Sensors and Transducers

Introduction
To be useful, systems must interact with their environment. To do this they use
sensors and actuators A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon i
nto an electrical signal. Sensors represent part of the interface between the ph
ysical world and the world of electrical devices, such as computers.
The other part of this interface is represented by actuators,
which convert electrical signals into physical phenomena
Sensor Performance Characteristics
Transfer Function
The transfer function shows the functional relationship between physical input s
ignal and electrical output signal. Usually, this relationship is represented as
a graph showing the relationship between the input and output signal, and the d
etails of this relationship may constitute a complete description of the sensor
characteristics.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between input physical s
ignal and output electrical signal. It is generally the ratio between a small ch
ange in electrical signal to a small change in physical signal. As such, it may
be expressed as the derivative of the transfer function with respect to physical
signal.
Span or Dynamic Range
The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical signals
by the sensor is the dynamic range or span.
Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large
inaccuracy. Typical units are kelvin, Pascal, newton, etc.
Accuracy or Uncertainty
Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest expected error between actual an
d measured output signals. Quoted as a fraction of the full-scale output or a fr
action of the reading.
For example, a thermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within
5% of FSO (Full Scale Output). Accuracy is generally considered by metrologists to
be a qualitative term, while uncertainty is quantitative. For example one sensor
might have better accuracy than another if
its uncertainty is 1% compared to the other with an uncertainty of 3%.
Nonlinearity (often called Linearity)
The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function over the specified dynamic
range.
There are several measures of this error. The most common compares
the actual transfer function with the best straight line, which lies midway betwee
n the two parallel lines that encompass the entire transfer
function over the specified dynamic range of the device.
Resolution
When the input varies continuously over the range , the output signals for some
sensors may change in small steps
The smallest increment in the measured value that can be detected.
Also known as degree of fineness with which measurements can be made.
Stability
Dead Band/Time
Output Impedance
Repeatability/Reproducibility
Hysteresis error
Sensor Classification
Based on Signal Characteristics: Analog Digital
Based On power Supply:
Active Passive Based on Subject of measurement: Acoustic,
Biological, Chemical, Electric, Mechanical, Optical,
Radiation, Thermal, etc..
Analog Sensors: Typically have an output that is proportional to the variable be
ing measured.
The output changes in a continuous way
Digital sensors: Outputs are digital in nature. i.e. a sequence of essentially o
n/off signals which spell out a number whose value is related to the size of the
variable being measured.
Known for accuracy, precision and do not require any converters
when interfaced with a computer monitoring system
Active sensors:
Requires an external source of excitation.
Resistor-based sensors such as thermistors, RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detecto
rs), and strain gages are examples of active
sensors, because a current must be passed through them and the
corresponding voltage measured in order to determine the resistance value. Passi
ve Sensors: Generate their own electrical output signal without requiring extern
al voltages or currents. Examples of passive sensors are thermocouples and photo
diodes which generate thermoelectric voltages and photocurrents,
respectively, which are independent of external circuits.
PROPERTY
SENSOR
ACTIVE/PASSIVE
Passive
Active
OUTPUT
Voltage
Voltage/Current
Temperature Thermocouple
Silicon
RTD Thermistor
Force/Pressure Strain Gage Piezoelectric Acceleration Accelerometer
Active Active
Active Passive Active
Resistance Resistance
Resistance Voltage Capacitance
Position
LVDT
Active
Passive
AC Voltage
Current
Light Intensity Photodiode
Typical sensors and their outputs
Position sensors
Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the
position of some object with reference to some reference point.
While selecting consideration to be given:
Size of the displacement
Linear or angular Resolution, accuracy, Cost.. Material of the measuring object.
Potentiometer
Consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which can be moved over
the length of the element Used for linear or rotary displacements, by converting
displacement into potential difference
The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire wound track or a film of co
nductive plastic over which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated. With a c
onstant input voltage between terminal 1 and 3 the output voltage between termin
al 2 and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage, the
fraction depending on the ratio of the resistance between terminal 2
and 3 compared with total resistance between 1 and 3
With a wire wound track the slider in moving from one
turn to other will change the voltage output in steps, each
step being a movement of one turn If the potentiometer has N turn then the resol
ution as the percentage is 100/N
Optical Encoder
Encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or ang
ular displacement.
Optical Encoders Use light & photo-sensors to produce digital code. Can be linea
r or rotary
Optical Encoder Components
An opaque disc with perforations or transparent windows at
regular interval is mounted on the shaft whose Displacement or Speed is to be me
asured. A LED source is aligned on one side of the disc in such a way that its l
ight can pass through the transparent windows of the disc.
As the disc rotates the light will alternately passed through the
transparent windows and blocked by the opaque sections. A photo-detector fixed o
n the other side of the disc detects the variation of light and the output of th
e detector after signal conditioning would be a square wave whose frequency is d
ecided by the speed and the number of holes (transparent windows) on the disc.
Types of Optical Encoders
2 types of Optical Encoders: 1. Incremental Measure displacement relative to a r
eference point.
2. Absolute
Measure absolute position. Advantages A missed reading does not affect the next
reading. Only needs power on when taking a reading. Disadvantages More expensive
/complex. Cost/complexity
proportional to resolution/accuracy.
Incremental Encoder
Consists 3 concentric tracks with 3 sensor pairs Inner track has just one hole a
nd is used to locate the home
position of the disc
The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced holes that go completely ro
und the disc But with the holes in the middle track offset from the holes in the
outer track by one half the width of a hole
This offset enables the direction of rotation to be determined.
The resolution is determined by the number of slots on the disc.
By counting the number of pulses and knowing the resolution of the disk, the ang
ular motion can be measured. The A and B channels are used to determine the dire
ction of rotation by assessing which channels "leads" the other. The signals fro
m the two channels are a 1/4 cycle out of phase with each other and are known as
quadrature signals.
Often a third output channel, called INDEX, yields one pulse per revolution, whi
ch is useful in counting full revolutions. It is also useful as a reference to d
efine a home base or zero position
Absolute Encoder
Gives an output in the form of a binary number of several digits, each such numb
er representing a particular angular position.
The rotating disc has three concentric circles of slots and three
sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that th
e sequential output from the sensors is a number in the binary code.
Rushi Vyas
Standard Binary Encoding
Angle 0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 Binary 000 001 010 011 Decimal 0 1 2 3
180-225 225-270
270-315 315-360
100 101
110 111
4 5
6 7
Ryder Winck
Problem with Binary Code
Angle Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
One angle shift results in multiple bit changes. Example: 1 => 2
001 000 010 (start at 1) (turn off bit 0) (turn on bit 1)
0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 180-225 225-270 270-315 315-360
Ryder Winck
Problem with Binary Code
Angle Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
One degree shift results in multiple bit changes. Example: 1 => 2
001 000 010 (start at 1) (turn off bit 0) (turn on bit 1)
0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 180-225 225-270 270-315 315-360
It looks like we went from 1 => 0 => 2
The normal form of binary code is generally not used because
changing from one binary number to the next can result in more than one bit chan
ging and if, through some mis alignment, one of the bits
changes fractionally before the others then an intermediate binary
number is momentarily indicated and so can lead to false counting
Gray code is similar to binary code, it has the same possible combinations but i
t is arranged in a different order.
The main reason to use gray code instead of regular binary code is to reduce the
size of the largest possible error in reading the shaft
position to the value of the LSB. If the disk used straight binary code,
the largest possible error would be the value of the MSB.
Absolute Disks
Binary
Gray Code
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 111
0 1111
Gray Code 0000 0001 0011 0010 0110 0111 0101 0100 1100 1101 1111 1110 1010 1011
1001 1000
Absolute Disk Codes
Angle Binary Decimal
Bit 0 Bit 1
0-45
45-90 90-135 135-180
000
001 010 011 100 101 110 111
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bit 2
Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2
180-225 225-270 270-315 315-360
Gray Code
One bit change per angle change.
Angle
Binary 000 001 011 010 110
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4
Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2
0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 180-225
225-270
270-315 315-360
111
101 100
5
6 7
Converting from Gray Code to Binary Code
1. 2. 3. Copy MSB. If MSB is 1, write 1s until next 1 is met. If MSB is 0, write
0s until next 1 is met. When 1 is met, logically switch what you are writing (1
=>0 or 0=>1). Continue writing the same logical until next 1 is met. Loop back t
o step 3.
4. 5.
Example: Convert 0010 to Binary Code

Copy MSB: 0_ _ _ Write 0s until next 1 is met: 00_ _ Switch to writing 1s: 001_
Write 1s: 0011
Example: Convert 1110 to Binary Code
Copy MSB: 1_ _ _ Write 1s until next 1 is met: 1_ _ _ Switch to writing 0s until
next 1 is met: 10_ _ Switch to writing 1s until next 1 is met: 1011