Central Powers - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

17/10/2014 Central Powers - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers 1/14
Central Powers
Mittelmchte
Kzponti hatalmak
ttifak Devletleri

Military alliance
19141918
Participants in World War I
Orange: Central Powers and their colonies.
Green: Allies and their colonies.
Gray: Neutral countries.
Capital
none (de jure)
Berlin (de facto)
Political structure Military alliance
Historical era World War I
- Established 28 June 1914
- Dual Alliance
(Germany / Austria-Hungary)
- OttomanGerman Alliance 2 August 1914
- BulgariaGermany treaty
6 September 1915 (secret)
14 October 1915 (public)
- Joined by Finland,
Lithuania and Azerbaijan 1917
- Dissolved 11 November 1918
Central Powers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Central Powers (German:
Mittelmchte; Hungarian: Kzponti
hatalmak; Turkish: ttifak Devletleri or
Balama Devletleri; Bulgarian:
Tsentralni sili),
consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary,
the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria hence
also known as the Quadruple Alliance
[1]
(German: Vierbund) was one of the two
main factions during World War I (1914
18). It faced and was defeated by the
Allied Powers that had formed around the
Triple Entente, after which it was
dissolved.
The Powers' origin was the alliance of
Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879.
The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not
join until after World War I had begun.
Contents
1 Member states
2 Combatants
2.1 Germany
2.1.1 War
justifications
2.1.2 Colonies and
dependencies
2.2 Austria-Hungary
2.2.1 War
justifications
2.3 Ottoman Empire
2.3.1 War
justifications
2.4 Bulgaria
2.4.1 War
justifications
3 Declarations of war
4 Co-belligerents
7 October 1879
Leaders of the Central Powers (left to right):
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany;
Kaiser and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary;
Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire;
Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria.
4.1 Dervish State
4.2 Sultanate of Darfur
5 Client states
5.1 German client states
5.2 Ottoman client states
6 Non-state combatants
7 Armistice and treaties
8 Leaders
8.1 Austria-Hungary
8.2 German Empire
8.3 Ottoman Empire
8.4 Bulgaria
8.5 Jabal Shammar
8.6 Dervish State
8.7 Sultanate of Darfur
8.8 Azerbaijan
9 See also
10 References
Member states
The Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the beginning
of the war. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers later in 1914. In 1915, the Kingdom of
Bulgaria joined the alliance. The name "Central Powers" is derived from the location of these countries;
all four (including the other groups that supported them except for Finland and Lithuania) were located
between the Russian Empire in the east and France and the United Kingdom in the west. Finland,
Azerbaijan, and Lithuania joined them in 1918 before the war ended and after the Russian Empire
collapsed.
The Central Powers were composed of the following nations:
[2]
Nation Entered WWI
Austria-Hungary 28 July 1914
German Empire 1 August 1914
Ottoman Empire
2 August 1914 (secret)
29 October 1914 (public)
Kingdom of Bulgaria 14 October 1915
Allied and Central Powers during World War I
Allied Powers
Allied colonies, dominions, territories or occupations
Central Powers
Central Powers' colonies or occupations
Neutral countries
Europe in 1914.
Economic statistics of the Central Powers
[3]
Population
(millions)
Land area
(million km
2
)
GDP
(billion $)
German Empire / plus colonies (1914) 67.0 / 77.7 0.5 / 3.5 244.3 / 250.7
AustriaHungary (1914) 50.6 0.6 100.5
Ottoman Empire (1914) 23.0 1.8 25.3
Kingdom of Bulgaria (1915) 4.8 0.1 7.4
Total (1914) 151.3 6.0 376.6
German soldiers in the battlefield in
August 1914 on the Western Front
shortly after the outbreak of war.
German cavalry entering Warsaw in
1915.
Military statistics of the Central Powers
[4]
Mobilized
Killed in
action
Wounded
Missing
in action
Total
casualties
Percentage
German
Empire
13,250,000 1,808,546 4,247,143 1,152,800 7,208,489 66%
Austria
Hungary
7,800,000 922,500 3,620,000 2,200,000 6,742,500 86%
Ottoman
Empire
2,998,321 325,000 400,000 250,000 975,000 34%
Kingdom of
Bulgaria
1,200,000 75,844 153,390 27,029 255,263 21%
Total 25,257,321 3,131,890 8,419,533 3,629,829 15,181,252 66%
Combatants
Germany
War justifications
In early July 1914, in the aftermath of the assassination of
Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the immediate
likelihood of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Kaiser
Wilhelm II and the German government informed the Austro-
Hungarian government that Germany would uphold its alliance
with Austria-Hungary and defend it from possible Russia
intervention if a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia took
place.
[5]
When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany
viewed the act as provocative.
[6]
The Russian government
promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean
preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the
events between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.
[6]
The German
government regarded the Russian promise of no war with
Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and
Germany in turn mobilized for war.
[6]
On August 1, Germany
sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany and
Russia were in a state of military mobilization, an effective state
of war existed between the two countries.
[7]
Later that day,
France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of general
mobilization,
[7]
In August 1914, Germany waged war on Russia, the German government justified military action
against Russia as necessary because of Russian aggression as demonstrated by the mobilization of the
Russian army that had resulted in Germany mobilizing in response.
[8]
After Germany declared war on Russia, France with its alliance with Russia prepared a general
mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring
war on France.
[9]
Germany facing a two-front war enacted what was known as the Schlieffen Plan, that
German cruiser SMS Seydlitz heavily
damaged after the Battle of Jutland.
German Fokker Dr.I fighter aircraft
of Jasta 26 at Erchin in German-
occupied territory of France.
involved German armed forces needing to move through Belgium and swing south into France and
towards the French capital of Paris. This plan was hoped to quickly gain victory against the French and
allow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would not
accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the
country to launch an offensive towards Paris. This caused Great Britain to declare war against the
German Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both nations signed in 1839
guaranteeing Belgian neutrality and defense of the kingdom if a nation reneged.
Subsequently several states declared war on Germany, including:
Japan declaring war on Germany in late August 1914; Italy
declaring war on Austria-Hungary in 1915 and Germany on
August 27, 1916; the United States declaring war on Germany on
April 6, 1917 and Greece declaring war on Germany in July
1917.
Colonies and dependencies
Europe
Upon its founding in 1871, the German Empire controlled
Alsace-Lorraine as an "imperial territory" incorporated from
France after the Franco-Prussian War. It was held as part of
Germany's sovereign territory.
Africa
Germany held multiple African colonies at the time of World
War I. All of Germany's African colonies were invaded and
occupied by Allied forces during the war.
Cameroon, German East Africa, and German Southwest Africa
were German colonies in Africa. Togoland was a German
protectorate in Africa.
Asia
German New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in
1914.
The Kiautschou Bay concession was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898. It
was occupied by Japanese forces following the Siege of Tsingtao.
Austria-Hungary
War justifications
Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand as being orchestrated with
the assistance of Serbia.
[5]
The country viewed the assassination as setting a dangerous precedent of
encouraging the country's South Slav population to rebel and threaten to tear apart the multinational
country.
[6]
Austria-Hungary formally sent an ultimatum to Serbia demanding a full-scale investigation of
Serbian government complicity in the assassination, and complete compliance by Serbia in agreeing to
Austro-Hungarian soldiers in trench
on the Italian front during World War
I.
Austro-Hungarian soldiers marching
up Mount Zion in Jerusalem in the
Ottoman Empire, during the Middle
Eastern campaign.
Ottoman soldiers in military
preparations for an assault on the
Suez Canal in 1914.
the terms demanded by Austria-Hungary.
[5]
Serbia submitted to
accept most of the demands, however Austria-Hungary viewed
this as insufficient and used this lack of full compliance to justify
military intervention.
[10]
These demands have been viewed as a
diplomatic cover for what was going to be an inevitable Austro-
Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia.
[10]
Austria-Hungary had been warned by Russia that the Russian
government would not tolerate Austria-Hungary crushing
Serbia.
[10]
However with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary's
actions, the Austro-Hungarian government hoped that Russia
would not intervene and that the conflict with Serbia would be a
regional conflict.
[5]
Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia resulted in Russia declaring
war on the country and Germany in turn declared war on Russia,
setting off the beginning of the clash of alliances that resulted in
the World War.
Territory
Austria-Hungary was internally divided into two states with their
own governments, joined in communion through the Habsburg
throne. Austrian Cisleithania contained various duchies and
principalities but also the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Kingdom of
Dalmatia, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. Hungarian
Transleithania comprised the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. In Bosnia and
Herzegovina sovereign authority was shared by both Austria and Hungary.
Ottoman Empire
War justifications
The Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the Central
Powers in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire had gained
strong economic connections with Germany through the Berlin-
to-Baghdad railway project that was still incomplete at the
time.
[11]
The Ottoman Empire made a formal alliance with
Germany signed on 2 August 1914.
[12]
The alliance treaty
expected that the Ottoman Empire would become involved in the
conflict in a short amount of time.
[12]
However, for the first
several months of the war the Ottoman Empire maintained
neutrality though it allowed a German naval squadron to enter
and stay near the strait of Bosphorus.
[13]
Ottoman officials informed the German government that the
country needed time to prepare for conflict.
[13]
Germany provided financial aid and weapons shipments
to the Ottoman Empire.
[12]
Kaiser Wilhelm II visiting the
Turkish cruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim
during his stay in Istanbul in October
1917 as a guest of Sultan Mehmed V.
Bulgarian soldiers firing at an
incoming aircraft.
After pressure escalated from the German government demanding that the Ottoman Empire fulfill its
treaty obligations, or else Germany would expel the country from the alliance and terminate economic
and military assistance, the Ottoman government entered the war with the recently acquired cruisers
from Germany, the Yavuz Sultan Selim (formerly SMS Goeben) and the Midilli (formerly SMS Breslau)
launching a naval raid on the Russian port of Odessa, thus engaging in a military action in accordance
with its alliance obligations with Germany. Russia and the Triple Entente declared war on the Ottoman
Empire.
[14]
Bulgaria
War justifications
Bulgaria was still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at the
hands of Serbia, Greece and Romania. It signed a treaty of
defensive alliance with the Ottoman Empire on 19 August 1914.
It was the last country to join the Central Powers, which Bulgaria
did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia. It invaded
Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces.
Bulgaria held irredentist aims on the region of Vardar Macedonia
held by Serbia.
Declarations of war
Date Declared by Declared against
1915
October 14 Bulgaria Serbia
October 15
United Kingdom
Montenegro
Bulgaria
October 16 France Bulgaria
October 19
Italy
Russia
Bulgaria
1916
September 1 Bulgaria Romania
1917
July 2 Greece Bulgaria
Co-belligerents
Dervish State
The Dervish State was a rebel Somali state seeking independence of Somali territories. Dervish forces
fought against Italian and British forces in Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland during World War
I in the Somaliland Campaign. The Dervish State received support from Germany and the Ottoman
Empire.
Sultanate of Darfur
The Sultanate of Darfur forces fought against British forces in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan during World War
I in the Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition.
Client states
During 1917 and 1918, the Finns under Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim and Lithuanian nationalists
fought Russia for a common cause. With the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics's aggression of late
1917, the government of Ukraine sought military protection first from the Central Powers and later from
the armed forces of the Entente.
The Ottoman Empire also had its own allies in Azerbaijan and the Northern Caucasus. The three nations
fought alongside each other under the Army of Islam in the Battle of Baku.
German client states
Belarus (Belarusian People's Republic)
The Belarusian People's Republic was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
Courland and Semigallia
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
Don (Don Republic)
The Don Republic was closely associated with the German Empire and fought against the
Bolsheviks.
Finland (Kingdom of Finland)
The Kingdom of Finland was a client state of Germany created in 1918
Georgia (Democratic Republic of Georgia)
In 1918, the Democratic Republic of Georgia, facing Bolshevik revolution and opposition from
the Georgian Mensheviks and nationalists, was occupied by the German Empire, which expelled
the Bolsheviks and supported the Mensheviks.
Lithuania (Kingdom of Lithuania)
The Kingdom of Lithuania was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
Northern Caucasus (Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus)
The Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus was associated with the Central Powers.
Poland (Kingdom of Poland)
The Kingdom of Poland was a client state of Germany created in 1916.
[15]
This government was
recognized by the emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary in November 1916, and it adopted a
constitution in 1917.
[16]
The decision to create a state of Poland was taken by Germany in order to
attempt to legitimize its military occupation amongst the Polish inhabitants, following upon
German propaganda sent to Polish inhabitants in 1915 that German soldiers were arriving as
liberators to free Poland from subjugation by Russia.
[17]
The state was utilized by the German government alongside punitive threats to induce Polish
landowners living in the German-occupied Baltic territories to move to the state and sell their
Baltic property to Germans in exchange for moving to Poland, and efforts were made to induce
similar emigration of Poles from Prussia to the state.
[18]
South Africa (South African Republic)
In opposition to the Union of South Africa, which had joined the war, Boer rebels founded the
South African Republic in 1914 and engaged in the Maritz Rebellion. Germany assisted the rebels,
and the rebels operated in and out of the German colony of German South-West Africa. The rebels
were defeated by British imperial forces.
Ukraine (Ukrainian State)
The Ukrainian State was a client state of Germany led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, who overthrew the
government of the Ukrainian People's Republic.
[19]
United Baltic Duchy
The United Baltic Duchy was a proposed client state of Germany created in 1918
Ottoman client states
Azerbaijan (Azerbaijan Democratic Republic)
In 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, facing Bolshevik revolution and opposition from
the Muslim Musavat Party, was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire, which expelled the
Bolsheviks while supporting the Musavat Party.
[20]
The Ottoman Empire maintained a presence in
Azerbaijan until the end of the war in November 1918.
[20]
Jabal Shammar
Jabal Shammar was an Arab state in the Middle East that was closely associated with the Ottoman
Empire.
[21]
Non-state combatants
Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the Irish
Nationalists who launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant allies
in Europe". In 1914, Jzef Pisudski was permitted by Germany and Austria-Hungary to form
independent Polish legions. Pisudski wanted his legions to help the Central Powers defeat Russia and
then side with France and the UK and win the war with them.
Kaocen Revolt
Zaian War
Irish Republican Brotherhood
HinduGerman Conspiracy
Niedermayer-Hentig Expedition
Senussi Campaign
Polish Legions
Central Powers' military deaths.
The collapse of the Central Powers in
1918.
Armistice and treaties
Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 29 September
1918, following a successful Allied advance in Macedonia. The
Ottoman Empire followed suit on 30 October 1918 in the face of
British and Arab gains in Palestine and Syria. Austria and
Hungary concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of
November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire
and the Italian offensive at Vittorio Veneto; Germany signed the
armistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November 1918
after the Hundred Days Offensive, and a succession of advances
by New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, Belgian, British, French
and US forces in north-eastern France and Belgium. There was
no unified treaty ending the war; the Central Powers were dealt
with in separate treaties.
[22]
Central Powers by date of armistice
Flag Name Date
Bulgaria 29 September 1918
Ottoman Empire 30 October 1918
Austria-Hungary 4 November 1918
German Empire 11 November 1918
Central Powers treaties
Flag Name Treaty of
Austria Saint-Germain
Bulgaria Neuilly
Germany Versailles
Hungary Trianon
Ottoman Empire
Turkey
Svres
Lausanne
Leaders
Austria-Hungary
Franz Josef I: Emperor of Austria-Hungary
Karl I: Emperor of Austria-Hungary
Count Leopold Berchtold: Austrian Foreign Minister
The three emperors: Kaiser Wilhelm
II, Mehmed V, Franz Joseph.
A postcard depicting the leaders of
the Central Powers.
Istvn Tisza: Prime Minister of Hungary
Archduke Friedrich: Supreme Commander of the Austro-Hungarian Army
Conrad von Htzendorf: Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff
Arthur Arz von Strauenburg: Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff
Svetozar Boroevi: Austro-Hungarian field marshal
regarded as one of the finest defensive strategists of the
war.
Anton Haus: Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-
Hungarian Navy
Maximilian Njegovan: Commander-in-Chief of the
Austro-Hungarian Navy
Mikls Horthy: Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-
Hungarian Navy
German Empire
Wilhelm II: German Emperor
Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg: Chancellor of the
German Empire
Arthur Zimmermann: German foreign minister
Helmuth von Moltke: Chief of the German General Staff
Erich von Falkenhayn: Chief of the German General Staff
Paul von Hindenburg: Chief of the German General Staff
Alfred von Tirpitz: Admiral in the German Navy
Reinhard Scheer: Commander of the Imperial High Seas
Fleet
Erich Ludendorff: Quartermaster general of the German
Army
Leopold of Bavaria: Supreme Commander East
Max Hoffmann: Chief of Staff in the East
Wilhelm Souchon: German Naval Advisor to the Ottoman Empire
Otto Liman von Sanders: German Army Advisor to the Ottoman Empire
Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck: German Army Commander of East Africa Campaign
Hermann von Franois: Germany Army General
Georg von der Marwitz: Prussian cavalry general in the German armies
Ottoman Empire
Mehmed V: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Mehmed VI: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
A postcard depicting the flags of the
Central Powers' countries.
Said Halim Pasha: Ottoman Grand Vizier
Enver Pasha: Commander-in-Chief of the Ottoman Army
Fritz Bronsart von Schellendorf: Chief of the Ottoman General Staff
Mustafa Kemal Atatrk: Commander of the Second Army
Djemal Pasha: Commander of the 4th Army in Syria, Minister of the Navy
Fevzi akmak: Commander of 7th Army in Palestine, II. Caucasian Corps
Bulgaria
Ferdinand I: Tsar of Bulgaria
Vasil Radoslavov: Prime Minister of Bulgaria
Nikola Zhekov: Commander-in-Chief of the Bulgarian
Army
Georgi Todorov: commander of the 2nd Army, deputy
Commander-in-Chief
Konstantin Zhostov: Chief of the Bulgarian General Staff
Vladimir Vazov: Bulgarian Lieutenant General
Jabal Shammar
Sad I bin Abd al-Azz: Amir of Jabal Shammar
Dervish State
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan: Sayyid of the Dervish
Sultanate of Darfur
Ali Dinar: Sultan of Darfur
Azerbaijan
Fatali Khan Khoyski: Prime Minister of Azerbaijan from May 28, 1918 to April 14, 1919
Nasib Yusifbeyli: Prime Minister of Azerbaijan from April 14, 1919 to April 1, 1920
Samad bey Mehmandarov: Azerbaijani General of the Artillery in the Azerbaijani and Russian
armies, as well as Minister of France of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
Ali-Agha Shikhlinski: Artillery general of Azerbaijan
See also
Triple Entente
Participants in World War I
Axis powers, Germany's allies during World War II
Treaty of Versailles
References
1. ^ Hindenburg, Paul von: Out of my life. P. 113. (https://archive.org/details/outofmylife00hinduoft)
2. ^ Meyer, G.J. (2007). A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Trade Paperback.
ISBN 0-553-38240-3.
3. ^ S.N. Broadberry, Mark Harrison. The Economics of World War I (http://books.google.com/books?
id=Y9GP9gtGlkgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0). illustrated ed. Cambridge
University Press, 2005, pp. 9-10.
4. ^ Spencer Tucker. The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis, 1996,
pg. 173. (http://books.google.com/books?
id=EHI3PCjDtsUC&pg=PA172&dq=Direct+and+Indirect+Costs+of+the+Great+World+War&hl=bg&cd=5#v
=onepage&q=Direct%20and%20Indirect%20Costs%20of%20the%20Great%20World%20War&f=false)
5. ^
a

b

c

d
Cashman, Greg; Robinson, Leonard C. An Introduction to the Causes of War: Patterns of Interstate
Conflict from World War I to Iraq. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007. P57
6. ^
a

b

c

d
Meyer, G.J. A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Book. 2006. P39.
7. ^
a

b
Meyer, G.J. A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Book. 2006. P95.
8. ^ Hagen, William W. German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation. P228.
9. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East:
From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. 2009. P1556.
10. ^
a

b

c
Cashman, Greg; Robinson, Leonard C. An Introduction to the Causes of War: Patterns of Interstate
Conflict from World War I to Iraq. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007. P61
11. ^ Hickey, Michael. The First World War: Volume 4 The Mediterranean Front 1914-1923. P31.
12. ^
a

b

c
Afflerbach, Holger; David Stevenson, David. An Improbable War: The Outbreak of World War 1 and
European Political Culture. Berghan Books. 2012. P. 292.
13. ^
a

b
Kent, Mary. The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire. end ed. Frank Cass. 1998. P119
14. ^ Afflerbach, Holger; David Stevenson, David. An Improbable War: The Outbreak of World War I and
European Political Culture. Berghan Books. 2012. P. 293.
15. ^ The Regency Kingdom has been referred to as a puppet state by Norman Davies in Europe: A history
(Google Print, p. 910 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA910&dq=%22Kingdom+of+Poland%22+1916+puppet&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U
36q9omC0a0E-_kH_82ad24_4tZzQ)); by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki in A Concise History of
Poland (Google Print, p. 218 (http://books.google.com/books?id=HMylRh-wHWEC&pg=PA218)); by Piotr
J. Wroblel in Chronology of Polish History and Nation and History (Google Print, p. 454
(http://books.google.com/books?id=lzWHDEE6OqkC&pg=PA454)); and by Raymond Leslie Buell in
Poland: Key to Europe (Google Print, p. 68 (http://books.google.com/books?id=-
KcfGbrKptoC&dq=Poland+Key+to+Europe&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=FD__x2FPA9&sig=q5DV-
zsbYtatQg6k-
2pBp5Z4ddA&hl=en&ei=dIraSa2kIqrrlQfOq4H6Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2#PPA68,
M1): "The Polish Kingdom... was merely a pawn [of Germany]").
16. ^ J. M. Roberts. Europe 1880-1945. P. 232.
17. ^ Aviel Roshwald. Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia,
1914-23. Routledge, 2002. P. 117.
18. ^ Annemarie Sammartino. The Impossible Border: Germany and the East, 1914-1922. Cornell University,
2010. P. 36-37.
19. ^ Kataryna Wolczuk. The Moulding of Ukraine: The Constitutional Politics of State Formation. P37.
20. ^
a

b
Zvi Lerman, David Sedik. Rural Transition in Azerbaijan. P12.
21. ^ Hala Mundhir Fattah. The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf, 1745-1900. P121.
22. ^ Davis, Robert T., ed. (2010). U.S. Foreign Policy and National Security: Chronology and Index for the
20th Century 1. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger Security International. p. 49
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gsM1JiXAMJEC&pg=PA49). ISBN 978-0-313-38385-4.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_Powers&oldid=629121893"
Categories: Former countries in Europe States and territories established in 1914
States and territories disestablished in 1918 World War I by country
Military history of Austria-Hungary Politics of the German Empire History of Bulgaria
Military alliances involving the Ottoman Empire World War I 20th-century military alliances
Former countries in Asia Former countries in Africa
This page was last modified on 11 October 2014 at 00:33.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms
may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a
registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Central Powers - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Central Powers - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

17/10/2014 Central Powers - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Você também pode gostar