can be combined for ,)&, ocaliser and 9S, installed horiKontally on the vertical
stabiliser 4see ../.05. 9S antenna may be separate in some installations. 7arker beacon receiver has
a separate antenna because of the lower fre6uency.
5.5.7 #ontrols and "peration
A typical control unit will have )12)%% control, fre6uency selectors, D('> switch. 'here
may be AC'(,>2S'A1DDP fre6uency selection with a '&A1S%>& switch to toggle between the
active and standby fre6uencies. (1'>1S('P control may be provided if the display is >D.
,)@7> control may be provided for varying the ,)&2(S system audio.
Switching on the system will power on ,)&, (S receivers and D7> transceiver. Selecting
a ,)& fre6uency will automatically select a pairing D7> fre6uency. Selecting a localiser
fre6uency will automatically select a glideslope fre6uency. When the system is tuned to a )C29S
fre6uency and valid signal is received, the )DS2"S( will indicate the lateral and vertical position of
the aircraft with respect to the runway centre line. )C identity code can be heard on the headset by
selecting the appropriate control on the intercom system. )perating the '>S' 4D('>5, should result
in a complete test of the system and indications such as predetermined movement of )C and 9S
deviation indicators on "S(, test audio tone in the headsets and blinking of 7arker beacon lamps.
A switch that re6uires special mention is the )arker *i=Lo sensiti1ity switch. 'his switch
may be located on the 1av control unit or separately. Purpose of this switch is to change the marker
receiver sensitivity high or low. When the aircraft is flying over the fan markers, the switch is kept
to *i position due to the high altitude 4en$route5. Dut when the aircraft is approaching for a landing,
the switch is kept to Lo position because of the low altitude. (f the switch is kept to "i during
approach, the marker beacon lamps may remain on for longer than the stipulated *+ sec or it is even
possible that )7 and 77 lamps will be on together.
5.5.8 'LS Reference 2atu-
A point at a specified height located above the intersection of the runway centre line and the
threshold and through which the downward e!tended straight portion of the (S glide path passes.
%or a standard /
o
glideslope, the (S reference datum is usually at 3+ ft 4*3 75 above the threshold.
5.5.9 Li-itations of 'LS
'hough Cat ((( (S provide accurate guidance for approach and landing, (S system suffers
from some limitations.
4*5 Aircraft have to approach only within the )C29S coverage sectors. 'his restricts the number
of aircraft that can approach for landing.
405 %alse glideslopes can appear at multiples of glide path angle. 'o avoid this, the glideslope must
be captured from below.
4/5 &eflections from nearby buildings, hills etc, can cause beam bending and false indications on
the indicators 4multipath effect5.
5.6 )icroa1e Landin/ Syste- 4)LS5
7S is an all weather precision approach and landing guidance system. (t is a Ti-e
Referenced Scannin/ Bea- 4TRSB5 system. (t operates in the fre6uency band of 3+/*.+ 7"K to
3+-+.A 7"K. 0++ channels are available.
5.6.+ %rinciple of "peration
A radio beam is scanned rapidly to and fro on either side of the runway centre line. An
aircraft flying within the coverage of this scan will receive two pulses< one each for JtoF and JfroF
scans. Dy measuring the time difference between the two pulses, position of the aircraft can be
calculated 4by the 7S receiver in the aircraft5, provided it is known which is the JtoF scan and
which is JfroF scan.
0*+
)ne beam scans laterally 4aKimuth5 for lateral guidance and another beam scans vertically
for vertical guidance. 'hese are similar to the ocaliser and 9S guidance respectively.
&ange of aKimuth guidance coverage is .+
o
on either side of the runway centre line 4total
coverage B+
o
5 up to a distance of about 00.3 17, vertically up to 0+,+++ ft.
&ange of elevation guidance should be same as that for the aKimuth guidance coverage area.
Fi/. 5.: )LS specifications
5.6.. Ad1anta/es
7ain advantages of 7S system are<
4*5 Ade6uate number of channels to avoid interference with nearby airfield 7S.
405 Wide coverage area that allows aircraft to approach from wider areas around the runway.
4/5 1egligible signal bending due to reflected signal 4multipath5.
4.5 >!cellent all$weather performance.
435 Provision for data transmission along with the beams.
4?5 Curved approaches are possible
5.7 2istance )easurin/ !Cuip-ent 42)!5
D7> is a ranging guidance which gives e!act slant ran/e to the D7> e6uipment installed
in the airfield. (f D7> data is combined with ,)& data, the position of a ,)&2D7> station 4in
turn, the position of the aircraft with respect to the ,)&2D7> station5 can be calculated 4ranging
data from D7> and bearing from ,)& which is called rho>theta5. A %recision 2)! data can be
combined with 7S to obtain much accurate bearing and range data.
D7> works in the fre6uency range of -?0 # *0*/ 7"K. 030 channels are available.
Coverage range is omnidirectional up to distances from + to 0++ 17. Can be e!tended to /++ 17.
5.7.+ %rinciple of "peration
When a transmitted radar pulse is reflected by obstruction and received back at the source,
by measuring the time taken, the distance to the obstruction can be calculated. Speed of the >7
wave 4*?0+++ 172Sec5 multiplied by the time taken between transmission and reception, divided
by two will give the distance.
D7> works on the principle of secondary surveillance radar. D7> has an interro/ator in
the aircraft and a transponder on the ground. (nterrogator transmits coded pulses. 'ransponder
receives these pulses, introduces a delay of 3+ micro seconds, then transmits a reply of coded pulses
to the aircraft. D7> receiver in the aircraft receives the reply and measures the time taken for
0**
transmission and reply. Compensating for the 3+ micro second delay, it calculates the slant distance
to the D7> station. 'his data can be used to calculate the aircraft ground speed and time$to$station
4''S5.
5.7.. 'nstallation
D7> interrogator 4with receiver5 can be a bo! fitted in avionics rack with the control unit
fitted in the cockpit. 9eneral aviation D7> e6uipment may have one unit containing the
interrogator, receiver, &1A, computer and the controls and display for indicating range, ground
speed and time to station. Antennae are omnidirectional and are fitted on the underside of the
fuselage.
5.7.0 #ontrols and "peration
D7> will have minimum controls because the fre6uency selection is automatic with ,)&
fre6uency pairing. D7> power on$off is usually provided on the ,)& control unit. ,)& control
unit may have a selection in which the ,)& receiver is kept on and the D7> system is either stand
by or off.
(ndication of D7> outputs may be given in a separate display unit or within the integrated
control display unit. Some models of "S( will have digital displays for displaying the range, ground
speed and time$to$station.
Fi/. 5.+; *S' ith 2)! display
5.7.5 Ad1anta/es and 2isad1anta/es
7ain advantages are<
4*5 &anging accuracy is very high, i.e. O+.* to O+./ 17.
405 Accurate distance to the touch down is available.
7ain disadvantage of D7><
Beacon saturation. D7> can provide service to a ma!imum of *++ aircraft at a time. (f the
number of aircraft interrogating the D7> e!ceeds *++, the D7> transponder will reply only to the
*++ aircraft whose interrogation signal strength is stronger.
5.8 "-e/a $a1i/ation Syste- 4"$S5
)1S is a ,%, CW, long range navigation system. >ight transmitting stations are
strategically installed around the world. >ach station transmits three fre6uencies *+.0, **.// and
*/.? ;"K in a predetermined se6uence, within a *+ second period. 'he transmissions are
omnidirectional, the transmission power being *+ ;W. 'he station locations are 1orway, iberia,
"awaii, 1orth Dakota, a &eunion, Argentina, 'rinidad2Australia, and Capan.
0*0
5.8.+ %rinciple of "peration
At a time, only three stations will transmit, each on a different fre6uency from the given
three fre6uencies. All the transmitters are phase locked using atomic clocks. A receiver will receive
minimum four stations anywhere in the globe. Dy measuring the phase of the received signals from
different stations, the computer in the receiver can compute its distance from each of the
transmitting station. Dy using the hyperbolic lines from the transmitters, the receiver fi!es its
position at the point of intersection. (n other words, the receiver ranges 4measures the distance5
itself from three fi!ed points and makes a position fi! where the three ranges meet or intersect. 'his
method of position fi! is called the rho>rho>rho method. 'he type of ranging used by )1S is
known as hyper?olic ranging. )ther two types of hyperbolic ranging are the 2ecca na1i/ator and
Loran #. )1S system was phased out in *--A and Decca navigator was shut down in 0+++, oran
C was phased out in 0+*+.
5.8.. 'nstallation
(nstallation on the aircraft consists of a &eceiver Processor @nit 4&P@5, a Control Display
@nit 4CD@5 and an Antenna Coupler @nit 4AC@5.
5.9 Satellite Based $a1i/ation Syste-s
'hese systems are known as Glo?al $a1i/ation Satellite Syste-s 4G$SS5. Decause of the
high altitude of the satellites, they have wider coverage and )S with receivers below. 'hey do not
suffer from the drawbacks of ground wave and sky wave navigation. 'here are three main satellite
based navigation systems at present< $a1star Glo?al %ositionin/ Satellite Syste- 4G%S5, by the
@SA, Glo?al $a1i/ation Satellite Syste- 4GL"$ASS5 by the &ussian %ederation and Galileo by
the >uropean @nion. Since the working principle of all these systems is same, only 9PS will be
discussed here.
5.9.+ Glo?al %ositionin/ Satellite Syste- 4G%S5
'he 9PS system works on the rho$rho$rho principle, i.e. ranging from three reference points
and fi!ing the position. 9PS satellites are the reference points. 'hat is the reason why the system is
known as space$based navigation system. 9PS has three segments<
4*5 Space se/-ent which consists of 0. satellites covering the whole globe
405 #ontrol se/-ent which consists of a master control station in the @S and monitoring stations
all over the globe.
4/5 4ser se/-ent which is the 9PS receiver.
5.9.+.+ %rinciple of operation
9PS satellites transmit signals in coded form. %re6uency of transmission is in band. 9PS
satellites revolve around the world twice in 0. hours. A receiver on the ground or aircraft receives
these signals from three satellites and decodes them. Since the e!act location of each satellite is
stored in the memory of a receiver, the satellites are used as reference points. Distance from each
satellite is calculated by measuring the time taken by the signal to reach the receiver. Distances
from three reference points gives the position fi!. Dy using the signal from a fourth satellite, the
receiver corrects its time. 'he receiver can receive signals from many satellites, but uses only four
satellite signals for processing.
9PS satellites transmit two types of signals, one for the @S military 4% & %recision code5
and other for global civilian usage 4#=A & #oarse AcCuisition code5.
9PS data output are the position 4in at$ong or @'75, altitude and time. 'ime provided by
9PS is very accurate since it is derived from atomic clocks. 'he outputs are compatible and can be
easily integrated with advanced digital navigation and weapon systems.
0*/
5.9.+.. Ad1anta/es and 2isad1anta/es
9PS provides very accurate positioning and timing signals. Advanced versions of 9PS such
as Differential 9PS 4D9PS5 and Augmented 9PS 4A9PS5 provide very accurate positioning of the
receiver in a dynamic environment. 'hese systems can be used by the aircraft for precision
approach and landing.
7ain disadvantage of 9PS system is, @S military can introduce errors intentionally into the
C2A signals or the whole system can be switched off in case of military threats to the @S.
5.: Secondary Sur1eillance Radar 4SSR5
SS&, also known as (dentification %riend or %oe 4(%%5 was designed for military purposes to
overcome the drawbacks of primary surveillance radar. SS& operates on two fre6uencies of band,
viK. *+/+ 7"K and *+-+ 7"K. SS& has three modes of operation< 7ode A, 7ode C and 7ode S.
5.:.+ %rinciple of "peration
SS& works on the (nterrogator$transponder basis. A ground based interrogator transmits a
pair of pulses as interrogation, from a directional antenna. 'he directional antenna is mounted on a
primary surveillance radar 4PS&5 antenna co$a!ially and both the antennae rotate together. Pulse
pair is modulated on a carrier wave of *+/+ 7"K. 'ime gap between the two pulses defines the
interrogation8 )ode A $ LWhat is your identityVM or )ode # $ LWhat is your altitudeVM. 'his is the
interrogation part.
'he aircraft SS& transponder receives these pulses and checks them for validity. (f the
interrogation is valid, the transponder generates a reply in the form of a pulse train 4series of
pulses5. &eply transmission is modulated on a carrier of *+-+ 7"K. &eply to 7ode A interrogation
will be a particular code which is called sCuak. %or 7ode C interrogation, the aircraft transponder
takes the altitude of the aircraft from the encoding altimeter and transmits as reply. 'he identity or
altitude is coded in the pulse train by using different time gaps between the pulses.
&eply is received at the (nterrogator receiver and displayed on a screen for the controller.
'he display shows the bearing and identity of the aircraft if the reply is mode A or the bearing,
identity and altitude if the reply is mode C. Dearing is calculated by the position of the aKimuth
4angle with respect to north5 of the ground directional antenna when it receives the reply from the
aircraft.
&eplying to an interrogation is automatic and needs no pilot intervention.
5.:.+.+ "peration of SSR and 'dentifyin/ an Aircraft
After establishing &' communication with an aircraft, the controller will give the pilot a
four digit SS& code8 &' phraseology used is sCuak. Pilot sets the code on the control unit of the
SS& and switches on the SS& system. When the aircraft transponder receives an interrogation, it
replies with its identity 4and altitude $ if mode C5. A dot representing the aircraft is displayed on the
controllerFs radar screen along with the code. 'his way, the controller ascertains an aircraftFs
position.
5.:.. 'nstallation
A large transport aircraft may have twin transponder system. 'he installation consists of a
transponder, control unit and an antenna. 9eneral aviation aircraft will have a transponder and the
control unit combined and fitted in the cockpit. Aircraft transponder antenna is omnidirectional.
5.:.0 #ontrols and "peration
Controls of an SS& transponder will be very simple. A typical control unit controls are
discussed below<
0*.
Fi/. 5.++ SSR #ontrol unit
4*5 Function sitch< 'his will have positions such as )%%, S'DP, A 4or )15 and C 4or A'5.
;eeping the switch in )%% position powers off the system, S'DP position switches on the system
and keeps it in standby, A 4or )15 puts the system into identity reporting mode 47ode A5 and C 4or
A'5 puts it into altitude reporting mode 47ode C5
405 #ode selector< >ither rotary knobs or thumb$wheel switches for selecting the s6uawk code.
4/5 #ode display indo< Displays the selected four digit s6uawk code.
4.5 '=% sitch or '2!$T< (ndicate Position switch. (n a busy air traffic environment, there will be
many blips 4dots5 on the controllerFs screen. (t will be difficult for him to search for a particular
aircraft. 'he controller can use the &' phraseology sCuak Z Z Z Z ident and the pilot will press
this switch 4e.g. ,'ADC SE@AW; %)@& 'W) Q>&) Q>&) A1D (D>1'5. 'his will send a
Special %osition 'ndicator 4S%'5 pulse in the reply pulse train. 'his will be processed in the
interrogator and will make the blip representing the particular aircraft ?losso- 4glow brightly and
become large5, thereby attracting the attention of the controller towards it. (2P switch is spring
loaded to return to default position when released.
435 Lo Sense sitch< 'his switch reduces the sensitivity of the transponder sensitivity. 'his is to
avoid being interrogated by side lobes.
4?5 Test sitch< Activates the D('> function to check transponder serviceability. Passing of D('>
test will be indicated by lighting up of a lamp. (n some control units, the lamp itself may be the push
button for test.
4A5 Reply la-p< 'his lamp indicates when a successful reply is transmitted by the transponder.
4B5 2i-< A potentiometer 4variable resistor5 for controlling the brightness of the front panel.
5.:.5 SSR #odes
SS& code assignment is published in A(P ,olume (, Part 0, >1&*.?. Some of the important
SS& codes are given below<
Code AA++ # indicates aircraft is in emergency
Code A?++ # indicates aircraft has radio communication failure
Code A3++ # indicates aircraft is being sub:ected to unlawful interference 4"(CAC;5
Code ++++ # general purpose code
Code 0+++ # indicates aircraft has not received any instruction from A'C to operate the transponder
5.:.6 )ode S Transponder
7ode S transponders have the capability of transmitting data in addition to identity and
altitude reporting capability. 'his lessens the workload of the pilot and controller because most of
the clearances can be sent on this datalink.
7ode S transponders also work with Collision Avoidance Systems onboard the aircraft.
'his topic will be discussed under Collision Avoidance Systems heading.
0*3
5.:.7 Li-itations of SSR
SS& is susceptible to drawbacks such as
4*5 False tar/ets caused due to side lobe interrogation.
405 Fruitin/ due to receiving replies by an interrogator which are actually replies meant for another
interrogator within range.
4/5 Gar?lin/ which happens if one aircraft is directly behind another and within *.?3 17 of the
aircraft ahead. &eplies of both will overlap at the interrogator antenna and gives rise to garbling.
4.5 (f either interrogation or reply are reflected from mountains or large structures, it will give an
incorrect range.
5.+; Air?orne #ollision A1oidance Syste- 4A#AS5
ACAS and Traffic #ollision A1oidance Syste-s 4T#AS5 are installed on the aircraft for
preventing the mid$air collisions. %unctions of the ACAS system are<
4*5 Surveillance
405 9enerating 'raffic Advisories 4providing the pilot with visual and aural alert L'raffic 'rafficM5.
4/5 'hreat 4in the form of conflicting traffic5 detection
4.5 9enerating &esolution Advisories
435 Coordinating between own aircraft and conflicting traffic
4?5 Communicating with ground stations
Surveillance is provided for traffic up to *. 17. &A is generated for only traffic within *0
17. ACAS can detect broadcast interrogations from other aircraft e6uipped with ACAS up to a
distance of /+ 17.
'here are three types of ACAS depending on their functional capability<
4*5 A#AS '< 'his type provides information as an aid to Lsee and avoidM action. ACAS ( does not
have the capability to produce &esolution Advisories 4&A5. (t generates 'raffic Advisories 4'A5
to alert the pilot.
405 A#AS ''< 'his type provides 'A and vertical &A. (n case of a threat, it generates the 'A
warning L'raffic 'rafficM and a #li-? RA or a 2escend RA.
4/5 A#AS '''< 'his type provides the 'A, vertical and horiKontal &A. 'his type of ACAS provide
&A to manoeuvre the aircraft in horiKontal plane, in addition to 'A and vertical &A.
5.+;.+ %rinciple of operation
ACAS interrogates other aircraft fitted with 7ode A2C and S transponders. When the
transponder of the other aircraft replies, the bearing of the traffic is obtained from the bearing of the
directional antenna, altitude is obtained from the 7ode C reply. &eplying traffic can also obtain its
position from 91SS such as 9PS receiver and send this information in the 7ode S reply.
&eplies from the traffic allow the ACAS computer to ascertain the range, flight path and
speed of the traffic. 'hus, the ACAS computes the possibility of a collision and generates 'A and if
re6uired, &A. (t also communicates with the other aircraft via 7ode S transponder datalink to
e!change information regarding its own position and &A. ACAS of both aircraft coordinate to
avoid the conflict. Also, the ACAS broadcasts the &A information to a 7ode S capable ground
station. (nterrogation and replies from other aircraft on ground will not generate 'A and &A.
Along with the aural alert, the visual alerts are put up on display for the pilots. Displays can
be dedicated or integrated with other displays, such as glass cockpit. 'he displays provide a plan$
view of traffic around the own aircraft.
0*?
5.+;.. 'nstallation
'he e6uipment installation usually consists of an ACAS transceiver, directional antennae,
7ode S transponder with associated antennae, control unit and a vertical speed indicator or
integrated >%(S display.
5.++ Aeather Radar
Weather radar gives the pilot indication of the weather ahead of the aircraft. Weather radar
operates in C and G bands. &ange of weather radar is around /?+ 17.
5.++.+ %rinciple of "peration
Weather radar works on the principle of reflection of &% pulses. An &% pulse is transmitted
from the aircraft weather radar antenna. (f the pulse hits an obstruction 4target5, it is reflected back
and received at the aircraft weather radar antenna. Dy measuring the time taken for the pulse to
travel up to the reflecting ob:ect and travel back, the distance of the ob:ect can be calculated. 'he
direction 4bearing5 of the transmitting antenna during transmission of the pulse gives the bearing of
the target. After processing, the targets are displayed on a screen.
>ven clouds reflect back the &% pulses. Denser the cloud, stronger will be the echo signal
strength. 'his gives information about the density of the cloud. (n the display, this information can
be displayed in different colours. %or e!ample, cu-uloni-?us 4#B5 clouds, the type of clouds
dangerous for aircraft operations can be displayed in red colour.
&adar antenna scans the air space ahead of the aircraft in a sector, the boundaries of which
can be selected by the pilot.
Disadvantage of weather radar is, it cannot detect weather phenomena such as turbulence in
dry weather. Presence of water droplets is necessary for reflection of &% pulses.
5.+. Radio=Radar Alti-eter
&adio altimeter works on a similar principle to weather radar. (t emits &% pulses 4or %7
CW5 towards the ground and receives the echo. Dy the time taken by the pulse for two way travel, it
calculates the distance which is the height of the aircraft above the ground. 'he system can give a
warning to the pilot if the aircraft descends below a preset level. &adar altimeter measurement is
very accurate. Difference between D7> and &adar altimeter is D7> measures the slant distance
whereas the latter measures the straight distance. 'ypical ma!imum range of radar altimeter is 03++
ft. 7ilitary aircraft may be e6uipped with higher range radio altimeters. 'he fre6uency range of
carrier is .0++$..++ 7"K band.
Fi/. 5.+. #o-parison ?eteen 2)! and Radio Alti-eter ran/in/
5.+0 Ground %ro,i-ity Aarnin/ Syste- 4G%AS5
9PWS is a system which provides warning to the aircraft in case of terrain closure. 9PWS
was developed after cases of #ontrolled Fli/ht 'n to Terrain 4#F'T5 took place. 'he system takes
input from the radio altimeter, pressure altimeter and landing gear status. (f the aircraft comes too
close to ground, the system gives aural and visual warnings to the pilot. Pro!imity of ground may
be intentional 4such as when coming in for landing5 or unintentional 4such as approaching mountain
range when visibility is poor or flying over unfamiliar terrain5. (f it is intentional, pilot can choose
to override or ignore the warning.
0*A
5.+0.+ !nhanced G%AS 4!G%AS5
>9PWS is the advanced version of 9PWS. 'errain characteristics of the whole globe is
digitised and stored in the memory of >9PWS computer. 'he computer takes its present position
from the 9PS data and displays a /$D visual display of terrain underneath that position. >9PWS is
also capable of providing wind shear warning. 'his capability is known as Forard Lookin/
Aind Shear Aarnin/ Syste-.
5.+5 Auto-atic 2ependent Sur1eillance 4A2S5
Automatic Dependent Surveillance is a system which automatically provides the aircraft
identification, position in four dimensions 4/D and time5, navigational and additional data to the
ground controller. 'hese data are presented to the controller on a screen similar to a radar screen.
'wo main forms of ADS are given below<
4a5 A2S & Broadcast 4A2S & B5< ADS system in which the data is broadcast and any suitable
receiver can receive.
4b5 A2S & #ontract 4A2S & #5< 'his is similar to ADS # D but works on a contract between a
ground system and aircraft.
> > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >
0*B
%ART 'V
%RA#T'#! T!ST %A%!RS
0*-
00+
!(A)'$AT'"$ & %ART & '
%RA#T'#AL T!ST & R!G4LAT'"$S A$2 TRAFF'# %R"#!24R!
Authors note
'ransmission test consists of communicating with the >!aminer, using &' phraseology, on
a synthetic channel. According to the notice from WPC 4P$*.+0A2+.2+-$C)P dated 002*+20++-5,
the following changes in Part ( have been brought into force from %ebruary 0++- session<
4*5 'he candidate is re6uired to maintain a log for his2her entire &' communication transactions
with the >!aminer for all the five 6uestions.
405 Assessment of the performance of the candidate in the e!amination will take the log into
account.
4/5 Duration of the e!amination has been increased from *3 minutes to 03 minutes.
'herefore, it is advised to practise maintaining a log while preparing for the transmission
test. %ive of the solved test papers in this chapter have logs with them. 'he answers given in these
solved papers are only samples of the typical answers and may vary from the actual answers,
especially the second stage onwards of each 6uestion. 'his is because the transmissions from the
>!aminer may be at variance from the answers given in the solved papers. %or e!ample, the
>!aminer may refuse to give a descent clearance. 'he >!aminer may even refuse clearance for any
re6uest by the candidate and the candidate should ask LA2V'S! '$T!$T'"$M. Also, it is not
binding to use the same abbreviations or shortcuts as used in these logs. (t is strongly advised to use
standard abbreviations. Since the candidate is re6uired to Jread backF, one should practise the right
way of logging the receptions so that there is no confusion about what has been logged. (t is advised
to develop oneFs own standard of logging and maintain that standard throughout.
'ransmission techni6ues have been discussed in Part ((, Chapter 0, paragraph 0.0. 'he
candidate should be thorough with these techni6ues. 'ransmission skills can be developed through
repeated practice.
A map set will be provided with the 6uestion paper. 'he map number, to be referred to
attempt the given set of 6uestions, will be mentioned at the top of the 6uestion paper. Certain air
routes will be given in the map and the situations in the 6uestions will be framed around the air
route. 'he candidate should be conversant with map reading, especially with the four$letter location
indicators of aerodromes. Also, the candidate should be familiar with the significant points and their
geographic locations. 'he candidate is re6uired to know the coverage areas of '7A and C'&
because there will be 6uestions in which the candidate is re6uired to contact the Lappropriate
authorityM.
Data such as call sign, Selcal and SS& codes, cruising flight level, etc will be given in the
6uestion paper and the fre6uencies on the map. 'he candidate should use these for answering the
6uestions. (f any data is not given, hypothetical data can be used. Where departure time has been
given, specific time has to be written against the 6uestion numbers on the answer sheet.
7aps given in this guide book are only for practice and one should not e!pect the same
maps in the e!amination. >ven the design of the maps is slightly different than the maps given
during e!amination. )bviously, the candidate must be totally ready to work with any map rather
than e!pect a standard set of maps for all the sessions of the e!amination.
astly, it is strongly advised not to learn by rote 4by heart5, the e!amples given in preceding
chapters and the answers given in the solved test papers. What is important is, to study the elements
of the message and use corresponding standard phraseology while preparing the messages. 'he
elements must be in proper se6uence so that the clarity of the message is maintained. Where there is
no standard phraseology for a particular situation, usage of plain language, as concise as possible, is
permitted.
00*
T!ST %A%!R & +
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB '# 7.; Type of AircraftB Air?us Fli/ht Le1elB .9;
2eparture Aerodro-eB V!## 2estination Aerodro-eB V"))
RouteB "1er flyin/ V!BS @ V!VF Selcal co-?inationB AL#*
2eparture Ti-eB +5;;
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;+
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. Defore Departure from ;olkata obtain the following
4a5 Start up Clearance
4b5 'a!i (nstruction
4c5 'ake )ff clearance
E 0. )ver ;olkata Chennai %(& boundary you have received a S>CA indication. 'ake action.
E /.
4a5 When crossing D);>', you observed fire on left engine and decided to make force landing.
4b5 'he fire was minor and you are able to e!tinguish the fire and decided to proceed as per flight
plan. 'ake action.
E .. When you are /+ 17 D7> distance of Chennai re6uest for ,isual approach.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 Wait, ( shall call you.
4b5 >stablish radio contact
4c5 7y transmission is ended and ( e!pect response from you
4d5 >!amine a system or procedure
4e5 Continue in accordance with the condition specified
000
T!ST %A%!R & .
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB :A7;7 Type of AircraftB B808 Fli/ht Le1elB 0+;
2eparture Aerodro-eB VABB 2estination Aerodro-eB V'2%
RouteB "1er flyin/ VA'2< VAB%< V'GR Selcal co-?inationB A#2F
2eparture Ti-eB ;:0;
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;.
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. While ta!iing to runway *., you have entered ta!iway D/ instead of D0. 'ake action.
E 0. Position report over D)'(P. 7umbai Control not responding.
E /.
4a5 /+ 17 inbound (ndore, you e!perience severe turbulence and you decide to descend to % 03+.
4b5 Clear of turbulence, you decide to proceed as per assigned level.
E .. &e6uest visual approach for the reciprocal of the runway in use.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 ,isibility by accredited ground observer
4b5 &unway lights dim
4c5 Pass me the following information
4d5 ( cannot comply with your instruction
4e5 7ake a complete turn to right
00/
T!ST %A%!R & 0
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB '#5+; Type of AircraftB B808 Fli/ht Le1elB 05;
2eparture Aerodro-eB V"TV 2estination Aerodro-eB VABB
RouteB "1er flyin/ V"#'< V"#L< V")L< VAG" Selcal co-?inationB AL#2
'FR Fli/ht 2eparture Ti-eB .;+6
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;0
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. 'ake A'C clearance.
E 0. 0+ 17 outbound 7angalore, an Airbus /0+ crosses path. 'ake action.
E /. Pou are overhead 9oa. 47>' reporting point5
E ..
4a5 At destination, you are on left base leg and you see another aircraft on right base leg switching
on and off its lights repeatedly. (nform A'C.
4b5 At destination aerodrome while ta!iing on the manoeuvring, you are uncertain of your position.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 1DD not coding.
4b5 et me know that you have received and understood the message.
4c5 ( am approaching for landing with greater than . 17 final.
4d5 ( have no two$way communication but ( believe you are able to receive my transmission
4e5 Select pressure altitude transmission feature on transponder
00.
T!ST %A%!R & 5
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB SR..; Type of AircraftB B808 Fli/ht Le1elB 0+;
2eparture Aerodro-eB V'2% 2estination Aerodro-eB V'SR
RouteB "1er flyin/ V'#G< V'AR Selcal co-?inationB A2B!
'FR Fli/ht 2eparture Ti-eB +00;
StandB 05 Air?orne Ti-eB +05;
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;5
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *.
4a5 &e6uest for A'C clearance.
4b5 Comply with A'C clearance.
E 0. At runway holding point, you observe ta!iway edge asphalt broken. 'ake action.
E /.
4a5 *3 17 inbound Chandigarh, aircraft cabin pressure is leaking.
4b5 At %*A+, you feel comfortable and you intend to proceed.
E .. While on finals, you are not getting three greens. 'ake action.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 ,(DDPGAG
4b5 'ransponder code .0+/
4c5 Altimeter setting *+*+
4d5 Altitude *033+
4e5 &eport clearing the runway
003
T!ST %A%!R & 6
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB 'A666 Type of AircraftB Air?us Fli/ht Le1elB 05;
2eparture Aerodro-eB V")) 2estination Aerodro-eB V'2%
RouteB "1er flyin/ V"*L< VAB% Selcal co-?inationB #2K!
'FR Fli/ht 2eparture Ti-eB ;80;
StandB 5 Air?orne Ti-eB ;85;
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;6
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. .
4a5 &e6uest for start up. During start up, you are informed that persons onboard are -B instead of --.
4b5 Pou have been allocated runway /+ which has ')&A of 0+?3 7. Pou re6uire ')&A of /+++
7 and ')&A of runway 03 is /?3B. 'ake action.
E 0. Chennai S7C informs you there is delay due to reciprocal traffic on W0+.
4a5 &e6uest for departure via alternate route.
4b5 Coining clearance at D)D>
E /. .+ 17 inbound ,ADP, you have drifted 0+ 17 to the left of track. 'ake action.
E .. A' D@;) report position to appropriate A'S authority.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 ( am retransmitting the correct version of entire message.
4b5 &unway visual range *?++ metres
4c5 Deselect pressure altitude transmission feature because of faulty operation.
4d5 'CAS &A
4e5 %.*+
00?
T!ST %A%!R & 7
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB IA5++ Type of AircraftB ATR Fli/ht Le1elB 0+;
2eparture Aerodro-eB VAA* 2estination Aerodro-eB V'LK
RouteB "1er flyin/ V"*L< VAB% Selcal co-?inationB A2!B
'FR Fli/ht 2eparture Ti-eB ;80;
StandB 5 Air?orne Ti-eB ;85;
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;7
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. Carry out pre$flight Selcal check.
E 0. While .+ 17 inbound (ndore, you get a 'CAS &A and you deviate from assigned track.
Control is calling you and instructing you to resume track. 'ake action.
E /.
4a5 Crossing (9)1A, you e!perience electrical failure. Pou need a delay of +3 minutes to resolve
the problem.
4b5 >lectrical problem is resolved and you would like to proceed as per flight plan.
E .. While on finals you reach D" but do not see the runway. 'ake action.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 A change has been made to your last clearance and supersedes your previous clearance.
4b5 Surface wind 0++ degrees *+ knots gusting two Kero knots
4c5 Weather conditions less than the minima specified for visual reference flight
4d5 &ead back incorrect, ( am transmitting the correct version
4e5 ( am unable to establish communication due to receiver failure
00A
T!ST %A%!R & 8
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB '# 0:7 Type of AircraftB Air?us Fli/ht Le1elB 5;;
2eparture Aerodro-eB VABB 2estination Aerodro-eB V!##
RouteB "1er flyin/ VAA4< VA$%< V!IS Selcal co-?inationB A*KB
'FR Fli/ht 2eparture Ti-eB ;0+;
StandB 5. Air?orne Ti-eB ;0.;
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;8
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *.
4a5 After lining up on the runway, you get port generator warning8 'ower is asking you for
immediate departure. 'ake action.
4b5 After 3 minutes, generator warning light goes off and you decide to proceed for departure.
E 0. 0+ 17 from D@D)G you are cruising at %/B+. Pou are cleared by 7umbai to reach ')C at
D@D)G. 7umbai ACC is not replying. Contact ne!t A'S@ for further clearance.
E /. While over ;(1;(, you come to know that your "% receiver has failed. 'ransmit your position
to the appropriate authority.
E .. *3 17 from ;olkata, red fire lights have been activated in the cockpit. 'ake action.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 )perate (D>1' feature on SS& transponder.
4b5 Communication is difficult8 please send every word or group of words twice
4c5 ,isibility, cloud and present weather better than prescribed values or conditions
4d5 isten out on **B.*
4e5 (gnore my last transmission
00B
T!ST %A%!R & 9
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB KF +9+ Type of AircraftB ATR 8.>6;; Fli/ht Le1elB .0;
2eparture Aerodro-eB V!GT 2estination Aerodro-eB V!)$
RouteB "1er flyin/ V!IT Selcal co-?inationB AL#2
'FR Fli/ht 2eparture Ti-eB ;756
StandB 7 Air?orne Ti-eB ;766
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;9
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. At departure aerodrome ask for
4a5 Push back
4b5 'a!i instructions.
E 0.
4a5 )verhead 7(;A9, you intercept a distress call from ,'A7>8 starboard engine on fire, /+ 17
from Corhat at %*-+. 'ake action.
4b5 ,'A7> not replying A'C call. 'ake action.
E /. )verhead 1)7A9, you receive S>CA indication.
E .. 03 17 from Dibrugarh, you are getting A'C instructions which you suspect to be false or
deceptive. 'ake action.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 'hat is not correct
4b5 Permission for proposed action granted
4c5 What is the readability of my transmissionV
4d5 ( wish to obtainU
4e5 Approach along or parallel to the runway without landing
00-
T!ST %A%!R & :
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB VTAII Type of AircraftB 2ornier Fli/ht Le1elB .9;
2eparture Aerodro-eB V!VF 2estination Aerodro-eB V"*L
RouteB "1er flyin/ V"K) S!L#ALB AL)!
'FR Fli/ht 2eparture Ti-eB .;;;
StandB 7 Air?orne Ti-eB ;766
Refer to Route #hart $oB ;:
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. After take$off, you suspect damage to undercarriage due to bird hit. 'ake action.
E 0. Due to reciprocal traffic, Control asks you to hold over ;hammampet 1DD. Pou are not
familiar with holding pattern.
E /. .+ 17 inbound "yderabad, passenger is seriously ill. 'ake action
E ..
4a5 / 17 on %inals, you e!perience low level wind shear.
4b5 'ower asks you to report braking action after landing.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 and, continue rolling, take off without stopping
4b5 &educe your rate of speech
4c5 "eading 0A+
4d5 ( repeat for clarity or emphasis
4e5 'rue
0/+
T!ST %A%!R & +;
Ti-e alloedB .6 -inutes fro- handin/ o1er Cuestion paper. )a,i-u- -arksB +;;
Aircraft identificationB VTA)! Type of AircraftB !-?raer Fli/ht Le1elB +7;
2eparture Aerodro-eB V")) 2estination Aerodro-eB V"TV
RouteB V"TR< o1erflyin/ V")2 Alternate aerodro-eB V"#B
V*F Fli/ht< Trainee aircraft 2eparture Ti-eB +8+6
StandB 9 Air?orne Ti-eB +8.6
Refer to Route #hart $oB +;
Take RTF action for situations /i1en ?elo in ascendin/ order.
4se hypothetical data< for -essa/e that reCuire to ?e trans-itted at specific ti-e< candidate
should rite that specific ti-e a/ainst Cuestion nu-?er on the anser sheet.
#ontinue anserin/ till you are told to QGo to ne,t CuestionU.
4sa/e of A1iation Lan/ua/e and prescri?ed %hraseolo/ies is -andatory.
E *. Carry out radio check with Chennai tower.
E 0. At 'hiruchchirapalli, for training purpose, re6uest landing and take off without stopping.
E /.
4a5 *B 17 from 7adurai, you see a large flock of birds ahead and you decide to climb.
4b5 )utbound 7adurai, widespread rain and thunderstorm. Pou decide to divert to alternate
aerodrome.
E ..
4a5 .+ 17 from Coimbatore, you decide to proceed ,%&.
4b5 eave controlled airspace by re6uesting for a lower level.
E 3. 'ransmit the following phrases as per &adiotelephony procedure.
4a5 ( understand your message and will comply with it.
4b5 Standard (nstrument Arrival
4c5 Cumulonimbus clouds
4d5 >stimating departure
4e5 'his e!change of transmissions is ended and no response is e!pected
0/*
R"4T! #*ART $". ;+
0/0
R"4T! #*ART $". ;.
0//
R"4T! #*ART $". ;0
0/.
R"4T! #*ART $". ;5
0/3
R"4T! #*ART $". ;6
0/?
R"4T! #*ART $". ;7
0/A
R"4T! #*ART $". ;8
0/B
R"4T! #*ART $". ;9
0/-
R"4T! #*ART $". ;:
0.+
R"4T! #*ART $". +;
0.*
T!ST %A%!R +
Anser SheetB Lo/ keepin/
Euestion
$o.
Ti-e
Send=
Recei1e
Te,t
*.4i5
4ii5
4iii5
*/3+ S
&
S
S
&
S
&
S
&
S
S
&
S
&
S
&
S
CC 9nd (C?0+ "eavy, *0*.-, stnd 0A, *00 o2b, sec chk
completed, re6 s2u, inf D
(C?0+ CC 9nd, s2u apvd, E1" *+*+
CC 9nd, &, E1" *+*+, (C?0+
CC 9nd (C?0+, stnd 0A, re6 ta!i inst
(C?0+ CC 9nd, ta! via twy C hldg pt rwy +*r, wind 03+2B, E1"
*+*+, rep hldg pt
CC 9nd, twy C, rwy +*r hldg pt, E1" *+*+, wilco, (C?0+
CC 9nd
CC 9nd (C?0+, hldg pt rwy +*r
(C?0+, contact CC twr on **B.*, CC 9nd
CC 9nd, CC twr on **B.*
CC twr (C?0+ "eavy on **B.*
(C?0+ CC twr
CC twr (C?0+, hldg pt rwy +*r, ready for dep
(C?0+ CC twr, line up
ining up, (C?0+
(C?0+ CC twr, rwy +*r, clr for tkof
CC twr, rwy +*r, clr for tkof
0. *.+. S
&
S
&
&
S
&
&
S
&
S
(C?0+, 92A, ;
(C?0+ CC rdo, rep psn, ;
CC rdo, 77 rdo to copy, (C?0+ on BB?*, fir CC277 at *.+.,
fl0B+, hdg 0*., spd 03+, EDD +.++, est D);>' 0?, 9@&AS
n!t 3., >'A ,>CC *3*0, pa! *+?, ;
(C?0+ CC rdo, fir CC277 at *.+., fl0B+, hdg 0*., spd 03+,
EDD +.++, est D);>' 0?, 9@&AS n!t 3., >'A ,>CC *3*0,
pa! *+?, ;
(C?0+ 77 rdo, fir CC277 at *.+., fl0B+, hdg 0*., spd 03+,
EDD +.++, est D);>' 0?, 9@&AS n!t 3., >'A ,>CC *3*0,
pa! *+?, ;
CC rdo, chng over to 77 rdo, (C?0+
(C?0+ CC rdo, &, out
(C?0+ 77 rdo, chg over to 77 rdo, pri BB?*, sec ?3B/, ;
77 rdo (C?0+, pri BB?*, sec ?3B/, S>CA AC", ;
(C?0+, S>CA AC", 77 rdo
(C?0+
/. *.0? S
&
S
S
&
S
7APDAP G/, 77 Ctl (C?0+, port eng fire, intend to ldg at
,(,C, psn ohd D);>' at *.0?, fl0B+, hdg 0*., spd 03+, EDD
+//+, >'A ,(,C *..?, pa! *+?
(C?0+ 77 Ctl, & 7ayday, rcld to ,(,C
77 Ctl, rcld to ,(,C, (C?0+
77 Ctl (C?0+, cnl distress, port eng fire e!tngd, decided to
proceed as per original %P, psn 0+ nm oubd D);>' at *./+,
fl0B+, >'A ,>CC *3*0
(C?0+ 77 Ctl, & cancel Distress, rcld as per filed %P
77 Ctl, rcld as per %%P, (C?0+
.. *3+. S 77 App (C?0+ ">A,P
0.0
&
S
&
S
&
S
S
&
S
(C?0+ 77 App
77 App (C?0+, Psn /+ 17 D7> to ,)77 at *3+., radial
+/3, flA+, re6 visual app
(C?0+, clrd visual app, rwy /+, S'A, des /+++ ft, E1" *+**,
'& .+, no del e!pected, 77 App
77 App (C?0+, clrd visual app, rwy /+, S'A, des /+++ ft, E1"
*+**, '& .+, no delay e!pctd
(C?0+, &2D C, rep rwy established, 77 App
77 App, Wilco, (C?0+
77 App (C?0+, field in sight
(C?0+, C'C ,)77 'wr **B.*, 77 App
77 'wr **B.*, (C3*A
3. S 4a5 S'A1DDP
4b5 C)1'AC'
4c5 ),>&
4d5 C">C;
4e5 C>A&>D
0./
T!ST %A%!R .
Anser sheetB Lo/ keepin/
Euestion
$o.
Ti-e
Send=
Recei1e
Te,t
*. +-03
S
&
S
DD gnd -W?+?, clr to rwy *. via D0. entered D/, hlding psn. re6
apv proceed via D/ or alternate ta!i inst.
-W?+?, apvd to proceed via D/, rep hldg pt rwy *., DD gnd
DD gnd, apvd to proceed via D/, wilco, -W?+?
0. *+++
S
&
S
&
DD rdo -W?+? on B-.B, psn rep, DD Ctl not responding, ohd
D);>' at *+++, fl /*+, hdg ++., est APA1) *0, D)DA& /3,
>'A D( *0.+, pa! *0/, ;
-W?+? DD rdo, ohd D);>' *+++, fl /*+, hdg ++., est APA1)
*0, D)DA& /3, >'A D( *0.+, pa! *0/, ;
DD rdo, r2b correct, -W?+?
DD rdo
/. *+3A
S
&
S
&
S
&
S
S
&
A" Ctl -W?+?, A&S, psn /+ 17 inbd ,A(D at 3A, %/*+,
turbulence severe, re6 des to fl0++
-W?+? A" Ctl, clr to des to %0++, rep psg fl03+
A" Ctl, des to fl0++, wilco, -W?+?
A" Ctl
A" Ctl -W?+?, fl03+, clr of turbulence, re6 resume fl/*+
-W?+? A" Ctl, reclr to fl/*+, rep toc
A" Ctl, reclr to fl/*+, wilco, -W?+?
A" Ctl, toc fl/*+, -W?+?
-W?+?, &, A" Ctl
..
S
&
S
S
&
S
&
Dli App -W?+?, psn 7>>1A, flB+, re6 visual app on reciprocal
rwy 0B
-W?+?, Dli App, clr for visual app reciprocal rwy 0B, des to
0?++ ft, E1" *+**, 'A.+++, no delay e!p
Dli App -W?+?, clr for visual app reciprocal rwy 0B, des to 0?++
ft, E1" *+**, 'A.+++, no delay e!p
Dli App -W?+?, 0?++ ft, field in sight
-W?+? Dli App, contact Dli 'wr **B.*
Dli App, Dli 'wr **B.*, -W?+?
Dli App
3.
S 4a5 9round ,isibility
4b5 &unway lights intensity low
4c5 &eport
4d5 @nable
4e5 )rbit right
0..
T!ST %A%!R 0
Anser sheetB Lo/ keepin/
Euestion
$o.
Ti-e
Send=
Recei1e
Te,t
*. 0++3 S
&
S
&
S
&
'vm 9nd (C.*+ on *0*.-, (%& to 7um, re6 A'C inst
(C.*+ 'vm 9nd, clr for (%& to 7um, rwy 0A, clmb s2a aft dep
till 0+++ ft, then turn rt, mntn hdg /.3, e!pct /+++ ft aft *+ of
dep, w*3, fl/.+
'vm 9nd (C.*+, clr for (%& 7um, rwy 0A, clmb s2a aft dep till
0+++ ft, then turn rt, hdg //B, e!pct /+++ ft aft *+ of dep, w*3,
fl/.+
(C.*+, C, 'vm 9nd
'vm 9nd (C.*+, stnd /0, *+0 o2b, security chk completed, re6
s2u, inf D
(C.*+, s2u apvd, E1" *++-, 'vm 9nd
0. 0*0. S
&
S
&
S
&
S
&
7ng Ctl (C.*+ on *0A.33, Airpro! rep
(C.*+ 7ng Ctl, ready to copy
7ng Ctl (C.*+, A(&P&)G, *0+/*-0**-, 0+17 oubd 7ng, "dg
//B, W*3, 'AS 03+ kt, %/.+, Alt set *+*/.0, level flt, avoiding
action taken yes, Airbus/0+, Al Ameen airlines, climbing,
avoiding action taken yes, distances horiKontal ?++ ft, vertical
.++ ft, ldg and destination mum
(C.*+ 7ng Ctl, 4r2b5
7ng Ctl, r2b C, (C.*+
(C.*+ 7ng Ctl cfm resumed assigned clearance
7ng Ctl, affirm, (C.*+
7ng Ctl
/. 0*3- S
&
S
&
S
&
7ng Ctl (C.*+ on *0A.33
(C.*+ 7ng Ctl
7ng Ctl (C.*+, A(&>P, psn ohd 9oa at 0*3-, %/.+, est
);(A 000+, ;ADS) 0-, >'A 7um 3-, temp minus . deg c,
wind 0*32/+ kt, turbulence light, icing light
(C.*+ 7ng Ctl 4r2b5
7ng Ctl r2b C, (C.*+
7ng Ctl
.. S
&
S
S
&
&
S
&
S
&
PA1 PA1 !/, 7um 'wr (C.*+, on lt base leg, ( see traffic on rt
base, urgency lgt signal
(C.*+ 7um 'wr, & urgency, traffic sighted, cmb to /+++ ft and
orbit rt
7um 'wr, cmb to /+++ ft and orbit rt, (C.*+
7um 9nd (C.*+, uncertain of my psn, vacated rwy *. via twy
D/, hldg psn at int, re6 inst
(C.*+ 7um 9nd, flash ldg lgt
(C.*+ 7um 9nd, located, ta! via twy %*, proceed behind bay .?
to bay 3.
7um 9nd (C.*+, ta! via twy %*, proceed behind bay .? to bay
3.
(C.*+ 7um 9nd do you want follow me
7um 9nd, 1egative, (C.*+
7um 9nd
3. S 4a5 1DD off the air
0.3
4b5 Acknowledge
4c5 Cancel
4d5 'ransmitting Dlind
4e5 S6uawk Charlie
0.?
T!ST %A%!R & 5
Anser SheetB Lo/ keepin/
Euestion
$o.
Ti-e
Send=
Recei1e
Te,t
*. 4a5
4b5
*/0+
*//+
S
&
S
&
S
S
Dli 9nd S&00+, (%& to Sri, &e6 A'C inst, infn b
S&00+ Dli 9nd, &wy 0B, clr for ifr to sri, sid sp *A, E1" *++-
Dli gnd S&00+, rwy 0B, clr for sri, sid sp *A, 6nh *++-
C, Dli gnd
S&00+
Dli gnd S&00+, (%& to Sri, sid sp *A, AB o2b, sec chk completed,
re6 s2u
S&00+ s2u apvd, s2u own discretion, Dli gnd
Dli gnd, s2u apvd at own discretion, S&00+
0. *//3 S
&
S
&
S
Dli gnd S&00+, at hldg pt rwy 0B, ( see broken asphalt on twy
edge at hldg pt rwy 0B
S&00+, &, cnfm able to proceed to rwy0B, Dli gnd
Affirm, S&00+
S&00+, contact Dli twr on **B.*, Dli gnd
Dli twr **B.*, S&00+
/. 4a5
4b5
*.0+ S
&
S
S
&
S
Cdg twr S&00+, cabin presr leaking, re6 des to %*3+, psn *3
17 inbd cdg at *.0+, fl/*+, hdg /+B, pa! AB
S&00+ cdg twr, &, clr to des to %*3+, maintain %*3+ or abv
Cdg twr, clr to des %*3+, W(C), S&00+
Cdg twr S&00+, cabin pressure ok at %*A+, re6 clr to proceed at
%*A+
S&00+, reclr to %*A+, cdg twr
S&00+
.. S
&
S
&
S
Sri 'wr S&00+, re6 low pass, unsafe gear indication
S&00+ Sri 'wr, rwy 0B, clr for low pass, not blw 3++ ft, rep
finals
Sri 'wr, rwy 0B, clr for low pass, not blw 3++ ft, wilco, S&00+
Sri 'wr
3. S 4a5 ,(C')& (1D(A D>'A D>'A PA1;>> G&AP
AP"A G&AP
4b5 SE@AW; %)W>& 'W) Q>&) '"@&>>
4c5 E1" )1> Q>&) )1> Q>&)
4d5 A'('@D> )1> 'W) ')@SA1D %(,> "@1D&>D
%(,> Q>&) %>>'
4e5 &@1WAP ,ACA'>D
0.A
T!ST %A%!R & 6
Anser SheetB Lo/ keepin/
Euestion
$o.
Ti-e
Send=
Recei1e
Te,t
*. +A0+ S
&
S
&
S
&
S
S
&
S
&
77 9nd (A333, (%& to Dli stnd ., total -- o2b, sec chk
completed, re6 s2u
(A333, s2u apvd, 77 9nd
77 9nd (A333, re6 file chng in flt plan
(A333 77 9nd, ready to copy
77 9nd (A333, total nr of persons o2b -B
(A333, total nr of persons o2b -B, 77 9nd
C, (A333
77 9nd (A333, re6 rwy 03 due ')&A
(A333 77 9nd, rwy 03 apvd
77 9nd, rwy 03 apvd, (A333
77 9nd
0. +A03 S
&
S
&
S
&
S
&
S
77 9nd (A333, re6 dep via D.?? till ,)'P, then W-? and :oin
W0+ at D)D>
(A333 77 9nd, rclr for dep via D.??, S(D A,1)S 0, :oin W-?
at ,)'P ,)& and then W0+ at D)D>
77 9nd, rclr for dep via D.??, S(D A,1)S0, :oin W-? at
,)'P, W0+ at D)D>, (A333
C, 77 9nd
77 Ctl (A333 on **B.-
(A333 77 Ctl
77 Ctl (A333, airbus fm ,)77 to ,(DP, psn W-? 3+ 17
inbd D)D> at +A/., %/0+, hdg /3A, 'AS /++, re6 :oining clr
W0+ at D)D> %/.+, est D)D> .., n!t ,)" +B*., >'A
,(DP *+/*
(A333, clr to :oin W0+ at D)D> at %/.+, 77 Ctl
77 Ctl, clr to :oin W0+ at D)D> at %/.+, (A333
/. +-*- S
&
S
&
S
1gpr Ctl (A333
(A333 1gpr Ctl
1gpr Ctl (A333, (%& fm ,)77 to ,(DP, psn .+ 17 inbd
,ADP on W0+ at +-*-, drifted off tr 0+ 17 to lt, resuming tr
(A333, &, rep tr resumed, 1gpr Ctl
1gpr Ctl, wilco, (A333
.. +-.B S 7um rdo Dli rdo D> (A333 on B-.B, ;
(A333 D> 7um rdo, g2a, ;
(A333 D> Dli rdo, g2a, ;
7um rdo, Dli rdo, De (A333, psn rep, D@;) at .B, %/.+,
"D9 /3B, SPD /++ kt, EDD +0++, est DA,)G *+*0, )S&A7
n!t at 0B, >'A Dli *+/*, Selcal CD;>, ;
(A333 7um rdo, psn D@;) .B, %/.+, "D9 /3B, Spd /++ kt,
EDD +0++, DA,)G *+*0, )S&A7 0B, >'A Dli, Selcal CD;>,
*+/*, chng over to Dli, ;
7um rdo, Wilco, (A333
7um rdo
(A333 Dli rdo, assuming pri guard, pri B-.B, sec 3?+*, ;
Dli rdo, pri B-.B, sec 3?+*, (A333
0.B
Dli rdo
3. S 4a5 C)&&>C'()1 ( SAP A9A(1
4b5 &@1WAP ,(S@A &A19> 4or A& ,>> A&5 )1>
')@SA1D S(G "@1D&>D 7>'&>S
4c5 S')P SE@AW; C"A&(> W&)19 (1D(CA'()1
4d5 '>> CAS A& &AP
4e5 %(9"' >,> %)W>& )1> Q>&)
> > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >
0.-
!(A)'$AT'"$ & %ART & ''
"RAL T!ST & RA2'" %R'$#'%L!S A$2 %RA#T'#!
(A) R!G4LAT'"$S A$2 %R"#!24R!
*. What is the significance of WPCV
0. What is the significance of ('@V
/. What are &adio &egulationsV
.. What is the significance of (CA)V
3. What are the different (CA) Anne!esV What is the significance of Anne! *+ ,ol 0 and Anne!
*3V
?. What is AA(V
A. Who is responsible for promulgating the Civil Aviation &e6uirementsV
B. What are the communication and navigation e6uipment that are re6uired to be fitted on the
aircraftV
-. Euestions on Definitions and abbreviations. 4&eader is advised to study the definitions and
abbreviations given in Part (( Chapter *5.
*+. What is the purpose of aeronautical servicesV
**. What are the different aeronautical services of (ndiaV
*0. What is C1SV
*/. What are the different communication services in (ndiaV
*.. What are the different categories of messages of aeronautical mobile serviceV
*3. What is A'(S2DA'(SV
*?. What is ,)7>'V
*A. What is the significance of A(SV Which is the responsible service in (ndiaV
*B. What is the significance of A(PV What are the different parts of A(PV What are A(P
supplementsV
*-. What do you understand by 1)'A7V Who issues 1)'A7sV
0+. What are the different types of pre$flight and post flight information systemsV
0*. What is A>&AD()V Who is responsible for publishing A>&AD()V
00. What is A(CV Who is responsible for publishing A(CV
0/. What is an %(&V What are the %(& of (ndiaV
0.. What are the different classifications of airspaceV
03. What are significant points of an A'S routeV
0?. What is the significance of 7eteorological servicesV Who is responsible for 7eteorological
servicesV
0A. What do you understand by Search and &escue serviceV
0B. What is @'CV
4i5 Convert +/++ (S' to @'C
4ii5 Convert 0*++ @'C to (S'
0-. What are the points to be observed while transmitting on the &' channelV
/+. What is the role and importance of phraseology in aeronautical communicationsV
/*. Which A'C instructions are to be compulsorily read$backV
/0. "ow to abbreviate an aircraft call signV
//. What do you understand by readability or intelligibility of a transmissionV
/.. What is position reportingV What are the different elements of a position report messageV
/3. What are the different air traffic control services in an aerodromeV
/?. What is push$back and who controls the push backV
/A. What is aerodrome traffic circuitV What are the different components of a traffic circuitV
/B. What is long finalV
/-. What do you understand by (7C and ,7CV
03+
.+. What is aerodrome operating minimaV
.*. Define distress and urgency conditions.
.0. What is the SS& transponder codes for communication failure, hi:ack and emergencyV
./. What is the procedure to be followed by an aircraft with respect to continuing the flight while
flying in (7C and ,7CV
... What are the different wake turbulence categoriesV
.3. What is wind shearV
.?. What is direction findingV What are the different classes of bearings and positionings and their
accuraciesV
.A. >!plain the following<
4a5 A(&>P
4b5 7>'A&
.B. What is (nterpilot communicationV What is the fre6uency allocated for interpilot
communicationsV
.-. What is interception by military aircraftV What are the visual signals employed by the
(nterceptor and the (ntercepted aircraftV
3+. What are AD(QV What are the different AD(Q in (ndiaV
3*. What do you understand by unlawful interferenceV
30. What is air traffic incidentV What are different types of air traffic incidentsV
3/. What is A(&P&)GV What are the different classifications of aircraft pro!imityV
3.. Driefly discuss principle of network operations in "% communicationV
33. What are 7WA&A and &DA&AV What are the different 7WA&A and &DA&A in (ndiaV
3?. What are the visual signals employed by an aircraft e!periencing radio communication failureV
3A. What is the meaning of an aircraft switching on and off its e!ternal lights repeatedlyV
3B. What are the visual signals employed by a ground station to an aircraft e!periencing radio
communication failureV
3-. What are the different runway markingsV
?+. What are the different ta!iway markingsV
?*. What are the different runway lightingsV
?0. What are the different ta!iway lightingsV
?/. What are aeronautical chartsV What are the different types of aeronautical chartsV
?.. What are E codesV What are the different series of E codesV
?3. What are location indicatorsV
(B) RA2'" %R'$#'%L!S A$2 %RA#T'#!
*. What is electric currentV What is the unit of currentV
0. What is potential differenceV What is the unit of potential differenceV
/. What are the different types of currentV
.. What do you understand by DC and ACV
3. What is the advantage of AC over DCV
?. What is resistanceV What is the unit of resistanceV
A. Pou are given three resistances of /+ )hms. "ow will you connect them to obtain
4i5 *+ )hms 4ii5 03 )hms
B. What happens when resistances are connected in 4a5 series 4b5 parallelV
-. What is )hmFs lawV
*+. What is the unit of powerV What are the power ratings of a common$use electric bulbV
**. What is kilowatt$hourV
*0. What are cellsV What are the types of cellsV
*/. "ow to obtain more 4a5 voltage 4b5 current by different connections of cellsV
*.. What is capacitanceV What is the unit of capacitanceV
*3. What happens when you connect capacitors in 4a5 series 4b5 parallelV
03*
*?. What is capacitive reactanceV What is the unit of capacitive reactanceV What is the relationship
between fre6uency and capacitive reactanceV
*A. What is inductanceV What is the unit of inductanceV
*B. What is inductive reactanceV
*-. What happens when you connect inductances in 4a5 series 4b5 parallelV
0+. "ow do you apply )hmFs law to AC circuitsV
0*. What is resonant fre6uencyV What are the practical applications of resonant fre6uencyV
00. What is a transformerV What are the different types of transformersV
0/. What is a motorV What is the working principle of a motorV
0.. What is a generatorV What is an alternatorV
03. What is a microphoneV
0?. What is a speakerV Can a speaker be used as a microphoneV
0A. What do you understand by >lectromagnetic wavesV
0B. What do you understand by polarisation of an >7 waveV
0-. What do you understand by fre6uency and wavelengthV
/+. Discuss the relationship between fre6uency and wavelength.
/*. What is the wavelength of an >7 wave of *++ 7"K fre6uencyV
/0. What is the fre6uency of an >7 wave whose wavelength is *+ metresV
//. What is the speed of >7 wavesV
/.. What is an antennaV "ow do you calculate the length of an antennaV
/3. What is the smallest length of the antenna re6uired for a fre6uency of *+ 7"KV
/?. What is the fre6uency range of ,%, %, 7%, "%, ,"%, @"%, S"% and >"% bandsV
/A. What are the different methods of >7 wave propagationV
/B. What do you understand by ground wavesV
/-. What do you understand by Sky wavesV
.+. What are skip distance and skip KoneV
.*. What is fading of signalV
.0. Why do we use different fre6uencies during day and nightV
./. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sky wavesV
... What do you understand by space wavesV What is )SV
.3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ,"% and above fre6uency bandsV
.?. What is shadow KoneV
.A. What is modulationV What are the different methods of modulationV
.B. What is Amplitude 7odulationV
.-. What is %re6uency 7odulationV
3+. What are the different types of pulse modulationV
3*. What is demodulationV
30. Describe the various stages of a basic transmitter.
3/. What do you understand by side bandsV
3.. Describe a basic receiver and its working principle.
33. What do you understand by tuningV
3?. What is Automatic 9ain Control 4A9C5V
3A. What is Deat %re6uency )scillatorV
3B. What do you understand by S6uelchV
3-. What are the 6ualities of a good receiverV
?+. What do you understand by a transceiverV
?*. What do you understand by simple!, single channel simple!, double channel simple! and full
duple!V
?0. Discuss the emission designators.
?/. What is the difference between terminal and en$route communicationsV
?.. What is the fre6uency band of aircraft ,"% communication systemV What type of emission is
used in ,"% systemV
030
?3. Discuss the installation of a typical ,"% communication system.
??. Discuss various controls and operations of a ,"% communication system.
?A. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ,"% communicationV
?B. What is a guard receiverV What is the purpose of having a guard receiverV
?-. What do you understand by D('>V
A+. What is the fre6uency band of aircraft "% communication systemV Why does "% use SSD
whereas ,"% uses DSD techni6ueV
A*. What type of emission is used in "% communication systemV
A0. Discuss the installation and various controls of "% communication system.
A/. What is S>CA systemV
A.. >!plain the working principle and installation of S>CA.
A3. What is SA'C)7V >!plain the working principle.
A?. What is >'V What are the different types of >'V
AA. What are the advantages of .+? 7"K beacon over the *0*.3 and 0./ 7"K >'V
AB. What is aircraft intercommunication systemV
A-. What is passenger address systemV What are the basic components of a passenger address
systemV
B+. What is a C,&V
B*. What do you understand by CPDCV What are the advantages of CPDCV
B0. What do you understand by aircraft navigation systems in generalV
B/. What is Automatic Direction %inderV
B.. >!plain the working of loop antenna, sense antenna and their signals in finding the direction of
an 1DD.
B3. What do understand by relative and magnetic bearings of an 1DD and what is their relationship
with the magnetic heading of the aircraftV
B?. What is an &D(V What is an &7(V
BA. What is the purpose of '>S' switch on the AD% control unitV
BB. What are the different factors affecting the performance of AD% systemV
B-. What are ocator DeaconsV
-+. What is "omingV
-*. >!plain the principle of ,)&.
-0. What are the different indications available in ,)& systemV
-/. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ,)& systemV
-.. What is (SV What are the different categories and their accuraciesV
-3. "ow is the lateral guidance indicated in a (S indicatorV
-?. What is ocaliser backcourseV
-A. >!plain the working principle of 9lideslope.
-B. What are 7arker DeaconsV >!plain the audio and visual indications of marker beacon system.
--. What are %an 7arkersV
*++. What are the limitations of (SV
*+*. What do you understand by 7SV What are its advantages over (SV
*+0. What is D7>V >!plain the working principle.
*+/. What are the advantages and disadvantages of D7> systemV
*+.. What is )mega systemV
*+3. What are the different global navigation satellite systemsV
*+?. What is 9PSV Discuss briefly.
*+A. What are the advantages and disadvantages of 9PS system.
*+B. What is SS&V What are the different working modes of SS&V
*+-. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SS&V
**+. What do you understand by ACASV What are the different types of ACASV
***. What is weather radarV What is the utility of weather radarV
03/
**0. What is &adio AltimeterV What is the difference between D7> ranging and radio altimeter
rangingV
**/. What do you understand by 9PWS and >9PWSV
**.. What is ADSV
**3. What are the different types of ADSV
> > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >
03.
B'BL'"GRA%*3
(CA) Anne! 0, %ules of the .ir
(CA) Anne! *+, ,olume (, %adio Navigation .ids
(CA) Anne! *+, ,olume ((, !ommunication Procedures
(CA) Anne! *+, ,olume (((, !ommunication 2#stems
(CA) Anne! *+, ,olume (,, 2urveillance and !ollision .voidance 2#stems
(CA) Anne! *+, ,olume ,, .eronautical %adio 4re"uenc# 2pectrum *tilisation
(CA) Anne! *., Aerodromes, ,olume (, .erodrome 8esign and >perations
(CA) Document .... A'723+*, .ir Traffic ;anagement) Procedure for .ir Navigation 2ervices
(CA) Document .... &AC23+*, %ules of the .ir and .ir Traffic 2ervices
(CA) Document B.++ I!.> .$$reviations and !odes
(CA) Document -./0 A12-03, ;anual of %adiotelephon#
('@ %adio %egulations
AA( ;anual of .ir Traffic 2ervices Part 1
AA( ;anual of .eronautical Information 2ervices
AA( !ommunication) Navigation and 2urveillance ;anual) =olume I) ;aintenance of !N2 4acilities
AA( !ommunication) Navigation and 2urveillance ;anual) Part II) !ommunication Procedures
AA( 4ire >rder 5 09) ,asic %adiotelephon# Procedure and Phraseolog#
AA( .IP =olume I) Part 1) :eneral I:<NJ
AA( .IP =olume I) Part ') <n-route I<N%J
AA( .IP =olume II Part /) .erodromes I.8J
D9CA CA& Section . # .erodrome 2tandards and .ir Traffic 2ervices) 2eries 8 Part III
D9CA CA& Section . # .erodrome 2tandards and .ir Traffic 2ervices 2eries L Part III
D9CA CA& Section B # >peration of !ommercial .ir Transport-.eroplanes 2eries >) Part II
D9CA CA& Section - # .irspace and .ir Traffic ;anagement 2eries 8 Part I through =I
"imalayan Dooks .ircraft %adio 2#stems 5 Mames Powell
'ata 7c9raw "ill <lectronic !ommunication 2#stem 5 :eorge Genned#) ,ernard 8avis
,igyan Prasar . !omprehensive :uide ,ook for the B.; %adio <nthusiasts 5 2andeep ,aruah
033