Lecture 6.

1 Transport/Circulation

Functions of the Circulatory System:
-transport
-defense
-regulation

Animals without a circulatory system:
protozoans, sponges, flatworms,
cnidarians

A single-celled protest living in water has
a sufficient surface area of plasma
membrane to service its entire volume.

The gastrovascular cavity of hydra opens
to the exterior both outer and inner layers
of cells are bathed in water.

In Cnidarians like Aurelia, the products of
digestion in the gastrovascular cavity are
directly available to the cells of the inner
layer

Only a short distance to diffuse to the
cells of the outer layer

Flat body = way to maximize exposure to
the surrounding medium

-most organisms have extensively folded
or branched internal surfaces specialized
for exchange with the environment

-the circulatory system shuttles
material among all the exchange
surfaces within the animal

INTERNAL FLUID ENVIRONMENT

unicellular organisms: cellular cytoplasm
as in the case of protozoans where
membrane systems and organelles are
suspended

multicellular animals: intracellular phase
and extracellular phaser; intracellular
phase the collective fluid inside all the
bodys cells; extracellular phase the
fluid outside and surrounding the cells.

Thus the cells, sites of the bodys crucial
metabolic activities, are bathed by their
own aqueous environment, the
extracellular fluid that buffers them from
the often harsh physical and chemical
changes occurring outside the body.

Extracellular fluid is further subdivided
into blood plasma and interstitial
(intercellular) fluid. Blood vessels contain
plasma, whereas interstitial fluid, or
tissue fluid as it is sometimes called,
occupies spaces surrounding the cells in
the body. Nutrients and gases passing
between vascular plasma and cells must
traverse this narrow fluid separation.
Interstitial fluid is constantly formed from
plasma by filtration through capillary
walls.

TWO TYPES OF CIRCULATORY
SYSTEMS

Closed heart pumps blood in a
network of blood vessels and capillaries
Open heart pumps haemolymph into
tissue spaces

All vertebrates circulate blood within
blood vessels. Because blood is
enclosed within blood vessels, the
circulatory systems of vertebrates are
called closed circulatory systems. Some
animals without vertebrate, called
invertebrates have systems that do not
contain blood vessels. In these open
circulatory systems, the fluid analogous
to blood is called haemolymph (Greek
word hemo, blood + lympha, water).
Haemolymph is colorless unlike blood
that is distinguished by its red coloration.
Like blood, haemolymph transports
oxygen, CO2 and has a limited clotting
ability.

(a) Open Circulatory Systems: insects,
other arthropods, and most mollusks
(b) Closed Circulatory Systems:
earthworms, squids, octopuses, and
vertebrates

PLAN AND PARTS OF VERTEBRATE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Often called the cardiovascular system,
housing the heart that consists of one
atrium or two atria, and one or two
ventricles

CLOSED TYPE
Heart
Atrium receive blood from circulation
Ventricle pumps blood to blood vessels

Blood Vessels
Artery brings blood AWAY from the
heart (Artery: Away from the heart)
Arteriole leads to capillaries
Capillary the site of gas exchange
Venule leads to a vein
Vein bring blood TO the heart (Vein:
Vack to the heart)

(a) FISH
-two chambered heart
-subsidiary members: sinus venosus
(SV) and conus arteriosus (CA)
-blood circuit: single circuit

(b) AMPHIBIAN
-three chambered heart
-blood circuit: double circuit, the
PULMOCUTANEOUS CIRCUIT and the
SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT
(c) REPTILIAN
-three chambered heart (except
crocodiles)
-ventricles are partially divided
-blood circuit: double circuit

A fish heart contains two main chambers
in series, an atrium and a ventricle. The
atrium is preceded by an enlarged
chamber, the sinus venosus, which
collects blood from the venous system to
assure a smooth delivery of blood to the
heart. Blood makes a single circuit
through a fishs vascular system; it is
pumped from the heart to the gills, where
it is oxygenated, then flows into the
dorsal aorta to be distributed to body
organs, and finally returns by veins to the
heart. In this circuit the heart must
provide sufficient pressure to push the
blood through two sequential capillary
systems, first that of the gills, and then
that of the remainder of the body. The
principal disadvantage of the single
circuit system is that the gill capillaries
offer so much resistance to blood flow
that blood pressures to the body tissues
are greatly reduced.

In modern amphibians (frogs, toads,
salamanders) the atrium is completely
separated by a partition into two atria.
The right atrium receives venous blood
from the body while the left atrium
receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs. The ventricle is undivided, but
venous and arterial blood remains mostly
separate by the arrangement of vessels
leaving the heart. Separation of the
ventricles is nearly complete in some
reptiles (crocodilians) and is completely
separate in birds and mammals.
Systemic and pulmonary circuits are now
separate circulations; each served by
one half of a dual heart
Route of blood through a frog heart: Atria
are completely separated, and the
spiral valve helps to route blood to lungs
and systemic circulation.

Within a uman heart: Deoxygenated
blood enters right side of heart and is
pumped to the lungs. Oxygenated blood
returning from the lungs enters left side
of the heart and is pumped to the body.
The left ventricular wall is thicker than
that of the right ventricle, which needs
less muscular force to pump blood into
the nearby lungs.

The four-chambered mammalian heart is
a muscular organ located in the thorax
and covered by a tough, fibrous sac, the
pericardium. Blood returning from the
lungs collects in the left atrium, passes
into the left ventricle, and is pumped into
the body (systemic) circulation. Blood
returning from the body flows into the
right atrium, and passes into the right
ventricle, which pumps it into the lungs.
Backflow of blood is prevented by two
sets of valves that open and close
passively in response to pressure
differences between the heart chambers.
The bicuspid (between left atrium and
ventricle) and tricuspid (between right
atrium and ventricle) valves separate the
cavities of the atrium and ventricle in
each half of the heart. Where the great
arteries, the pulmonary from the right
ventricle and the aorta from the left
ventricle, leave the heart, semilunar
valves prevent backflow into the
ventricles.

Contraction is called systole, and
relaxation, diastole. When the atria
contract (atrial systole), the ventricles
relax (ventricular diastole), and
ventricular systole is accompanied by
atrial diastole.

Rate of the heartbeat depends on age,
sex, and especially exercise. Exercise
may increase cardiac output (volume of
blood forced from either ventricle each
minute) more than fivefold. Both heart
rate and stroke volume increase.

CARDIAC OUTPUT (5.25L/min)
depends on:
-rate of contraction or heart rate
(number of beats per second)
-stroke volume (75mL) the amount of
blood pumped by the left ventricle per
contraction

Heart rates among vertebrates vary with
general level of metabolism and body
size.

(1) Atrial and Ventricular diastole
(2) Atrial systole; Ventricular diastole
(3) Atrial diastole; Ventricular systole

Heart sounds that are heard: caused by
closing of valves (AV and semilunar)
LUB recoil of blood against closed AV
valves
DUP recoil of blood against the
semilunar valves

Impulses generated during heart cycle
produce electrical currents that are
conducted through body fluids to the
skin. These currents can be detected by
electrodes and recorded as an
electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG).

CONTROLOF THE HEART RHYTHM
(1) Pacemaker, the sinoatrial node, (SA
node), generates wave of signals to
contract.
(2) Signals delayed at the atrioventricular
node (AV node).
(3) Signals pass to heart apex
(4) Signals spread throughout ventricles

This arrangement allows the contraction
to begin at the apex or tip of the
ventricles and spread upward to squeeze
out the blood in the most efficient way; it
also ensures that both ventricles contract
simultaneously. Structural specializations
in Purkinje fibers, such as well-
developed intercalated discs and
numerous gap junctions facilitate rapid
conduction through these fibers.

-the pacemaker is also influenced by
hormones; rate of impulse generation by
the pacemakers increases in response to
increases in body temperature and with
exercise

-two sets of nerves (sympathetic and
parasympathetic) affect heart rate with
one set speeding up the pacemaker and
the other set slowing it down

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
-Fight or Flight response mechanism
-increases blood pressure, faster heart
beats, and slows down digestion

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
-Rest and Digest response mechanism
-decreases blood pressure, slows down
heart beats, faster digestions

It should be noted that the autonomic
nervous system, consisted of the
sympathetic, parasympathetic and
enteric nervous systems, is always
working. It is NOT only active during
"fight or flight" or "rest and digest"
situations. Rather, the autonomic
nervous system acts to maintain normal
internal functions and works with the
somatic nervous system.

BLOOD FLOW IN VEINS
(a)Contracted skeletal muscle pushes
blood past open valve.
(b)Closed valve prevents backward flow
of blood.

MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD
PRESSURE
-makes use of sphygmomanometer and
the brachial artery

Systolic Pressure peak pressure in the
arteries; occurs near the end of cardiac
cycle when ventricles are contracting

Diastolic Pressure minimum pressure
in the arteries; occurs neard the
beginning of the cardiac cycle when
ventricles are filled with blood

CHANGES IN BLOOD PRESSURE
-varies within the day due to to circadian
rhythm
-also change due to stress, nutrition,
exercise, drugs, disease, and simply
standing up

hypertension arterial pressure
abnormally is high
hypotension arterial pressure
abnormally is low

BLOOD FLOW IN CAPILLARY BEDS
(a) Sphincters relaxed blood flows
through the thoroughfare channels, and
through the relaxed precapillary
sphincters throughout capillary beds.
(b) Sphincters contracted blood flows
from arteriole to venules through the
thoroughfare channel; blood bypasses
the capillary beds
FLUID EXCHANGE BETWEEN
CAPILLARIES AND INTERSTITIAL FLUID

ARTERIAL END
-blood pressure: 32mm Hg
-osmotic pressure: 22mm Hg
-net pressure out: 10mm Hg (32mm Hg-
22mm Hg)

VENOUS END
-blood pressure: 15mm Hg
-osmotic pressure: 22mm Hg
-net pressure in: -7mm Hg (15mm Hg-
22mm Hg)

THE BLOOD

PLASMA (55%)
WATER
-solvent for carrying other substances

IONS (BLOOD ELECTROLYTES)
-osmotic balance; pH buffering;
regulation of membrane permeability

PLASMA PROTEINS
-Albumin: for osmotic balance; pH
buffering
-Fibrinogen: for clotting purposes
-Immunoglobulins (antibodies): defense

SUBSTANCES TRANSPORTED BY
BLOOD
-Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)
-Waste products
-Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
-Hormones

CELLULAR ELEMENTS (55%)

ERYTHROCYTES
-transport O2 and help transport CO2

WHITE BLOOD CELLS
-defense and immunity
-also called LEUKOCYTES which can be
classified into 5 types, namely
BASOPHILS, EOSINOPHIL,
LYMPHOCYTES, NEUTROPHILS, and
MONOCYTES

PLATELETS
-for blood clotting purposes

BLOOD CLOTTING PROCESS
(1) Platelet releases chemicals that make
nearby platelets sticky
(2) Platelet plugs
(3) A fibrin clot appears

-Clotting factors are released from
platelets, damaged cells, or plasma
(such as Ca
2+
and Vitamin K).
-Prothrombin is secreted to become
thrombin. Thrombin activates fibrinogen
to become fibrin ! formation of a fibrin
clot.

Hemophilia
-Inability to form blood clots
-a sex-linked trait that is usually
deactivated
-due to incest (such as those that
happen in royal bloodlines), the hidden
genetic trait becomes activated.
-Hemophilia A: clotting factor VIII
deficiency
-Hemophilia B: clotting factor IX
deficiency
-also widely known as the Disease of
the Kings or.. the Sickness of the
Royals

LECTURE 6.2 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
-lymphatic organs: red bone marrow,
thymus gland, tonsils, spleen, lymph
vessels, and lymph nodes
-lymphatic capillaries take up and return
excess fluid to the bloodstream
-lacteals receive lipoproteins and
transport them to the bloodstream
-helps defend body against disease

A principal function of the lymphatic
system is to return to the blood the
excess fluid (lymph) filtered across
capillary walls into interstitial spaces.
Lymph is similar to plasma but has a
much lower concentration of protein.
Large molecules, especially fats
absorbed from the gut, also reach the
circulatory system by way of the
lymphatic system. The rate of lymph flow
is very low, a minute fraction of blood
flow.

Lacteals lymphatic vessels of the small
intestine that absorbs digested fats.

Lymph nodes contains masses of
lymphocytes and macrophages

Cells in the lymph glands such as
macrophages remove foreign particles,
especially bacteria, which might
otherwise enter the general circulation.
They are also centers (together with
bone marrow and thymus gland) for
production, maintenance, and distribution
of lymphocytes that produce
antibodies essential components of the
bodys defense mechanisms

SPLEEN
-found in all vertebrates
-functions in the mechanical filtration of
RBCs to remove old RBCs.
-participates in the active immune
response through humoral and cell-
mediated pathways




THYMUS
-also participates in the active immune
response through humoral and cell
mediated pathways
-develops T-lymphocytes from
hematopoietic progenitor cells
-begins to atrophy during early teens as
its stroma begins to get filled with
adipose tissues

APPENDIX
-blind-ended tube connecting to the
caecum
-vestigial organ in humans
-shrunken remnant of the part of the
caecum
-found in the digestive tracts of many
extant herbivores
-house mutualistic bacteria which help
animals digest the cellulose molecules
that are found in plants
-may harbor and protect bacteria that are
beneficial in the function of the human
colon
-Appendicitis inflammation of the
appendix

NON SPECIFIC DEFENSE MECHANISM
First line of defense involves the skin,
mucous membrances, and secretions of
skin and mucous membranes
Second line of defense involves
phagocytic WBCs, antimicrobial proteins,
and the inflammatory response

SPECIFIC DEFENSE MECHANISM
Third line of defense lymphocytes and
antibodies

Recall:
The formed elements (45% of blood),
prdocued by the bone marrow:
WBCs fights infections
RBCs carries oxygen
Platelets controls for blood clots
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
-in humans, secretions from sebaceous
and sweat glands give the skin a pH
ranging from 3 to 5, which is acidic
enough to prevent colonization by many
microbes
-microbial colonization is also inhibited
by the washing action of saliva, tears,
and mucous secretions
-these secretions contain antimicrobial
proteins such as lysozymes which
digests the cell walls of many bacteria

SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
-microbes that penetrate the first line of
defense face the second line of defense,
highly depends on phagocytosis
-phagocytic cells called neutrophils
constitute about 60%-70% of all WBCs
-monocytes, about 5% of leukocytes
(WBCs), provide an even more effective
phagocytic defense.

Macrophages
-develop from monocytes
-attacks foreign microbes by
phagocytosis
-major component of the vertebrate
lymphatic system

Eosinophils (constitute 1.5% of WBCs)
-for defense against large parasitic
invaders such as blood fluke !
Schistoma mansoni.
-positions themselves against the
external wall of a parasite and discharge
destructive enzymes from cytoplasmic
granules (like lysozymes).

Natural Killer (NK) cells
-do not attack microogranisms directly
but destroys virus-infected body cells
-also attack abnormal body cells that
could become cancerous due to
excessive proliferation
-mounts an attack on a cells membrane
which causes a cell to lyse

Some microbes have evolved
mechanisms for evading phagocytic
destruction due to the presence of outer
capsules. In the case of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, they are readily engulfed
but are resistant to lysosomal destruction
while holding the capability to reproduce
within a macrophage.

In most situations, the presence of a
damaged tissue by means of physical
injury or entry of microogranisms triggers
a localized inflammatory response.

INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
(1) Injured tissue cells and mast cells
release histamine, which causes
capillaries to dilate and increase blood
flow
(2) Macrophages and dendritic cells
phagocytize pathogens and release
cytokines, which stimulate the
inflammatory response
(3) Neutrophils and monocytes (that
become macrophages) squeeze through
the walls of a capillary and phagocytize
pathogens
(4) Blood clotting walls off capillary and
prevents blood loss

Histamine is released by basophils and
mast cells in connective tissues.
Leukocytes and damaged tissue cells
discharge prostaglandins and other
substances that promote blood flow to
the site of injury.

Chemokines
-secreted by blood vessel endothelial
cells and monocytes, attract phagocytes
to the area
-a group of about 50 varying proteins
-induces the production of toxic forms on
O2 in phagocyte lysosomes and the
release of histamine from basophils

Toxins from pathogens or by pyrogens,
released by certain leukocytes, can
trigger an alternate systemic response to
infection ! fever.

Fever
-resets the body thermostat
-higher temperature contributes to
defense by inhibiting the growth of
microbes while facilitating phagocytosis
and speeding up repair of tissues
-temperatures that are too high are
dangerous since denaturation of
essential proteins can happen

Complement System
-20 serum proteins that assist in defense
as antimicrobial agents
-carries out a cascade of steps that lead
to lysis of microbes
-some complement components work
with chemokines to attract phagocytic
cells to sites of infection

Interferons
-proteins secreted by virus-infected cells
-diffuses to neighboring cells and induce
them to produce other chemicals that
inhibit viral reproduction
-limits cell to cell spread of viruses

THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE
-lymphocytes are the key cells of the
immune system ! two main types of
lymphocytes: B lymphocytes (B cells)
and T lymphocytes (T cells).
-a foreign molecule that elicits a specific
response by lymphocytes is called an
antigen
-antigens react to specific antibodies that
are either attached to lymphocytes or are
secreted
-antibodies constitute a group of globular
serum proteins called Immunoglobin
(Igs)

A typical antibody molecule has two
identical antigen-binding sites specific for
the epitope that provokes its production.
Additionally, an antibody interacts with a
small accessible portion of the antigen
called an epitope or antigenic
determinant.

Antigen receptors on B cells
-transmembrane versions of antibodies
-often referred to as membrane
antibodies (or membrane
immunoglobins)
-produced in a secreted form

Antigen receptors on T cells
-called T cell receptors
-structurally related to membrane
antibodies
-never produced in a secreted form

There is an enormous variety of B and T
cells in the body, each bearing antigen
receptors of particular specificity. This
allows the immune system to respond to
millions of antigens, and thus millions of
potential pathogens.

Although microorganism encounters a
large repertoire of B cells and T cells, it
interacts only with lymphocytes bearing
receptors specific for its various antigenic
molecules.

The selection of a lymphocyte by one of
the microbes antigens activates the
lymphocyte. The activated lymphocyte is
stimulated to divide and differentiate to
produce two clones of cells, namely
effector cells and memory cells.

CLONAL SELECTION THEORY
The theory states that in a pre-existing
group of lymphocytes (specifically B
cells), a specific antigen only activates
(i.e. selection) its counter-specific cell so
that that particular cell is induced to
multiply (producing its clones) for
antibody production. In short the theory
is an explanation of the mechanism for
the generation of diversity of antibody
specificity.

BINDING OF ANTIBODIES TO
ANTIGENS INACTIVATES ANTIGENS
BY:
(1) Neutralization (blocks viral binding
sites; coats bacteria and/or opsonization)
(2) Agglutination of antigen bearing
particles such as microbes
(3) Precipitation of soluble antigens
(4) Complement fixation (activation of
complement)

(1), (2), (3) enhances phagocytosis
(4) leads to cell lysis

Primary immune response the
selective proliferation and differentiation
of lymphocytes that occur the first time
the body is exposed to an antigen. Also,
selected B cells and T cells generate
antibody-producing effector B cells,
called plasma cells, and effector T cells,
respectively

A second exposure to the same antigen
at some later time elicits the secondary
immune response. The antibodies
produced tend to have greater affinity for
the antigen than those secreted int eh
primary response.

During the maturation of B cells and T
cells within the bone marrow and
thymus, their antigen receptors are
tested for potential self-reactivity. The
capacity to distinguish self from nonself
continues to develop as the cells migrate
to lymphatic organs and autoimmune
diseases are prevented.

Auto-immune diseases
-caused when the immune system
makes its own cells as pathogens and
attacks them.

T cells
-interact with ONE important group of
native molecules, the major
histocompatibility complex (MHC)
which is a collection of cell surface
glycoproteins encoded by a family of
genes.

TWO MAIN CLASSES OF MHC
Class I MHC molecules
-found on almost all nucleated cells

Class II MHC molecules
-restricted to macrophages, B cells,
activated T cells, and those inside the
thymus

TWO MAIN TYPES OF T CELLS
Cytotoxic T cells (Tc)
-contains antigen receptors that bind to
protein fragments displayed by the
bodys Class I MHC molecules.

Helper T cells (TH)
-contains receptors that bind to peptides
displayed by the bodys Class II MHC
molecules.

Cytotoxic T cells respond by killing the
infected cells. Helper T cells binds to an
antigen-presenting cell and sends out
chemical signals that incite other cell
types to fight the pathogen.

HELPER T CELL SIGNAL PATHWAY
(1) The APC (macrophage) sends out
interleukin-1 towards helper T cells
(2) The T-cell receptor of the Helper T
cell binds to the Class II MHC molecule
of the APC.
(3) CD4, a T-surface protein helps keep
the cells together while the TH sends out
inflammatory cytokines, such as
Interleukin-2, towards cytotoxic T cells
and B cells as the TH cell b
(4) Signals: 1) transform B cells into
antibody providing plasma cells - which
can also differentiate further into memory
cells for possible secondary encounters
with a specific antigen. 2) enhance
phagocytic activity of macrophages and
3) a CD8 T cell becomes cytotoxic T
lymphocyte (CTL), which posses the
capability to induce apoptosis to a target
cell.

If a cell contains a replicating virus, Class
I MHC molecules expose foreign proteins
that are synthesized in infected or
abnormal cells to cytotoxic T cells. This
interaction is greatly enhanced by a T
surface protein, CD8, which helps keep
the cells together while the Tc cell is
activated.

(1) CD8 Tc cell binds using its T-cell
receptor to the Class I MHC molecule of
an infected cell.
(2) Perforins are secreted by the Tc cell
towards the plasma membrane of the
infected cell ! formation of a pore
(3) Ions and H2O start to flow into the
infected cell ! leading to cell lysis.


The humoral response (or antibody
mediated response) involves B cells that
recognize antigens or pathogens that are
circulating in the lymph or blood (
humor is a medieval term for body
fluid). The response follows this chain of
events:

(1) Antigens bind to B cells.
(2)Interleukins or helper T cells
costimulate B cells. In most cases, both
an antigen and a costimulator are
required to activate a B cell and initiate B
cell proliferation.
(3) B cells proliferate and produce
plasma cells. The plasma cells bear
antibodies with the identical antigen
specificity as the antigen receptors of the
activated B cells. The antibodies are
released and circulate through the body,
binding to antigens.
(4) B cells produce memory cells.
Memory cells provide future immunity.

The cell mediated response involves
mostly T cells and responds to any cell
that displays aberrant MHC markers,
including cells invaded by pathogens,
tumor cells, or transplanted cells. The
following chain of events describes this
immune response:
(1) Self cells or APCs displaying foreign
antigens bind to T cells.
(2) Interleukins (secreted by APCs or
helper T cells) co-stimulate activation of
T cells.
(3) If MHCI and endogenous antigens
are displayed on the plasma membrane,
T cells proliferate, producing cytotoxic T
cells. Cytotoxic T cells destroy cells
displaying the antigens.
(4) If MHCII and exogenous antigens
are displayed on the plasma membrane,
T cells proliferate, producing helper T
cells. Helper T cells release interleukins
(and other cytokines), which stimulate B
cells to produce antibodies that bind to
the antigens and stimulate nonspecific
agents (NK and macrophages) to destroy
the antigens.

5 CLASSES OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS

IgM (pentamer)
-first to be produced after initial exposure
to antigen
-promotes neutralization and cross-
linking of antigens
-very effective in complement systems

IgG (monomer)
-most abundant Ig in blood
-present in tissue fluids
-promotes opsonization, neutralization
and cross-linking of antigens
-only Ig that crosses placenta

IgA (dimer)
-present in tears, saliva, mucus, and
breast milk
-provides localized defense of mucous
membranes by neutralization and cross-
linking of antigens

IgD (monomer)
-present on surface of B cells that have
not been exposed to antigens
-acts a antigen receptor in the antigen-
stimulated proliferation and differentiation
of B cells

IgE (monomer)
-present in blood at low concentrations
-triggers release from mast cells and
basophils of histamine and other
chemicals that cause allergenic reactions

Five types of immunoglobulins: IgG, IgM,
IgA, IgD, IgE

BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS
(a) No Agglutination the antibody
present in a recipient is not specific for
the donors type of blood ! no binding
happens since the blood of the donor is
not recognized as a foreign invader.
(b) Agglutination the antibody present
in a recipient is specific for the donors
type of blood ! binding of antibody to
donors blood since it is recognized as an
antigen.

Erythroblastosis fetalis
-hemolytic disease of the newborn
-occurs when the system of an Rh-
negative mother produces antibodies to
an antigen in the blood of an Rh-positive
fetus which crosses the placenta and
destroys fetal erythrocytes
-characterized by an increase in
circulating erythroblasts and by jaundice

(a) Fetal Rh-positive red blood cells leak
across placenta into mothers
bloodstream
(b) Mother forms anti-Rh antibodies that
corss the placenta and attack fetal Rh-
positive red blood cells.

HUMORAL VS CELL-MEDIATED
IMMUNE RESPONSE

HUMORAL (ANTIBODY-MEDIATED)
IMMUNE RESPONSE
-defend against extracellular pathogens
by binding to antigens and making the
pathogens easier targets for phagocytes
and complements

CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE
-defend against intracellular pathogens
and cancer by binding to and lysing the
infected cells or cancer cells

LECTURE 7: EXCRETION AND
OSMOREGULATION
-maintenance of the volume and
composition of extracellular fluid
-removes metabolic wastes from the
bloodstream

OSMOREGULATION
-maintenance of the proper internal salt
and water concentrations in a cell or in
the body of a living organism
-active regulation of internal osmotic
pressure

In FRESHWATER FISH
Gills
-active absorption of NaCl
-H2O enters osmotically

Kidney
-responsible for the excretion of dilute
urine
-within the kidney tubule: tubular
reabsorption of NaCl

In MARINE FISH
Stomach
-passive absorption of NaCl and H2O

Gills
-active secretion of NaCl, and H2O

Intestinal Wastes
-MgSO4 voided with feces

Kidney
-excretion of MgSO4, urea, and little
amount of H2O
-within kidney tubule: glomerulus is
reduced or absent; active tubular
secretion of MgSO4

In FROGS,
H2O involved in passive diffusion
NaCl involved in active diffusion
Anhydrobiosis
-dormant state when habitats dry up
-examples are tardigrades or water bears

Water balance in KANGAROO RATS
-a small portion gained is due to the food
ingested
-a large portion gained is due to the
water derived from metabolism
-water loss involves a small portion of
feces, ~20% urine, and ~75% due to
evaporation

Water balance in a HUMAN
-most of the water gain is due to ingested
liquid and food while a small portion is
due to metabolism.
-water loss is due to >50% urine, ~40%
evaporation and a small percentage due
to feces

ANIMAL NITROGENOUS WASTES
Aquatic animals - Ammonia
Mammals - Urea
Birds Uric Acid

EXCRETORY ORGANELLES
Contractile Vacuoles
-tiny, spherical, intracellular vacuole
found in protozoa
-expels excess water gained by protozoa

(1) full vacuole ! pore opens and
vacuole contracts
(2) contraction of vacuole expels water
from cell
(3) empty vacuole from contraction !
canals then take up water from
cytoplasm
(4) water moves from canals to vacuole
until it is full

Protonephridia
-branching network of dead end tubules
-closed system; found in flatworms, etc
Metanephridia
-found in annelids, molluscs and other
phyla
-made of tubules that are open at both
ends
-surrounded by a network of blood
vessels that assists in reclamation of
water and valuable materials such as
salts, sugars, and amino acids.

Antennal Gland
-found in crustaceans

Malpighian Tubules
-found in insects

Kidneys
(1) kidneys produce urine
(2) ureters transport urine
(3) urinary bladder stores urine
(4) urethra passes urine to outside

Archinephros
-found in embryo of hagfish
-the inferred ancestral condition of the
vertebrate kidney

Pronephros
-functional kidney in adult hagfish and
embryonic fishes and amphibians
-fleeting existence in embryonic reptiles,
birds, and mammals

Mesonephros
-functional kidney of adult lampreys,
fishes, and amphibians
-transient function in embryonic reptiles,
birds, and mammals
-formation of an epididymis from
mesonephric tubules

Metanephros
-functional kidney of adult reptiles, birds,
and mammals
-appearance of ureter connected to the
matenephric kidney

Nephron
-basic functional unit of the excretory
organ in vertebrates
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE
FORMATION OF URINE
(1) Filtration
(2) Reabsorption
(3) Secretion
(4) Excretion

Glomerular Filtration
-water, salts, nutrient molecules, and
waste molecules move from the
glomerulus to the inside of the
glomerular capsule.
-the small molecules are called
glomerular filtrate

Tubular Reabsorption
-nutrient and salt molecules are actively
reabsorbed from the convoluted tubules
into the peritubular capillary network
-water flows passively

Tubular Secretion
-certain molecules (e.g. H
+
, or penicillin)
are actively secreted from the peritubular
capillary network into the convoluted
tubules

Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
-promotes water conservation in the liver

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
(RAAS)
-a hormone system that regulates blood
pressure and water (fluid) balance.

When blood volume is low,
juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys
activate their prorenin and secrete renin
directly into circulation. Plasma renin
then carries out the conversion of
angiotensinogen released by the liver to
angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is
subsequently converted to angiotensin II
by the enzyme angiotensin-converting
enzyme found in the lungs. Angiotensin
II is a potent vaso-active peptide that
causes blood vessels to constrict,
resulting in increased blood pressure.
Angiotensin II also stimulates the
secretion of the hormone aldosterone
from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone
causes the tubules of the kidneys to
increase the reabsorption of sodium and
water into the blood. This increases the
volume of fluid in the body, which also
increases blood pressure.

If the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
system is abnormally active, blood
pressure will be too high

Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)
-hormone that opposes RAAS
-released by the walls of the atria in
response to an increase in blood volume
and pressure
-inhibits release of renin from the JGA
-inhibits NaCl reabsorption by the
collecting ducts
-reduces aldosterone releases from the
adrenal glands
-these actions lower blood pressure

LECTURE 8.1 INTRACELLULAR
COMMUNICATION AND THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine Signaling
-secreted molecules diffuse into the
bloodstream and trigger responses in
target cells anywhere in the boyd

Paracrine Signaling
-secreted molecules diffuse locally and
trigger a response in neighboring cells.

Autocrine Signaling
-secreted molecules diffuse locally and
trigger a response in the cells that
secrete them

Synaptic Signaling
-neurotransmitters diffuse across
synapses and trigger responses in cells
of target tissues

Neuroendocrine Signaling
-neurhormones diffuse into the
bloodstream and trigger responses
anywhere in the body

SIGNALING MOLECULES: LOCAL
REGULATORS

Growth Factors
-proteins and polypeptides that stimulate
cell proliferation

Cytokines
-plays a role in immune responses

Nitric Oxide (NO)
If secreted by:
(a) neurons ! acts a neurotransmitter
(b) WBCs ! kills bacteria and cancer
cells
(c) endothelial cells ! dilates the walls
of blood vessels

Prostaglandins (PGs)
-modified fatty acids
-if secreted by placenta ! stimulates
uterine contractions during childbirth
-promote fever and inflammation !
intensifies pain

.

Neurotransmitters
-secreted by neurons at many synapses
-diffuse a very short distance
-bind receptors on target cells

Neurohormones
-secreted by neurosecretory cells
-diffuse from nerve cell endings into the
bloodstream
example, ADH ! anti-diuretic hormone

ADH, helps the kidney conserve water
but not salt.

Pheromones
-released into the external environment
-to mark trails leading to food
-for defining territories
-warning of predators
-attracting potential mates

Hormones
-chemicals that transfer information and
instructions between cells in animals and
plants
-bodys chemical messengers
-regulate growth and development
-controls the function of various tissues
-support reproductive functions
-regulate metabolism

NOTE #1: Similar signaling molecules
binding to different types of receptors
(alpha, beta, etc) induces a different
effect
Example Epinephrine can bind to the
beta-receptor and the alpha receptor of a
blood vessel ! (binded with beta-
receptor) blood vessel dilates, (binded
with alpha-receptor), blood vessel
constricts
.
NOTE #2: Similar signaling molecules
that bind to the same type of receptors
(alpha, beta, etc) induces a different
effect provided that the cell in action are
different
Example Epinephrine can bind to beta-
receptors in liver cells and in skeletal
muscle blood vessels ! (in liver cells)
Glycogen is broken down and glucose is
released, (in blood vessel), the vessel
dilates.

Major endocrine glands:
-hypothalamus
-pineal glands
-pituitary gland
-thyroid gland
-parathyroid glands
-adrenal glands
-pancreas
-kidney
-ovaries/testes

Organs containing endocrine cells:
-thymus
-heart
-liver
-stomach
-kidney
-small intestine

Hypothalamus
-integrates endocrine and nervous
function
-the master gland
-hormones produced by its
neurosecretory cells:
(a) releasing hormones ! stimulate
the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
to secrete hormones
(b) inhibiting hormones ! prevents
the anterior pituitary from secreting
hormones

Tropic hormones are hormones that
have other endocrine glands as their
target. Most tropic hormones are
produced and secreted by the anterior
pituitary. The hypothalamus secretes
tropic hormones that target the anterior
pituitary, and the thyroid gland secretes
thyroxine, which targets the
hypothalamus and therefore can be
considered a tropic hormone.

TROPIC HORMONES:

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or
thyrotropin) stimulates the thyroid
gland to make and release thyroid
hormone.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or
corticotropin) stimulates the adrenal
cortex to release glucocorticoids.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates
the release of steroid hormones in
gonadsthe ovary and testes.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulates the maturation of eggs and
production of sperm.

Growth hormone (GH) has both tropic
and non-tropic effects. Growth
hormone's major tropic effect is it
releases insulin-like growth factors
(IGFs) from the liver, which causes bone
growth.

The hypothalamus controls the release
of hormones from the anterior pituitary by
secreting a class of hypothalamic
neurohormones called releasing and
release-inhibiting hormoneswhich are
released to the hypothalamo-
hypophyseal portal system and act on
the anterior pituitary.




NON TROPIC HORMONES
Non-tropic hormones are hormones that
directly stimulate target cells to induce
effects. This differs from the tropic
hormones, which act on another
endocrine gland. Non-tropic hormones
are those that act directly on targeted
tissues or cells, and not on other
endocrine gland to stimulate release of
other hormones. Many hormones act in a
chain reaction. Tropic hormones usually
act in the beginning of the reaction
stimulating other endocrine gland to
eventually release non-tropic hormones.
These are the ones that act in the end of
the chain reaction on other cells that are
not part of other endocrine gland

PITUITARY GIGANTISM
-syndrome ! results from excess
secretion of the growth hormone (GH)
even before puberty.
-usually possesses a short life span due
to the faster deterioration of the heart to
supply blood throughout the body

ACROMEGALY
-syndrome ! results when the pituitary
gland produces excess growth hormone
(GH) after epiphyseal plate closure at
puberty
-affects the face and extremities

HYPOPITUITARY DWARFISM
-decreased bodily growth due to
hormonal problems
-the end result should be a proportionate
little person ! height and growth of all
other structures of the individual are
decreased.

SIMPLE GOITER
-enlargement of the thyroid gland caused
by the deficiency in Iodine in the diet
-Iodine is a major component of thyroid
components
-Thyrotropic Hormone (TSH) ! from
anterior pituitary ! regulates synthesis
and secretion of thyroid hormones
-during iodine deficiency, TSH
overstimulates the thyroid gland !
extract iodine from blood ! causing
enlargement of the thyroid gland

CRETINISM
-caused by a malfunction of the thyroid
gland at an early age
-mentally retarded dwarf
-severe stunted physical and mental
growth due to untreated congenital
deficiency of thyroid hormone (congenital
hypothyroidism) ! due to maternal
nutritional iodine deficiency

CUSHING SYNDROME
-caused by high levels of cortisol in the
blood
-symptoms include rapid weight gain
(particularly of the trunk and face while
sparing the limbs), growth of fat pads
alone the collar bone and on the back of
the neck (buffalo hump), and a round
face (moon face).

MELATONIN PRODUCTION
-Hormone of Darkness ! production
by pineal gland ! inhibited by light and
promoted by darkness
-Blue light (460-480nm) particularly
inhibits melatonin
-melatonin !signal that forms part of the
system that regulates the sleep-wake
cycle by chemically causing drowsiness
and lowering body temperature.

A lack of PTH causes
hypoparathyroidism, a tetany ! Ca
2+

levels in the blood drops AND convulsive
contractions of the skeletal muscles tend
to occur.

The pancreas has both endocrine and
exocrine functions. Its endocrine function
is the production of insulin and glucagon
! Islets of Langerhans; its exocrine
function is the secretion of HCO3- ions
and digestive enzymes.

The endocrine portion of the pancreas
controls the homeostasis of glucose in
the bloodstream. Blood glucose levels
must be maintained within certain limits
so that there is a constant supply of
glucose to feed the cells of the body but
not so much that glucose can damage
the kidneys and other organs. The
pancreas produces 2 antagonistic
hormones to control blood sugar:
glucagon and insulin.
The alpha cells of the pancreas produce
glucagon. Glucagon raises blood glucose
levels by stimulating the liver to
metabolize glycogen into glucose
molecules and to release glucose into
the blood. Glucagon also stimulates
adipose tissue to metabolize triglycerides
into glucose and to release glucose into
the blood.
Insulin is produced by the beta cells of
the pancreas. This hormone lowers
blood glucose levels after a meal by
stimulating the absorption of glucose by
liver, muscle, and adipose tissues.
Insulin triggers the formation of glycogen
in the muscles and liver and triglycerides
in adipose to store the absorbed
glucose.

The exocrine portion of the pancreas
plays a major role in the digestion of
food. The stomach slowly releases
partially digested food into the
duodenum as a thick, acidic liquid called
chyme. The acini of the pancreas secrete
pancreatic juice to complete the
digestion of chyme in the duodenum.
Pancreatic juice is a mixture of water,
salts, bicarbonate, and many different
digestive enzymes. The bicarbonate ions
present in pancreatic juice neutralize the
acid in chyme to protect the intestinal
wall and to create the proper
environment for the functioning of
pancreatic enzymes. The pancreatic
enzymes each specialize in digesting
specific compounds found in chyme.

In the cases of hypoinsulinism or
diabetes mellitus, hereditary factors
and obesity plays a role in its
development. Due to the high blood
sugar levels of a patient, this excess
sugar is excreted in the urine. Possible
symptoms include excessive urination
and excessive thirst. If the diabetes
mellitus is sever, fat substitutes serve the
temporary role of glucose as a major fuel
source ! production of acid metabolites
! can lead to lowering of pH of blood,
thus in some cases it is life threatening.

Type I diabetes mellitus
-autoimmune disorder
-usually appears during the childhood
-treatment: regular dose of insulin
injections to keep insulin levels normal

Type II diabetes mellitus
-usually due to target cells having
decreased responsiveness to insulin
-usually occurs after 40 -- > age risk
increases
-accounts for over 90% diabetes patiens
-can lead to renal failure, erectile
dysfunction, blindness, slow healing
wounds, and arterial disease
-treated with lifestyle modification !
taking with BIGUANIDE METFORMIN,

A third group of corticosteroids are sex
hormones ! androgens for men and
estrogens/progesterone for women.

Androgens
-secreted by the adrenal cortex !
accounts for FEMALE sex drive
-the adrenal cortex also secretes small
amounts of ESTROGEN and
PROGESTERON

Testes
-Androgens (e.g. , testosterone)
(a)supports spern foundation
(b) promote development; maintentance
of male six characteristics.
(c) secretion regulated by FSH and LH

Overies
-Estrogens (e.g. estradiol)
(a)stimulate uterine lining growth
(b) promote development ; maintenance
of female sex characteristics