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Educational Studies
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The Effects of a School-wide Behaviour Management
Programme on Teachers' Use of Encouragement in the
Classroom
Alan Bain a; Stephen Houghton a; Sally Williams a
a
Department of Education, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Perth,
Western Australia 6009, Australia

Online Publication Date: 01 January 1991

To cite this Article: Bain, Alan, Houghton, Stephen and Williams, Sally (1991) 'The
Effects of a School-wide Behaviour Management Programme on Teachers' Use of
Encouragement in the Classroom', Educational Studies, 17:3, 249 - 260
To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/0305569910170303
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 Educational Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, 1991 249
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The Effects of a School-wide

Behaviour Management Programme
on Teachers' Use of Encouragement
in the Classroom
ALAN BAIN, STEPHEN HOUGHTON &
SALLY WILLIAMS
Department of Education, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Perth,
Western Australia 6009, Australia

SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a whole school
behaviour management programme on teachers' use of encouragement in the classroom. Given
that the performance of the school has become an important dependent variable in school effects
research, it follows that interventions which address behaviour management and the improve-
ment of academic performance, have also taken on a school-wide focus or orientation. In
Australia, where this study was conducted, there has been an increased interest in the use of
school-wide behaviour management and discipline programmes, which are characterized by
their focus on improving teachers' classroom management skills. In the present study randomly
selected teachers from schools involved in a school-wide behaviour management programme
participated in an experimental evaluation of the effects of the programme. Continuous data
collection indicated that the majority of teachers made increases in their use of encouragement
over the course of the intervention. However, observations conducted during a follow-up phase
revealed reductions in levels of encouragement following the withdrawal of the intervention.

Introduction
The school-based development of expectations for academic and social behaviour
and the clear communication of those expectations to the school community have
been consistently identified as characteristics of effective schools (Rutter et al.,
1979; Lasley & Wayson, 1982; Edmonds, 1982). While the significance of these
characteristics has prompted considerable interest in strategies for responding to
behaviour problems in schools (e.g. codes of discipline, suspension and exclusion,
timeout procedures), more importantly it has also prompted consideration of the
type of teacher and student behaviour that is predictive of both high levels of
student academic achievement and positive social behaviour. Such factors as the
consistent use of reinforcement and feedback (Perrott, 1982), clear communication
of academic expectations (Rutter et al., 1979) and the management and use of
 250 Alan Bain et al.

instructional time (Sanford & Evertson, 1982) have been identified as important
factors in improving student, teacher and subsequent school performance. The
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systematic use of reinforcement and encouragement, for example, have been

recognized not only as prerequisites for improving the academic performance of
students, but also for their contribution to the development of patterns of behaviour
which are incompatible with disruption and low levels of academic engagement on
the part of both students and teachers.
Importantly, the school effectiveness movement has encouraged an examination
of the role of variables correlated with positive academic and social behaviour from
a school-wide perspective where the effects and implications of efforts to modify or
improve teacher and student behaviour have been considered with regard to their
school organizational and management implications (e.g. McCormack-Larkin, 1985;
Lasley & Wayson, 1982). It is important to emphasize, however, that any general-
ized conclusions about change at the school level, must first be based upon
demonstrated change in the more basic units of analysis, that is, effects on
individual teacher and/or student behaviour. A major goal of school effects re-
search, therefore, should be to clarify the functional relationship between the results
of school reform interventions and the nature and implementation of those reforms.
Such clarification would provide more specific information on the effects associated
with different school reform innovations and in doing so would serve to guide
programmes of change in schools.
Given that the performance of the school has become an important dependent
variable in school effects research, it follows that interventions which address
behaviour management and the improvement of academic performance, have also
taken on a school-wide focus or orientation. In Australia, for example, there has
been an increased interest in the use of school-wide behaviour management and
discipline programmes, which are characterized by their focus on improving teachers'
classroom management skills, reducing the variability in behavioural expectations
across staff, increasing teacher participation in decision making about behavioural
expectations, reducing subsequent levels of disruption in school and improving
academic performance.
While school-wide interventions in this area are not new (e.g. Canter & Canter,
1976) it is important to acknowledge that there has been limited research on their
effects. In addition, the available research has often focused on attitudinal variables
(e.g. teacher perceptions of levels of disruption and stress, Moffet, Jurenka &
Covan, 1982; Webb, 1984) as opposed to examining programme effects on actual
staff and student behaviour. One exception to this being the objective evaluations in
the UK of the Behavioural Approach to Teaching Packages (Wheldall & Merrett,
1985; Wheldall et al., 1989). The purpose of the present study was to examine the
effects of a school-wide behaviour change package known as the Managing Student
Behaviour (MSB) programme (Hamilton, 1986) on teachers' use of encouraging
responses in their interactions with students.
The MSB programme consists of a series of workshop sessions on topics
related to preventing and responding to behaviour management problems. Topics
include: analyzing disruptive incidents, being positive in the classroom, communi-
 Teacher Encouragement 251

cation skills, behavioural limit-setting and conflict resolution strategies. A second

stage includes the development of a school policy for the management of student
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behaviour which is then implemented and monitored on a school-wide basis by a

behaviour management committee. A major aim of the programme is to increase
teachers' awareness of the range of skills at their disposal for effective classroom
management and to faciliate the integration of these skills into teaching practice.
The programme reflects the extensive body of research in the areas of classroom
management in the USA (e.g. Brophy, 1981; Doyle, 1980; Evertson et al., 1983;
Rosenshine, 1971) and the effects of reinforcement (Bull & Solity, 1987; Roberts,
1983; Weber, 1985) and feedback (Gage & Berliner, 1975; Kulick & Kulick, 1979)
on classroom behaviour and learning.
Previous research on the effects of the MSB programme has been limited to
evaluation studies which have examined attitudinal change associated with the use
of the programme in schools (Hamilton, 1986) and on the integrity with which the
elements of the programme had been implemented (Olney, Axworthy & Hamilton,
1987). Hamilton (1986) examined the effects of the programme on teacher percep-
tions of stress and levels of disruptive behaviour. He reported that teachers using
the MSB programme felt less stressed and troubled by disruptive student behaviour.
Teachers also reported reductions in the levels of disruption when the programme
was in operation. The Olney et al. (1987) study was confined to a description of the
extent to which the MSB programme had been implemented across schools and did
not report findings regarding changes in teacher behaviour. Whilst both of these
studies concluded that the programme was effective in altering teachers' and
administrators' perceptions of the school environment, generalizability of findings is
limited due to the use of evaluation research designs and non-randomized samples
of schools and teachers.
The present study addressed the need for experimental research on the effects
of the MSB programme. Specifically, the research sought to establish whether
teachers' participation in the MSB programme would result in increases in the rates
of teachers' encouragement of students. The study was conducted across three
separate schools in order to identify possible differential effects of the programme
which may be associated with the school setting in which it was implemented.

Method
Subjects and Setting
The sample was comprised of nine elementary school teachers, seven male and two
female, randomly selected from three separate schools which had volunteered to
participate in an MSB programme. Each participant had a minimum of 4 years
teaching experience. All of the schools were located in lower middle socio-economic
areas of a large Australian city. The number and grade levels of the teachers' classes
were as follows: three first-grade classes, one third-grade class, one third- and
fourth-grade combined class, one fourth-grade class, one sixth-grade class, one
sixth- and seventh-grade combined class and one seventh-grade class. The ages of
the children in these classes ranged from 5 years to 12 years.
 252 Alan Bain et al.

Target Behaviour and Instrumentation

Direct observational data were collected on the target variable of teachers' use of
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encouragement. A frequency recording procedure was used to collect data on a six-

item checklist based on a list developed by Perrott (1982). The six items represent-
ing the teacher encouragement dimension were: (a) positive gestures or facial
expressions (e.g. nodding of the head, smiling and patting students on the head), (b)
positive verbal comments (e.g. teacher statements such as 'good', 'excellent' and
'well done'), (c) acceptance of pupils' ideas (e.g. teacher acknowledgement of pupil
contributions using statements such as 'yes' or 'I see', asking a pupil to repeat for
the benefit of the class, or summarizing the pupil's contribution), (d) building on or
asking questions on pupil's ideas, (e) rewarding pupils who give partially correct
answers (e.g. the statement—'that's a good attempt but look again carefully'),
and (f) feedback (e.g. demonstrating work behaviour or classroom behaviour that is
appropriate).

Research Design
A multiple baseline research design across settings (i.e. schools) and subjects was
utilized to evaluate the effects of the MSB programme on teacher behaviour.

Procedure
All observations of teacher behaviour took place over a consecutive 8-week period
during the third and fourth terms of the school year. Following this the intervention
was introduced in each of the three schools for a period of three consecutive weeks.

Baseline
Baseline data were collected over observation periods of 30 minutes duration during
structured, large group, classroom teaching periods before the lunchbreak in each of
the schools. During baseline teachers had no contact with the MSB programme but
were aware that they were going to participate in such a programme.

Intervention
During the intervention phase, data were collected approximately 2 days after each
of the teachers had participated in the 'being encouraging and positive in the
classroom' workshop of the MSB programme. The workshop session was of two and
a half hours duration and began with a 15-minute presentation, describing the role
and use of encouragement (by a MSB workshop facilitator). Encouragement was
described as a means of increasing responsibility and developing self-discipline in
students; feedback, compliments and verbal/non-verbal reinforcement were also
presented as forms of encouragement. After the introductory presentation partici-
pants were involved in a 15-30 minute brainstorming session on discouragement
 Teacher Encouragement 253

where they were asked to think of ways in which individuals can be actively
discouraged. Following this component participants were involved in a second
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15-30 minute brainstorming session which focused on encouragement. The fourth

element of the workshop involved a 15-minute presentation on the differential
effects of encouragement and discouragement which included an examination of
obstacles which prevent teachers from providing students with encouragement in
the classroom. Teachers were then requested to engage in a 15-30 minute roleplay
session in order to practise the strategies identified in the brainstorming session on
encouragement. In the final component of the workshop participants were requested
to identify a student from their class who was not receiving encouragement and to
develop a plan to provide that student with more encouragement.

Inter Observer Reliability

Prior to the collection of inter observer reliability data a second observer was
systematically trained in the observation procedure using prepared video taped
sequences showing primary school teachers interacting with their children. Training
took place over a 2-day period until an 85% level of agreement was reached between
observers. The principal observer was then joined by the second trained observer for
a minimum of 25% of observations during each phase of the study.

Results
Inter observer agreement was determined using Cohen's Kappa (Frick & Semmel,
1978) which is based on observed marginal distributions, and requires no assump-
tion that marginals are symmetrical and proportional to known population mar-
ginals. Cohen's Kappa yields one agreement coefficient across two or more cate-
gories for each pair of observers. The reliability was calculated to be 0.76 for the
variable 'encouragement'. This value represents an estimate of the extent to which
chance agreement has been exceeded and as such indicates that inter observer
recording was reliable.
Figure 1 describes total instances of encouragement across schools in the
multiple baseline design, while Table I describes the mean and standard deviation
scores for the rates of encouragement across the three phases of the study in each of
the schools. The rates of encouragement increased in all three schools following the
introduction of the MSB encouragement workshop. A reduction in the mean rates of
encouragement was evident from intervention to follow-up phase although the
follow-up levels exceeded those recorded at baseline in all three schools. It should
be noted, however, that the final observation in the follow-up phase for School 1
indicated a return to baseline levels.
In order to determine the effecs of the programme on individual teachers across
the three schools a multiple baseline design across groups of teachers was employed.
Figures 2, 3 and 4 describe total instances of encouragement across the groups at
each of baseline, intervention and follow-up phases.
 254 Alan Bain et al.

Baseline Intervention Follow up

90-i
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school 1
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
io-
0
10

§. 90-,
school 2

70-
60-
50-
f 40-
30-

20-
10-
0

i 10 12

90-,
school 3
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
0 10 12
Observations

FIG. 1. Total instances of encouraging and positive responses in each school.

Increases in the rate of encouragement occurred after the introduction of the

intervention for seven of the nine teachers involved in the study. Table II describes
the mean scores for each of the teachers at baseline, intervention and follow-up
phases of the study.
 Teacher Encouragement 255

TABLE I. Mean rate of encouragement at baseline, intervention and follow-up phases

in each of three schools
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Category

Baseline Intervention Follow-up

School Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

1 93.00 3.24 127.20 16.40 110.40 19.80

2 63.40 5.94 114.40 18.79 64.00 2.55
3 69.20 13.64 102.00 4.95 83.00 4.63

TABLE II. Mean rates of encouragement at baseline, intervention and follow-up phases
for individual teachers

Category

Baseline Intervention Follow-up

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Group 1
Teacher
1 21.00 2.55 44.80 1.48 31.66 3.89
2 17.75 1.70 19.50 4.04 22.00 4.08
3 24.20 6.45 35.40 2.19 32.66 6.53
Group 2
Teacher
1 37.00 1.22 37.80 6.22 38.32 4.70
2 14.00 3.16 27.00 2.16 13.66 1.70
3 25.80 6.53 39.10 3.49 30.00 3.67
Group 3
Teacher
1 35.00 1.41 44.60 14.25 40.66 16.08
2 31.75 2.36 72.50 17.08 28.32 1.24
3 19.20 7.32 27.00 3.53 20.33 2.94

The Group 1 teacher in school 2 (see Fig. 2) and Group 2 teacher in school 1
(see Fig. 3) made minimal increases in their mean rates of encouragement from
baseline (X = 17.75) to intervention (X = 19.5) and through follow up (X = 22.0)
phases for the Group 1 teacher and X = 37.00, to X = 37.8, to X = 38.32 for the
Group 2 teacher. A reduction in the mean rates of encouragement from intervention
to follow-up phase occurred for 8 of the 9 teachers. In 4 cases this resulted in an
approximate return to baseline levels or lower.
 256 Alan Bain et al.

Baseline Intervention Follow up

90-i

80- school 1
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70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
10 12

90-
school 2
80-
70-
a 60-
i
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
0 10 12

90-
school 3
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
10 12
Observations

FIG. 2. Total instances of encouragement directed towards students by teachers in Group 1.

Discussion
The results of this study when examined across schools and teachers lend support
to the view that the MSB workshop on encouragement did in fact result in increases
in the rates of encouragement given by the majority of teachers immediately follow-
 Teacher Encouragement 257

Baseline Intervention Follow up

90-i
school 1
80-
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70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
10 12

school 2
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
10 12

90-i
school 3
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
6 10 12
Observations

FIG. 3. Total instances of encouragement directed towards students by Group 2 teachers.

ing workshop sessions. However, it is also important to acknowledge that there was
a reduction in the levels of encouragement after the intervention phase concluded
possibly indicating a change in the contingencies which were influencing teachers
behaviour. While in most cases this did not mean a return to baseline levels it does
indicate the need for continued monitoring and maintenance training if the effects
 258 Alan Bain et al.
Baseline Intervention Follow up
16CH
150- school 1
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140-
130-
120-
110-
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
10 12

g- 160-
2 150- school 2
o 140-
•S 130-
0 120-
•§• 1 1 0 -
5 100-
01 90-
ra 80-
| 70-
8 BO-
'S 40-
« 30-
8 20-
ra 10-
g 0
10 12

160nJ
150 school 3
140-
130JJ
120
110-
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
10 12
Observations

FIG. 4. Total instances of encouragement directed towards students by Group 3 teachers.

of the intervention are to be sustained over time. This may indicate the need for an
ongoing feedback or self-monitoring procedure for teachers participating in the
programme in order to maintain appropriate levels of encouragement. Where this
has been included as part of the training process there has been a high degree of
behaviour maintenance (e.g. Wheldall et al, 1989).
 Teacher Encouragement 259

The results of the present study also lend support to the findings of Hamilton
(1986) by indicating that the change in teachers' attitude reported in that research
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may also be accompanied by a change in teacher behaviour. It is important to note

that the present study was confined to an examination of the effects of the
programme on one aspect of teacher behaviour and as such did not examine the
effects associated with the second major aim of the programme, that is reductions in
the levels of disruption in schools. Support for the programme's effects on student
behaviour can therefore only be inferred on the basis of the existing research on the
positive effects of encouragement on student behaviour and achievement (e.g.
Balson, 1982; Kazdin, 1973; Roberts, 1983).
The findings of the study are encouraging with respect to the effects of the
MSB programme as a school-wide behaviour management intervention and add to
the existing, predominantly attitudinal research in the area by demonstrating
behavioural effects associated with the programme. Future research should seek to
investigate the effects of the MSB and similar school-wide interventions on student
outcome variables such as levels of academic engagement and disruption. It is with
respect to these variables that the ultimate validity of such programmes can be fully
determined.

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