For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics.

Diagram of a replicated and condensed metaphase eukaryotic chromosome. (1) Chromatid one
of the to identical parts of the chromosome after ! phase. (") Centromere the point here the
to chromatids touch. (#) !hort arm. ($) %ong arm.
& chromosome is packaged and organi'ed chromatin, a comple( of macromolecules found in
cells, consisting of D)&, protein and *)&. +he main information-carrying macromolecule is a
single piece of coiled dou,le-stranded D)&, containing many genes, regulatory elements and
other non-coding D)&. +he D)&-,ound macromolecules are proteins, hich ser-e to package
the D)& and control its functions. Chromosomes -ary idely ,eteen different organisms.
!ome species also contain plasmids or other e(trachromosomal D)&.
Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis results either in a four-
arm structure (pictured to the right) if the centromere is located in the middle of the chromosome
or a to-arm structure if the centromere is located near one of the ends. Chromosomal
recom,ination during meiosis plays a -ital role in genetic di-ersity. If these structures are
manipulated incorrectly, through processes knon as chromosomal insta,ility and translocation,
the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe and die, or it may une(pectedly e-ade apoptosis leading
to the progression of cancer.
In prokaryotes (see nucleoids) and -iruses,
.1/
the D)& is often densely packed and organi'ed. In
the case of &rchaea ,y homologs to eukaryotic histones, in the case of 0acteria ,y histone-like
proteins. !mall circular genomes called plasmids are often found in 0acteria and also in
mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their ,acterial origins.
Contents
1 1istory of disco-ery
" 2rokaryotes
o ".1 !tructure in se3uences
o "." D)& packaging
# 4ukaryotes
o #.1 Chromatin
#.1.1 Interphase chromatin
#.1." 5etaphase chromatin and di-ision
o #." 1uman chromosomes
$ )um,er of chromosomes in -arious organisms
o $.1 4ukaryotes
o $." 2rokaryotes
6 7aryotype
o 6.1 1istorical note
8 &,errations
9 !ee also
: )otes and references
; 4(ternal links
History of discovery
<alter !utton (left) and +heodor 0o-eri (right) independently de-eloped the chromosome theory
of inheritance in 1;=".
+he ord chromosome comes from the >reek ?@ AB ( chroma, colour) and C AB ( soma, ,ody).
Chromatin and chromosomes, are ,oth -ery strongly stained ,y particular dyes.
."/
!chleiden,
.#/
Dircho and 0Etschli ere among the first scientists ho recogni'ed the structures
no so familiar to e-eryone as chromosomes.
.$/
+he term as coined ,y -on <aldeyer-1art',
referring to the term chromatin, hich as introduced ,y <alther Flemming.
In a series of e(periments ,eginning in the mid-1::=s, +heodor 0o-eri ga-e the definiti-e
demonstration that chromosomes are the -ectors of heredity. 1is to principles ere the
continuity of chromosomes and the individuality of chromosomes.
.citation needed/
It is the second of
these principles that as so original.
.citation needed/
<ilhelm *ou( suggested that each chromosome
carries a different genetic load. 0o-eri as a,le to test and confirm this hypothesis. &ided ,y the
redisco-ery at the start of the 1;==s of >regor 5endelFs earlier ork, 0o-eri as a,le to point
out the connection ,eteen the rules of inheritance and the ,eha-iour of the chromosomes.
0o-eri influenced to generations of &merican cytologistsG 4dmund 0eecher <ilson, <alter
!utton and +heophilus 2ainter ere all influenced ,y 0o-eri (<ilson and 2ainter actually
orked ith him).
In his famous te(t,ook The Cell in Development and Heredity, <ilson linked together the
independent ork of 0o-eri and !utton (,oth around 1;=") ,y naming the chromosome theory
of inheritance the 0o-eri!utton chromosome theory (the names are sometimes re-ersed).
.6/

4rnst 5ayr remarks that the theory as hotly contested ,y some famous geneticistsG <illiam
0ateson, <ilhelm Hohannsen, *ichard >oldschmidt and +.1. 5organ, all of a rather dogmatic
turn of mind. 4-entually, complete proof came from chromosome maps in 5organFs on la,.
.8/
+he num,er of human chromosomes as pu,lished in 1;"# ,y +heophilus 2ainter. 0y
inspection through the microscope he counted "$ pairs hich ould mean $: chromosomes. 1is
error as copied ,y others and it as not until 1;68 that the true num,er, $8, as determined ,y
Indonesia-,orn cytogeneticist Hoe 1in +Iio.
.9/
Prokaryotes
+he prokaryotes ,acteria and archaea typically ha-e a single circular chromosome, ,ut many
-ariations e(ist.
.:/
5ost ,acteriaFs chromosome can range in si'e from only 18=,=== ,ase pairs in
the endosym,iotic ,acterium Candidatus Carsonella ruddii,
.;/
to 1","==,=== ,ase pairs in the
soil-delling ,acterium Sorangium cellulosum.
.1=/
!pirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a
nota,le e(ception to this arrangement, ith ,acteria such as Borrelia burgdorferi, the cause of
%yme disease, containing a single linear chromosome.
.11/
!ome genes, knon as Jrphons, arenFt
e-en in a chromosome at all.
Structure in sequences
2rokaryotic chromosomes ha-e less se3uence-,ased structure than eukaryotes. 0acteria typically
ha-e a single point (the origin of replication) from hich replication starts, hereas some
archaea contain multiple replication origins.
.1"/
+he genes in prokaryotes are often organi'ed in
operons, and do not usually contain introns, unlike eukaryotes.
DNA packaging
2rokaryotes do not possess nuclei. Instead, their D)& is organi'ed into a structure called the
nucleoid.
.1#/
+he nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the ,acterial
cell. +his structure is, hoe-er, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled ,y the actions of a
range of histone-like proteins, hich associate ith the ,acterial chromosome.
.1$/
In archaea, the
D)& in chromosomes is e-en more organi'ed, ith the D)& packaged ithin structures similar
to eukaryotic nucleosomes.
.16/.18/
0acterial chromosomes tend to ,e tethered to the plasma mem,rane of the ,acteria. In molecular
,iology application, this allos for its isolation from plasmid D)& ,y centrifugation of lysed
,acteria and pelleting of the mem,ranes (and the attached D)&).
2rokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic D)&, generally supercoiled. +he
D)& must first ,e released into its rela(ed state for access for transcription, regulation, and
replication.
Eukaryotes
Jrgani'ation of D)& in a eukaryotic cell.
!ee alsoG 4ukaryotic chromosome fine structure
In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged ,y proteins into a condensed structure called
chromatin. +his allos the -ery long D)& molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. +he structure of
chromosomes and chromatin -aries through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are e-en more
condensed than chromatin and are an essential unit for cellular di-ision. Chromosomes must ,e
replicated, di-ided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure the genetic
di-ersity and sur-i-al of their progeny. Chromosomes may e(ist as either duplicated or
unduplicated. Knduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands, hereas duplicated
chromosomes contain to identical copies (called chromatids or sister chromatids) Ioined ,y a
centromere.
Fig. ! +he maIor structures in D)& compactionL D)&, the nucleosome, the 1=nm M,eads-on-a-
stringM fi,re, the #=nm fi,re and the metaphase chromosome.
4ukaryotes (cells ith nuclei such as those found in plants, yeast, and animals) possess multiple
large linear chromosomes contained in the cellFs nucleus. 4ach chromosome has one centromere,
ith one or to arms proIecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these
arms are not -isi,le as such. In addition, most eukaryotes ha-e a small circular mitochondrial
genome, and some eukaryotes may ha-e additional small circular or linear cytoplasmic
chromosomes.
In the nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the uncondensed D)& e(ists in a semi-ordered
structure, here it is rapped around histones (structural proteins), forming a composite material
called chromatin.
Chromatin
5ain articleG Chromatin
Chromatin is the comple( of D)& and protein found in the eukaryotic nucleus, hich packages
chromosomes. +he structure of chromatin -aries significantly ,eteen different stages of the cell
cycle, according to the re3uirements of the D)&.
"nterphase chromatin
During interphase (the period of the cell cycle here the cell is not di-iding), to types of
chromatin can ,e distinguishedG
4uchromatin, hich consists of D)& that is acti-e, e.g., ,eing e(pressed as protein.
1eterochromatin, hich consists of mostly inacti-e D)&. It seems to ser-e structural
purposes during the chromosomal stages. 1eterochromatin can ,e further distinguished
into to typesG
o Constitutive heterochromatin, hich is ne-er e(pressed. It is located around the
centromere and usually contains repetiti-e se3uences.
o Facultative heterochromatin, hich is sometimes e(pressed.
#etaphase chromatin and division
!ee alsoG mitosis and meiosis
1uman chromosomes during metaphase
In the early stages of mitosis or meiosis (cell di-ision), the chromatin strands ,ecome more and
more condensed. +hey cease to function as accessi,le genetic material (transcription stops) and
,ecome a compact transporta,le form. +his compact form makes the indi-idual chromosomes
-isi,le, and they form the classic four arm structure, a pair of sister chromatids attached to each
other at the centromere. +he shorter arms are called p arms (from the French petit, small) and the
longer arms are called q arms (q follos p in the %atin alpha,etL 3-g MgrandeML alternati-ely it is
sometimes said 3 is short for queue meaning tail in French
.19/
). +his is the only natural conte(t in
hich indi-idual chromosomes are -isi,le ith an optical microscope.
During mitosis, microtu,ules gro from centrosomes located at opposite ends of the cell and
also attach to the centromere at speciali'ed structures called kinetochores, one of hich is
present on each sister chromatid. & special D)& ,ase se3uence in the region of the kinetochores
pro-ides, along ith special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. +he microtu,ules
then pull the chromatids apart toard the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell inherits one set
of chromatids. Jnce the cells ha-e di-ided, the chromatids are uncoiled and D)& can again ,e
transcri,ed. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, hich
ena,les these giant D)& structures to ,e contained ithin a cell nucleus (Fig. ").
Human chromosomes
Chromosomes in humans can ,e di-ided into to typesG autosomes and se( chromosomes.
Certain genetic traits are linked to a personFs se( and are passed on through the se(
chromosomes. +he autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. &ll act in
the same ay during cell di-ision. 1uman cells ha-e "# pairs of chromosomes ("" pairs of
autosomes and one pair of se( chromosomes), gi-ing a total of $8 per cell. In addition to these,
human cells ha-e many hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome. !e3uencing of the
human genome has pro-ided a great deal of information a,out each of the chromosomes. 0elo
is a ta,le compiling statistics for the chromosomes, ,ased on the !anger InstituteFs human
genome information in the Derte,rate >enome &nnotation (D4>&) data,ase.
.1:/
)um,er of
genes is an estimate as it is in part ,ased on gene predictions. +otal chromosome length is an
estimate as ell, ,ased on the estimated si'e of unse3uenced heterochromatin regions.
4stimated num,er of genes and ,ase pairs (in mega ,ase pairs) on each human chromosome
Chromosome $enes %ota& 'ase pairs
Sequenced 'ase
pairs
()*+
Cumu&ative
,-.
1 ",=== "$9,1;;,91; ""$,;;;,91; 9.;
" 1,#== "$",961,1$; "#9,91",8$; 18."
# 1,=== 1;;,$$8,:"9 1;$,9=$,:"9 "#.=
$ 1,=== 1;1,"8#,=8# 1:9,";9,=8# ";.8
6 ;== 1:=,:#9,:88 199,9=",988 #6.:
8 1,=== 19=,:;8,;;# 189,"9#,;;# $1.8
Chromosome $enes %ota& 'ase pairs
Sequenced 'ase
pairs
()*+
Cumu&ative
,-.
9 ;== 16:,:"1,$"$ 16$,;6",$"$ $9.1
: 9== 1$8,"9$,:"8 1$",81",:"8 6".=
; :== 1$=,$$",";: 1"=,#1",";: 68.#
1= 9== 1#6,#9$,9#9 1#1,8"$,9#9 8=.;
11 1,#== 1#$,$6",#:$ 1#1,1#=,:6# 86.$
1" 1,1== 1#",":;,6#$ 1#=,#=#,6#$ 9=.=
1# #== 11$,1"9,;:= ;6,66;,;:= 9#.$
1$ :== 1=8,#8=,6:6 ::,";=,6:6 98.$
16 8== 1==,##:,;16 :1,#$1,;16 9;.#
18 :== ::,:"","6$ 9:,::$,96$ :".=
19 1,"== 9:,86$,9$" 99,:==,""= :$.:
1: "== 98,119,16# 9$,868,166 :9.$
1; 1,6== 8#,:=8,861 66,9:6,861 :;.#
"= 6== 8",$#6,;86 6;,6=6,"6$ ;1.$
"1 "== $8,;$$,#"# #$,191,;;: ;".8
"" 6== $;,6":,;6# #$,:;#,;6# ;#.:
N (se(
chromosome)
:== 16$,;1#,96$ 161,=6:,96$ ;;.1
O (se(
chromosome)
6= 69,9$1,86" "6,1"1,86" 1==.=
%ota&
/0/// to
10///
(/+
20/3*04520353 041306*4016/ )//./
Num'er of chromosomes in various organisms
5ain articleG %ist of num,er of chromosomes of -arious organisms
Eukaryotes
+hese ta,les gi-e the total num,er of chromosomes (including se( chromosomes) in a cell
nucleus. For e(ample, human cells are diploid and ha-e "" different types of autosome, each
present as to copies, and to se( chromosomes. +his gi-es $8 chromosomes in total. Jther
organisms ha-e more than to copies of their chromosomes, such as ,read heat, hich is
hexaploid and has si( copies of se-en different chromosomes $" chromosomes in total.
Chromosome
num,ers in some
plants
P&ant
Species
7
Arabidopsis
thaliana
(diploid)
."1/
1=
*ye
(diploid)
.""/
1$
5ai'e
(diploid or
palaeotetrap
loid)
."#/
"=
4inkorn
heat
(diploid)
."$/
1$
Durum
heat
(tetraploid)
."$/
":
0read heat
(he(aploid)
."$/
$"
Culti-ated
to,acco
(tetraploid)
."6/
$:
&dderFs appr
Chromosome num,ers
("n) in some animals
Species 7 Species 7
Common
fruit fly
:
>uinea
pig
."9/
8$
>uppy
(poecilia
reticulata)
.":/
$8
>arden
snail
.";/
6$
4arthor
m
(ctodril
us
complana
tus)
.#=/
#8
2ill
millipede
(Arthrosp
haera
fumosa)
.#1/
#=
+i,etan
fo(
#8
Domestic
cat
.#"/
#:
Domesti
c pig
#:
%a,orator
y
mouse
.##/
.#$/
$=
%a,orat
ory
rat
.#$/
$"
*a,,it $$ !yrian $$
Chromosome num,ers in other organisms
Species
8arge
Chromos
omes
"nterme
diate
Chromos
omes
#icrochrom
osomes
Trypano
soma
brucei
11 8 P1==
Domesti
c pigeon
(Columb
a livia
domesti
cs)
.$$/
1: - 6;-8#
Chicken
.
$6/
:
" se(
chromos
omes
8=
Chromosome
num,ers in some
plants
P&ant
Species
7
tongue fern
(diploid)
."8/
o(.
1,"=
=
Chromosome num,ers
("n) in some animals
Species 7 Species 7
(ryctola
gus
cuniculus)
.#6/
hamster
.
##/
1ares
.#8/.#9/
$:
1uman
.#
:/
$8
>orillas,
chimpan'
ees
.#:/
$:
Domesti
c sheep
6$
4lephants
.
#;/
68 Co 8=
Donkey 8" 1orse 8$
Dog
.$=/
9:
7ingfis
her
.$1/
1#
"
>oldfish
.$"
/
1=
=-
1=
$
!ilkor
m
.$#/
68
)ormal mem,ers of a particular eukaryotic species all ha-e the same num,er of nuclear
chromosomes (see the ta,le). Jther eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-
like small chromosomes, are much more -aria,le in num,er, and there may ,e thousands of
copies per cell.
+he "# human chromosome territories during prometaphase in fi,ro,last cells.
&se(ually reproducing species ha-e one set of chromosomes, hich are the same in all ,ody
cells. 1oe-er, ase(ual species can ,e either haploid or diploid.
!e(ually reproducing species ha-e somatic cells (,ody cells), hich are diploid ."n/ ha-ing to
sets of chromosomes ("# pairs in humans ith one set of "# chromosomes from each parent),
one set from the mother and one from the father. >ametes, reproducti-e cells, are haploid .n/G
+hey ha-e one set of chromosomes. >ametes are produced ,y meiosis of a diploid germ line cell.
During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can e(change small parts of
themsel-es (crosso-er), and thus create ne chromosomes that are not inherited solely from
either parent. <hen a male and a female gamete merge (fertili'ation), a ne diploid organism is
formed.
!ome animal and plant species are polyploid .Nn/G +hey ha-e more than to sets of homologous
chromosomes. 2lants important in agriculture such as to,acco or heat are often polyploid,
compared to their ancestral species. <heat has a haploid num,er of se-en chromosomes, still
seen in some culti-ars as ell as the ild progenitors. +he more-common pasta and ,read heats
are polyploid, ha-ing ": (tetraploid) and $" (he(aploid) chromosomes, compared to the 1$
(diploid) chromosomes in the ild heat.
.$8/
Prokaryotes
2rokaryote species generally ha-e one copy of each maIor chromosome, ,ut most cells can easily
sur-i-e ith multiple copies.
.$9/
For e(ample, Buchnera, a sym,iont of aphids has multiple
copies of its chromosome, ranging from 1=$== copies per cell.
.$:/
1oe-er, in some large
,acteria, such as !pulopiscium fishelsoni up to 1==,=== copies of the chromosome can ,e
present.
.$;/
2lasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly -aria,le
in copy num,er. +he num,er of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined ,y the rate of
di-ision of the plasmid fast di-ision causes high copy num,er.
9aryotype
5ain articleG 7aryotype
Figure 2G 7aryogram of a human male
In general, the karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species.
.6=/
+he preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics.
&lthough the replication and transcription of D)& is highly standardi'ed in eukaryotes, the
same cannot be said for their "aryotypes, hich are often highly -aria,le. +here may ,e
-ariation ,eteen species in chromosome num,er and in detailed organi'ation. In some cases,
there is significant -ariation ithin species. Jften there isG
1. -ariation ,eteen the to se(es
". -ariation ,eteen the germ-line and soma (,eteen gametes and the rest of the ,ody)
#. -ariation ,eteen mem,ers of a population, due to ,alanced genetic polymorphism
$. geographical -ariation ,eteen races
6. mosaics or otherise a,normal indi-iduals.
&lso, -ariation in karyotype may occur during de-elopment from the fertilised egg.
+he techni3ue of determining the karyotype is usually called "aryotyping. Cells can ,e locked
part-ay through di-ision (in metaphase) in -itro (in a reaction -ial) ith colchicine. +hese cells
are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a "aryogram, ith the set of chromosomes
arranged, autosomes in order of length, and se( chromosomes (here NQO) at the endG Fig. #.
%ike many se(ually reproducing species, humans ha-e special gonosomes (se( chromosomes, in
contrast to autosomes). +hese are NN in females and NO in males.
Historica& note
In-estigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most ,asic 3uestionG Ho#
many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain$ In 1;1", 1ans -on <iniarter
reported $9 chromosomes in spermatogonia and $: in oogonia, concluding an NNQNJ se(
determination mechanism.
.61/
2ainter in 1;"" as not certain hether the diploid num,er of man
is $8 or $:, at first fa-ouring $8.
.6"/
1e re-ised his opinion later from $8 to $:, and he correctly
insisted on humans ha-ing an NNQNO system.
.6#/
)e techni3ues ere needed to definiti-ely sol-e the pro,lemG
1. Ksing cells in culture
". &rresting mitosis in metaphase ,y a solution of colchicine
#. 2retreating cells in a hypotonic solution =.=96 m 7Cl, hich sells them and spreads the
chromosomes
$. !3uashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane
6. Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputa,le karyogram.
It took until 1;6$ ,efore the human diploid num,er as confirmed as $8.
.6$/.66/
Considering the
techni3ues of <iniarter and 2ainter, their results ere 3uite remarka,le.
.68/
Chimpan'ees (the
closest li-ing relati-es to modern humans) ha-e $: chromosomes (as ell as the other great apesG
in humans to chromosomes fused to form chromosome ").
A'errations
5ain articlesG Chromosome a,normality and aneuploidy
+he three maIor single chromosome mutationsL deletion (1), duplication (") and in-ersion (#).
+he to maIor to-chromosome mutationsL insertion (1) and translocation (").
In Don syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome "1
Chromosomal a,errations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell and are a
maIor cause of genetic conditions in humans, such as Don syndrome, although most
a,errations ha-e little to no effect. !ome chromosome a,normalities do not cause disease in
carriers, such as translocations, or chromosomal in-ersions, although they may lead to a higher
chance of ,earing a child ith a chromosome disorder. &,normal num,ers of chromosomes or
chromosome sets, called aneuploidy, may ,e lethal or may gi-e rise to genetic disorders. >enetic
counseling is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement.
+he gain or loss of D)& from chromosomes can lead to a -ariety of genetic disorders. 1uman
e(amples includeG

Cri du chat, hich is caused ,y the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 6.
MCri du chatM means Mcry of the catM in FrenchL the condition as so-named ,ecause
affected ,a,ies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. &ffected
indi-iduals ha-e ide-set eyes, a small head and Ia, moderate to se-ere mental health
pro,lems, and are -ery short.

Don syndrome, the most common trisomy, usually caused ,y an e(tra copy of
chromosome "1 (trisomy "1). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier
,uild, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate de-elopmental disa,ility.
.69/

4dards syndrome, or trisomy-1:, the second most common trisomy.

.citation needed/

!ymptoms include motor retardation, de-elopmental disa,ility and numerous congenital
anomalies causing serious health pro,lems. )inety percent of those affected die in
infancy. +hey ha-e characteristic clenched hands and o-erlapping fingers.

Isodicentric 16, also called idic(16), partial tetrasomy 163, or in-erted duplication 16 (in-
dup 16).

Haco,sen syndrome, hich is -ery rare. It is also called the terminal 113 deletion disorder.
.6:/
+hose affected ha-e normal intelligence or mild de-elopmental disa,ility, ith poor
e(pressi-e language skills. 5ost ha-e a ,leeding disorder called 2aris-+rousseau
syndrome.

7linefelter syndrome (NNO). 5en ith 7linefelter syndrome are usually sterile, and tend
to ,e taller and ha-e longer arms and legs than their peers. 0oys ith the syndrome are
often shy and 3uiet, and ha-e a higher incidence of speech delay and dysle(ia. <ithout
testosterone treatment, some may de-elop gynecomastia during pu,erty.

2atau !yndrome, also called D-!yndrome or trisomy-1#. !ymptoms are somehat

similar to those of trisomy-1:, ithout the characteristic folded hand.

!mall supernumerary marker chromosome. +his means there is an e(tra, a,normal

chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the e(tra genetic material. Cat-eye
syndrome and isodicentric chromosome 16 syndrome (or Idic16) are ,oth caused ,y a
supernumerary marker chromosome, as is 2allister-7illian syndrome.

+riple-N syndrome (NNN). NNN girls tend to ,e tall and thin and ha-e a higher
incidence of dysle(ia.

+urner syndrome (N instead of NN or NO). In +urner syndrome, female se(ual

characteristics are present ,ut underde-eloped. Females ith +urner syndrome often ha-e
a short stature, lo hairline, a,normal eye features and ,one de-elopment and a Mca-ed-
inM appearance to the chest.

NOO syndrome. NOO ,oys are usually taller than their si,lings. %ike NNO ,oys and
NNN girls, they are more likely to ha-e learning difficulties.

<olf-1irschhorn syndrome, hich is caused ,y partial deletion of the short arm of

chromosome $. It is characteri'ed ,y groth retardation, delayed motor skills
de-elopment, M>reek 1elmetM facial features, and mild to profound mental health
pro,lems.