The American University in Cairo

Academic Computing Services

Introduction to Computers

By
Soumaia Al Ayyat

Spring 2001


Table Of Contents:
What is a Computer?
Data Representation
Connection Ports for devices
The standard multiples of the byte or bit are
Standard measurements for each device
Computer Classifications
Computer Generations
The Famous Computer Brands
Software
Keyboard Keys

What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that allows us to process information, perform mathematical operations
and store data.

The main components of a computer are:
1. Input Devices: these devices allow entrance of raw data inside the computer system. These include
the keyboard, the mouse, joystick, the microphone, a touch screen, a pen tool and much more.
2. Central Processing unit (CPU): this unit is responsible for processing the input data using some
programmed algorithms and written programs and returns back some results. The processing unit
consists of the processor that resembles the brain of the computer. Part of this processor is called the
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The ALU performs all the needed arithmetic operations and some
logic operations.
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3. Output Devices: the computer displays the results of performed operations through these devices.
These include the screen, the printer, the speakers and more.
4. Main Storage: this component is needed to store some data and processed information. This portion
is essential for the CPU to use as a scratch paper while performing some processing. The Main
memory consists of: the Read-Only Memory (ROM) and the Random Access Memory (RAM).
ROM stores the necessary information needed by the CPU. The manufacturer creates this portion of
memory and the computer cannot write on it. That is why it is called a read-only memory. RAM
allows read and write access of the computer. The CPU utilizes the RAM as a scratch pad. In
addition, there is another fast-access memory totally used by the CPU; it is called Cache. The Cache
memory is very fast when compared to the RAM but it is very expensive. Accordingly, the cache
size is smaller compared to the RAM size.

Peripherals:
In addition, there is a set of useful peripherals that add new functionalities to computers.
Among these peripherals we may find the following:
- Secondary storage: This is external means of storing data. This includes the hard disks, the floppy disks,
the compact disks (CD), Digital Video Disk (DVD), jazz tapes and zip tapes. These devices have bigger
storage areas and more persistent than the Main memory storage, yet the speed of accessing information
from them is low compared to Main Memory.
- Multimedia devices: these are external devices can be added to the computer to allow input of sound
tracks either through a microphone, musical instruments, line in and the like. To produce digital sound
from the computer, you need a professional sound card added to the computer. The output sound and
music can be heard through speakers, headphones, line out and the like.
- Printers: these are output devices that allow you to have a printout
(hard copy) of the edited text and graphics. The job of a printer is to put
on paper what you see on your monitor. Some printers are based on
Laser technology; these are called Laser printers. Others use ink in the
printing process; they are called InkJet printers.
Input
Device
Raw Data
Output
Device
Secondary
Storage Area
Information
to be stored
Life Cycle of Data Processing inside the Computer
Data needed for
processing
Central
Processing
Unit
Output Result
Main
Storage Area
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- Plotters: these professional output devices are mainly used by engineers to plot detailed diagrams
processed by the computer
- Modems: the Modulator demodulator (Modem) is a device responsible for modulating the analog signal
of the telephone line into digital computer signals and demodulates the digital computer signals into
analog signals along the telephone line. This device is quite useful to connect the computers to the
Internet through the well-established network of the telephony.
- Ethernet Cards: these cards are useful to connect a computer to a higher speed network onto the
Internet.
- Scanners: it is an input device that allows us to convert printed matter into images and text on our
machines.
- Compact Disks (CD): these media disks enable us to store data on them. Moreover, one can store audio
data on these CDs to create audio CDs. The drive that reads and creates these CDs is called the CD drive.
There are several types of CD drives as follows:
- Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) Drive: this drive can only read ready-made CDs. It
cannot write data on them nor delete existing information on the CDs
- Compact Disk Recordable (CD-R) Drive: this drive has the capability of reading information from
ready-made CDs and also can generate new CDs. It can write on the CD only once. It cannot delete
written information from a CD.
- Compact Disk Read and Write (CD-RW) drive: this drive can read CDs, create new CDs, delete
information from a CD and rewrites new information on top of the old data. This drive requires a
special type of CDs (media) called CD-RW media.

Data Representation
Data are stored in computers in the form of electric pulses; where a 5-volt charge represents existence of
information and zero-volt charge indicates absence of data. Logically, the data is represented as 0 and 1. The
zero indicates zero volts, and 1 indicates 5 volts. This system is called the binary system since it depends on
two digits only. You can think of this as a sort of light switch. The unit data that is represented by such a
digit (0 or 1) is called a bit stands for binary digit. Thus, each switch is the bit. In order for computers to
represent meaningful data they represent each character by a combination of 8 bits called a byte. Both the bit
and the byte are used as units of measurement of the device capacity in storing or processing data. The bit is
represented by a lowercase b. An uppercase B represents the byte.

Connection Ports for devices
In order to connect these peripherals to the computer there must be connection
ports at the back of the computers. These are:
Parallel port:
1
is an interface between the computer and a printer (or any other
device that needs a parallel port connection) where the computer sends multiple
bits of information to the printer simultaneously. A PC is usually configured
with a 25-pin parallel port named LPT1.

Serial Port: A PC is usually configured with a 9-pin serial port named COM1.
Serial ports are used for the mouse and modem.

SCSI: (Small Computer System Interface). SCSI is a hardware interface that
allows for the connection of up to seven or
15 peripheral devices to a single expansion board that plugs into the

1
Computer Desktop Encylopedia. Multimedia Engine 1.45 The Computer Language Company Inc.
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computer called a SCSI host adapter or SCSI controller. Single boards are also available with two controllers
and support up to 30 peripherals. SCSI is widely used from personal computers to mainframes.

USB (Universal Serial Bus): A personal computer bus that has a total bandwidth of 1.5 MB per second. Up
to 127 devices can be attached. For example, a USB keyboard or monitor could host several
ports for additional devices. USB is used for devices such as the mouse, keyboard, printer and
scanner. USB ports began to appear on PCs in 1997.

The standard multiples of the byte or bit are:
- Kilobits (kb) that is 1024 bits, which is almost 1000 bits
- Kilo bytes (KB) that is 1024 bytes, which is almost 1000 bytes
- Mega bytes (MB) that is 1024 KB which is almost million bytes
- Gega bytes (GB) that is 1024 MB which is almost thousand million bytes
- Tera bytes (TB) that is 1024 GB which is almost trillion bytes
- Mega Hertz (MHz) is the speed of processing data which indicates processing MB per second
- Kilobits per second (kbps) are the speed of transferring data through the network, where 1024 bits are
transferred per second.

Standard measurements for each device
Device Unit of Measurement Standard Sizes
RAM
MB 64 MB 1GB
Cache KB 256 KB 1 MB
CD-ROM (media)
MB 650 MB or 74 minutes
700 MB or 80 minutes
730 MB or 80 minutes
CD-ROM drive
X (indicates speed) 50X
CD-RW drive X (indicates speed) 32X read, 10X write, 4X
Rewrite
Hard Disk
GB 20 GB 40 GB
Floppy Disk (media)


MB 1.44 MB
VGA Card (for display capabilities) MB 2 MB 32 MB
Jaz tape (media)
GB 1GB 2 GB
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Zip tape
KB 100 MB 250 MB
Modem
Kbps (speed) 56 kbps
Ethernet Card
KBps (speed) 10/100 KBps
Processor
MHz or GHz (speed) 500 MHz 1.5 GHz
Laser Printer
Page per min.(ppm) 6 ppm 16 ppm
Scanner
Dot per inch (dpi) 2400 dpi - 9600 dpi

Computer Classifications:
The speed of the processor is critical in setting the number of commands that can be processed per second.
This speed is measured in Hertz. Along the evolution of computers, generations of computers where
determined mainly according to the enhancements applied to the processor. There are 3 types of computers
based on the range of use:
2

- Mainframes: a large digital computer serving hundreds of users and occupying a special air-conditioned
room. Nowadays there is a diminishing need for these mainframes.
- Minicomputers: A computer built between about 1963 and 1987, smaller and less powerful than a
mainframe, typically about the size and shape of a wardrobe, mounted in a single tall rack. Yet, when
they were invented the speed of processors was better. They now appear in the form of high-speed
servers.
- Microcomputers were invented for personal use. Their performance and size went through generations
of enhancements till they reached the PCs we find nowadays.

Computer Generations
Here is a general overview on the generations of computers up till nowadays:

The generations of PCs are:
Generation Range of Processor Speed
XT
AT

2
The three definitions are driven from http://www.dictionary.com
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286 16 MHz 25 MHz
386 16 MHz 33 MHz
486 33 MHz 100 MHz
Pentium 60 MHz 233 MHz
Pentium II 233 MHz 450 MHz
Pentium III 450 MHz 933 MHz
Pentium IV 1.0 GHz 1.5 GHz

The generations of Macintosh are:
3

Generation Range of Models Range of Processor Speed
Classic 128K Color Classic II 8 MHz 33 MHz
Macintosh II Macintosh II - Macintosh IIfx 16 MHz 40 MHz
Macintosh LC Macintosh LC Macintosh LC 630 16 MHz 66 MHz
Macintosh Performa Macintosh Performa 200 -
Macintosh Performa 6420
16 MHz 200 MHz
Quadra Quadra 605 Quadra 950 25 MHz -33 MHz
PowerPC 6100 - 9500 132 MHz 200 MHz
iBook iBook iBook (FireWire) 300 MHz 466 MHz
iMac Bondi Blue Early 2001 233 MHz 600 MHz
Power Macintosh G3 All-In-One - Macintosh Server 233 MHz 266 MHz
Power Mac G4 AGP Graphics PCI Graphics 350 MHz -400 MHz
PowerBook G3 PowerBook G3 - PowerBook G3
Series (Bronze Keyboard)
250 MHz 400 MHz
PowerBook G4 PowerBook G4 400 MHz 500 MHz

The Famous Computer Brands are:
IBM

Dell

Compaq

Micron

Gateway

HP

Apple


Software:
4


3
Information driven from http://www.info.apple.com/applespec/applespec.taf
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This material is compiled from Introductory Computer Literacy for Adults By Valerie Collins, Adult
Learning Center at http://literacy.kent.edu/Midwest/Materials/ndakota/complit/introbasics.html
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Computer productivity is determined by programs which are step by step instructions telling the computer
how to process data. Software can be divided into two groups, system and application.
System Software:
The operation of your computer is controlled by system software. As you boot the computer, the system
software is stored in the computer's memory which instructs the computer to load, store, and execute an
application.
Examples of system software are Windows 95 and Windows 98 which use a graphical user interface (GUI)
that provides visual clues (icons) to help the user. DOS, another disk operating system, is text based and not
user friendly.
Operating Systems:
The generations of the standard operating systems for personal computers
DOS DOS (Disk Operating System) is the popular text-mode operating system on early PCs
Windows The most widely used operating system. Developed by Microsoft, Windows provides a
graphical user interface (GUI) and master control program for running applications in
desktop PCs and servers. Windows is also an environment. The Windows operating
system comes in three flavors: Windows 3.x, Windows 95 and Windows NT.
Windows 98 is an upgrade to Windows 95.
Windows 1.0 and 2.0 The early versions of Windows were not appealing, and the
hardware was too underpowered.
Windows 3.x Introduced in 1990, Windows 3.0 became widely used very quickly even
though it still required DOS to be loaded first.
Windows 3.1 was a more stable version introduced in 1992, and Windows for
Workgroups 3.11 later added built-in networking.
Windows 2000 This operating system is the successor to Windows NT 4.0. Its user interface is very similar
to Windows 98 or Windows NT.
It is available in four flavors:
- Professional: the client version, meant for desktop workstations, successor to Windows
NT Workstation.
- Server: "entry-level" server, designed for small deployments, and departmental file, print,
or intranet servers.
- Advanced Server: high throughput, larger scale servers and applications, and small to
medium scale web sites.
- Data Center Server: software for large-scale server clusters.
UNIX A multi-user, multitasking operating system originally developed by AT&T. It is widely
used on CAD and scientific workstations and network servers. Its turning point in Unix's
history came when it was re-implemented almost entirely in C (a programming language)
during 1972 - 1974, making it the first source-portable operating system
LINUX A UNIX clone that runs on x86, Alpha and PowerPC machines. Linux is freeware. Most
of the supporting apps and utilities came from the GNU project of the Free Software
Foundation
OS/2 A single user, multitasking operating system for PCs from IBM that runs OS/2, DOS and
Windows applications. Although OS/2 is highly regarded as a robust operating system, it
did not gain widespread market share. Presentation Manager (PM) was the first name for
its GUI, which was later renamed Workplace Shell. The Presentation Manager name was
retained to refer to the programming interface used to write OS/2 applications.
Mac OS The operating system for Macintosh machines

Compilers: A program that translates another program written in a high-level language into machine
language so that it can be executed.

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Application Software
Standard, general-purpose software packages:
Professional programmers write a variety of application software to satisfy needs of the public who wants to
perform specific tasks on their computers. The basic types of application software are word processing,
database, spreadsheet, desktop publishing, and communication.
Word Processing - Word processing is the most commonly used software in schools, home, and business. A
key advantage of word processing software is that users can make changes such as spelling, margins,
additions, deletions, and movement of text. Once you have learned how a word processor functions, you will
be able to learn other software quicker.
Database Software - Database software allows us to store and manipulate large quantities of data using the
computer. For example, a database can sort the names, addresses, grades and activities for all of the students
in a school. It would be possible to add or delete data and produce printed reports using the database.
Spreadsheet Software - Spreadsheets store numeric data that can be used in calculations. A spreadsheet is
used to store grades and calculates student averages. The primary advantage of a computerized spreadsheet is
its ability to redo the calculations should the data it stores be changed. Calculations can be made
automatically as formulas have been preset into the spreadsheet.
Desktop Publishing - Desktop publishing applications allow the user to create newspapers, newsletters,
brochures, and similar types of publications. It is similar to word processing except it allows the user to use
text, graphics, pictures, lines, shapes, patterns, and borders. Desktop publishing requires more skill and
computer knowledge of design and layout.
Presently a user can purchase an integrated program. This means that a single program performs all
applications and allows data to be transferred from one application to another. Microsoft Office, Works, and
ClarisWorks are examples of integrated software. Each application includes a word processing, database and
spreadsheet section of the software.
Image Processing - This software manipulate images, and photos. Artists and professional users can create
professional graphics using such software. This software allows image improvement, such as refining a
picture in a paint program that has been scanned, applying techniques that can identify shades, colors and
relationships that cannot be perceived by the human eye.
There are numerous other applications available. There are software programs that can be used by musicians
to produce musical scores and play them on a synthesizer, programs that assist an architect in designing a
building, programs that produce the special effects that you see in movies, and programs that allow electronic
mail (e-mail). Every line of work you can think of has had applications developed, which can ease or enhance
its effectiveness and consistency.
Tailored software and in-house developed software
Some customers have software with special requirements; the software developers develop these customized
programs to meet the users needs.




Keyboard Keys
5

The most often used input device is the
keyboard.

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Alphabet keys
The letters of the alphabet and some punctuation marks
are in these three rows.
Alt
The Alt key doesn't do anything by itself. But if you hold
it down while pressing another key, the effect of that key
may be different from usual. Exactly what will happen
will depend on what program is running at the time.
Arrow keys
These four keys are used to move the cursor on the screen.
The up and down arrows move the cursor up or down one
line. The left and right arrows move the cursor one
character to the left or to the right.
Backspace
The Backspace key erases the character on the left of the
cursor and moves the cursor that direction, too.
Caps Lock
When the Caps Lock key is on, pressing any alphabetic
key will result in an upper case (capital) letter. The
number and symbol keys are not affected.
Control


The Control key does nothing all by itself. It must be
pressed in combination with other keys. When used in
combination, the Control key changes the normal effect of
a key. Exactly what will happen depends on the software
in use at the time.
Delete
The Delete key is used to erase the character just to the
right of the cursor. Any text beyond the erased character is
moved to the left.
End
The End key is a navigation key. It will send the cursor to
the end of the current line.
Enter
The Enter key is used in several ways. In word
processing, it acts like the Return key on a typewriter by
starting a new line. It is also used in place of a mouse
click with buttons and drop-down menus.
Shift
The Shift key is used in combination with the alphabetic
keys to get upper case.
With a numeric/symbol key using the Shift key will give
the character at the top of the key.
The Shift key can be used in combination with the Alt and
Control keys to change the effects of another key.
Escape
The Escape key is used to cancel actions in progress
before they finish. It is also used to close certain dialog
boxes.
Function keys

The Function keys are numbered F1, F2, F3,....F12. These
are programmable keys. That is, programs can assign
actions to these keys. So the same key might produce
different results in different programs.
Some of the function keys are becoming more
standardized as to what they do. For example, F1 is most
often used to access the Help file for a program
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Home
The Home key is a navigation key for the cursor. It will
move the cursor to the beginning of the current line.
Insert
The Insert key is a toggle key. That is, repeatedly
pressing it will alternate between two effects:
1. Typing overtypes characters already there
2. Typing inserts characters in between the characters that
are already there.
Some programs have an indicator on screen to show you
which effect is current. But not all are as friendly.
Num Lock
When Num Lock is on, the Numeric Keypad responds
with numbers, as an adding machine. When Num lock is
off, the Numeric Keypad responds as navigation keys
using the alternate markings on the keys.
Numeric Pad
When the Num Lock key is on, these keys are used to
enter numbers as with an adding machine.
When the Num Lock key is off, the keys act as navigation
keys using the alternate markings on each key.
Minus
When Num Lock is on, the Minus key performs
subtraction on the numbers entered.
When Num Lock is off, the Minus key will type a hyphen
like this -.
Number/Symbol Keys
On this row of keys you will see two characters, one at the
top of the key and one at the bottom. The upper character
is a symbol and is accessed by holding the Shift key down
while pressing the key. Numbers can also be typed from
the Numeric Keypad.
Plus
When Num Lock is on, this key performs addition.
When Num Lock is off, this key prints a +.
Times
When Num Lock is on, the Times key acts as a
multiplication sign on the numbers entered.
When Num Lock is off, the Times key types a *.
Page Down
The Page Down key is a navigation key, which will drop
the displayed area down the page one screen's worth. It
doesn't necessarily move a whole literal page at a time.
That would depend on the height of a page.
Page Up
The Page Up key is a navigation key, which will move
the cursor up the displayed area one screen's worth. It
does not usually move a literal page at a time. That would
depend on the height of a page.
Pause
The Pause key is little used under Windows. Under DOS
it is used to halt actions in progress, often so that
messages on the screen can be read before they scroll off
the screen.
Print Screen
The Print Screen key is more useful under DOS than
under Windows. Under DOS pressing the Print Screen
key immediately sends the contents of the screen to the
printer.
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Under Windows pressing the Print Screen key sends a
copy of the screen to the Clipboard. You must then paste
to an appropriate program and print from there.
Scroll Lock
The Scroll Lock key is more useful under DOS where
pressing it will stop text on the screen from scrolling off
the top of the screen. This gives you time to read or print
it before continuing.
Slash
When Num Lock is on, the Slash key acts as a division
sign on the numbers entered.
When Num lock is off, the Slash key types a /.
Spacebar

The Spacebar is used to enter blank spaces in text.
Sometimes it can also be used instead of a mouse click on
buttons.
Tab
The Tab key is used to move the cursor over to the right
to a pre-set point. This is especially used in word
processing to line up text vertically.