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THERMAL POWER PLANT STUDY
A Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree of


A.M.I.E. IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
AT
THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (INDIA), KOLKATA
PREPARED BY
Name of student
REGISTRATION NO.: RAVIGARU

Under the guidance & supervision of
Project guide name
F/M/AM, THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (INDIA), KOLKATA

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Introduction:
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water
is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator.
After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser; this is known
as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to
the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such
facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.
Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants,
as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted
in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise
steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency.
Such power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale and designed for
continuous operation.
History:
Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the 18th
Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first commercial
central electrical generating stations in New York and London, in 1882, also used
reciprocating steam engines. As generator sizes increased, eventually turbines took over
due to higher efficiency and lower cost of construction. By the 1920s any central station
larger than a few thousand kilowatts would use a turbine prime mover.
Efficiency:
The electric efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as saleable
energy produced at the plant bus bars compared with the heating value of the fuel
consumed, is typically 33 to 48% efficient, limited as all heat engines are by the laws of
thermodynamics. The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. This
waste heat can be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is
instead utilized for e.g. district heating, it is called cogeneration. An important class of
thermal power station are associated with desalination facilities; these are typically found
in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater
production and electricity are equally important co-products.
Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolute
temperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency improvements require
use of higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other
working fluids such as mercury have been experimentally used in a mercury vapour
turbine power plant, since these can attain higher temperatures than water at lower
working pressures. However, the obvious hazards of toxicity, and poor heat transfer
properties, have ruled out mercury as a working fluid.
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Steam generator or boiler:


Fig: Schematic diagram of typical coal-fired power plant steam generator highlighting the air
preheater (APH) location. (For simplicity, any radiant section tubing is not shown.)
The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and
temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. The
generator includes the economizer, the steam drum, the chemical dosing equipment, and
the furnace with its steam generating tubes and the superheater coils. Necessary safety
valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas
path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced
draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas
stack.
For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by
installing duplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating
dampers. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided.
Boiler furnace and steam drum:
Once water inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent heat of
vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the
chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel.
The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the
economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the
steam drum it goes down the downcomers to the lower inlet waterwall headers. From the
inlet headers the water rises through the waterwalls and is eventually turned into steam
due to the heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear waterwalls
(typically). As the water is turned into steam/vapor in the waterwalls, the steam/vapor
once again enters the steam drum. The steam/vapor is passed through a series of steam
and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum.
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The steam separators and dryers remove the water droplets from the steam and the cycle
through the waterwalls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation.
The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot
blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the
furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a
trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting
the coal.
The steam drum (as well as the superheater coils and headers) have air vents and drains
needed for initial startup. The steam drum has internal devices that removes moisture
from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam
then flows into the superheater coils.
Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat
exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains
excessive suspended solids. Nuclear plants also boil water to raise steam, either directly
passing the working steam through the reactor or else using an intermediate heat
exchanger.
Fuel preparation system:
In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed
into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is
next pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverizers may be ball mills, rotating drum
grinders, or other types of grinders.
Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than coal. The oil must kept warm (above its
pour point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing and becoming
unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about 100C before being pumped through the
furnace fuel oil spray nozzles.
Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main fuel. Other power
stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that their main fuel
supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners are provided on the
boiler furnaces.
Air path:
External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes
air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion,
injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall.
The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the
furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring
through any opening. At the furnace outlet, and before the furnace gases are handled by
the ID fan, fine dust carried by the outlet gases is removed to avoid atmospheric pollution.
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This is an environmental limitation prescribed by law, and additionally minimizes erosion
of the ID fan.
Auxiliary systems:
Fly ash collection:
Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric
bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced
draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the
precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage
silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars.
Bottom ash collection and disposal:
At the bottom of every boiler, a hopper has been provided for collection of the bottom ash
from the bottom of the furnace. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash
and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the
clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site.
Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage:
Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the
boiler, losses due to blow-down and leakages have to be made up for so as to maintain the
desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added
to the boiler water system. The impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally
consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in
the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will
lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the
water and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant
generally consists of cation, anion and mixed bed exchangers. The final water from this
process consists essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions which is the chemical
composition of pure water. The DM water, being very pure, becomes highly corrosive once
it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity for oxygen
absorption.
The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water
input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance.
For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously
withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not
affected by corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless
steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is
provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with atmospheric air. DM water
make-up is generally added at the steam space of the surface condenser (i.e., the vacuum
side). This arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with
the dissolved gases being removed by the ejector of the condenser itself.
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Steam turbine-driven electric generator:
The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work
satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally
has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also
has to be kept in position while running. To minimise the frictional resistance to the
rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates,
are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to
further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat
generated.
Barring gear:
Barring gear (or "turning gear") is the mechanism provided to rotate the turbine
generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the
steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts down towards standstill. When it stops
completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain
in one position too long. This is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to
concentrate in the top half of the casing, making the top half portion of the shaft hotter
than the bottom half. The shaft therefore could warp or bend by millionths of inches.
This small shaft deflection, only detectable by eccentricity meters, would be enough to
cause damaging vibrations to the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is restarted.
The shaft is therefore automatically turned at low speed (about one revolution per
minute) by the barring gear until it has cooled sufficiently to permit a complete stop.
Condenser:



Fig: Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser.
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The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is
circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the
shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as
shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-
driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain
vacuum.
For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in
order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the
condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100
o
C where the
vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally
works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed loop must be
prevented. Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of
condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with
periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning.
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to
reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.
Feed water heater:


Fig: A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feedwater heater.
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In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler, the
surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes
states from vapour to liquid. The heat content (btu) in the steam is referred to as Enthalpy.
The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a feed water heater. The
feed water heating equipment then raises the temperature of the water by utilizing
extraction steam from various stages of the turbine.
Preheating the feed water reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam generation and
therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant
operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feed
water is introduced back into the steam cycle.
Superheater:
As the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the drum, it is piped from the
upper drum area into an elaborate set up of tubing in different areas of the boiler. The
areas known as superheater and reheater. The steam vapor picks up energy and its
temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated
steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves of the high pressure
turbine.
Deaerator:



Fig: Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and horizontal
water storage section.

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A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of air and
other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal.
Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of air and other
dissolved gases from the boiler feed water. A deaerator typically includes a vertical,
domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves
as the deaerated boiler feed water storage tank.
There are many different designs for a deaerator and the designs will vary from one
manufacturer to another. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical conventional trayed
deaerator. If operated properly, most deaerator manufacturers will guarantee that oxygen
in the deaerated water will not exceed 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm/L).
Auxiliary systems:
Oil system:
An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine
generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet
steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the
relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms.
At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft
takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.
Generator heat dissipation:
The electricity generator requires cooling to dissipate the heat that it generates. While
small units may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally
require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in an oil-sealed casing, is
used because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low
viscosity which reduces windage losses. This system requires special handling during
start-up, with air in the chamber first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with
hydrogen. This ensures that the highly flammable hydrogen does not mix with oxygen in
the air.
The hydrogen pressure inside the casing is maintained slightly higher than atmospheric
pressure to avoid outside air ingress. The hydrogen must be sealed against outward
leakage where the shaft emerges from the casing. Mechanical seals around the shaft are
installed with a very small annular gap to avoid rubbing between the shaft and the seals.
Seal oil is used to prevent the hydrogen gas leakage to atmosphere.
The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a potential of about
22 kV and water is conductive, an insulating barrier such as Teflon is used to interconnect
the water line and the generator high voltage windings. Demineralized water of low
conductivity is used.
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Generator high voltage system:
The generator voltage ranges from 11 kV in smaller units to 22 kV in larger units. The
generator high voltage leads are normally large aluminum channels because of their high
current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in well-
grounded aluminum bus ducts and are supported on suitable insulators. The generator
high voltage channels are connected to step-up transformers for connecting to a high
voltage electrical substation (of the order of 110 kV or 220 kV) for further transmission by
the local power grid.
The necessary protection and metering devices are included for the high voltage leads.
Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. In smaller units,
generating at 11 kV, a breaker is provided to connect it to a common 11 kV bus system.
Other systems:
Monitoring and alarm system:
Most of the power plant operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual
intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm
systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously
deviating from their normal range.
Battery supplied emergency lighting and communication:
A central battery system consisting of lead acid cell units is provided to supply emergency
electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power plant's control systems,
communication systems, turbine lube oil pumps, and emergency lighting. This is essential
for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the units in an emergency situation.
Transport of coal fuel to site and to storage:
Most thermal stations use coal as the main fuel. Raw coal is transported from coal mines to
a power station site by trucks, barges, bulk cargo ships or railway cars. Generally, when
shipped by railways, the coal cars are sent as a full train of cars. The coal received at site
may be of different sizes. The railway cars are unloaded at site by rotary dumpers or side
tilt dumpers to tip over onto conveyor belts below. The coal is generally conveyed to
crushers which crush the coal to about inch (6 mm) size. The crushed coal is then sent
by belt conveyors to a storage pile. Normally, the crushed coal is compacted by bulldozers,
as compacting of highly volatile coal avoids spontaneous ignition.
The crushed coal is conveyed from the storage pile to silos or hoppers at the boilers by
another belt conveyor system.

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Boiler or Steam generator:
A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by applying heat energy to
water. Although the definitions are somewhat flexible, it can be said that older steam
generators were commonly termed boilers and worked at low to medium pressure
(1300 psi/0.06920.684 bar; 6.8952,068.427 kPa), but at pressures above this it is
more usual to speak of a steam generator.
A boiler or steam generator is used wherever a source of steam is required. The form and
size depends on the application: mobile steam engines such as steam locomotives,
portable engines and steam-powered road vehicles typically use a smaller boiler that
forms an integral part of the vehicle; stationary steam engines, industrial installations and
power stations will usually have a larger separate steam generating facility connected to
the point-of-use by piping. A notable exception is the steam-powered fireless locomotive,
where separately-generated steam is transferred to a receiver (tank) on the locomotive.
The steam generator or boiler is an integral component of a steam engine when
considered as a prime mover; however it needs be treated separately, as to some extent a
variety of generator types can be combined with a variety of engine units. A boiler
incorporates a firebox or furnace in order to burn the fuel and generate heat; the heat is
initially transferred to water to make steam; this produces saturated steam at ebullition
temperature saturated steam which can vary according to the pressure above the boiling
water. The higher the furnace temperature, the faster the steam production. The saturated
steam thus produced can then either be used immediately to produce power via a turbine
and alternator, or else may be further superheated to a higher temperature; this notably
reduces suspended water content making a given volume of steam produce more work
and creates a greater temperature gradient in order to counter tendency to condensation
due to pressure and heat drop resulting from work plus contact with the cooler walls of
the steam passages and cylinders and wire-drawing effect from strangulation at the
regulator. Any remaining heat in the combustion gases can then either be evacuated or
made to pass through an economizer, the role of which is to warm the feed water before it
reaches the boiler.
Boiler types:
1. According to the contents in the tube.
i. Fire tube boiler.
ii. Water tube boiler.
2. According to the position of the furnace.
i. Internally fired boiler.
ii. Externally fired boiler.
3. According to the axis of the shell.
i. Vertical axis.
ii. Horizontal axis.

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4. According to the number of tubes.
i. Single tube boilers.
ii. Multitubular boilers.

5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam.
i. Natural circulation boilers.
ii. Forced circular boilers.
6. According to the use.
i. Stationary boilers.
ii. Mobile boilers.
Combustion:
The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil,
or natural gas. Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam. Heat
recovery steam generators (HRSGs) use the heat rejected from other processes such as gas
turbines.
Solid fuel firing:
In order to improve the burning characteristics of the fire, air needs to be supplied
through the grate, or more importantly above the fire. Most boilers now depend on
mechanical draft equipment rather than natural draught. This is because natural draught
is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases leaving the furnace, as
well as chimney height. All these factors make effective draught hard to attain and
therefore make mechanical draught equipment much more economical. There are three
types of mechanical draught:
1. Induced draught: This is obtained one of three ways, the first being the "stack
effect" of a heated chimney, in which the flue gas is less dense than the ambient air
surrounding the boiler. The denser column of ambient air forces combustion air
into and through the boiler. The second method is through use of a steam jet. The
steam jet or ejector oriented in the direction of flue gas flow induces flue gases into
the stack and allows for a greater flue gas velocity increasing the overall draught in
the furnace. This method was common on steam driven locomotives which could
not have tall chimneys. The third method is by simply using an induced draught fan
(ID fan) which sucks flue gases out of the furnace and up the stack. Almost all
induced draught furnaces have a negative pressure.
2. Forced draught: draught is obtained by forcing air into the furnace by means of a
fan (FD fan) and ductwork. Air is often passed through an air heater; which, as the
name suggests, heats the air going into the furnace in order to increase the overall
efficiency of the boiler. Dampers are used to control the quantity of air admitted to
the furnace. Forced draught furnaces usually have a positive pressure.
3. Balanced draught: Balanced draught is obtained through use of both induced and
forced draft. This is more common with larger boilers where the flue gases have to
travel a long distance through many boiler passes. The induced draft fan works in
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conjunction with the forced draft fan allowing the furnace pressure to be
maintained slightly below atmospheric.
Water treatment:
Feed water for boilers needs to be as pure as possible with a minimum of suspended
solids and dissolved impurities which cause corrosion, foaming and water carryover.
Various chemical treatments have been employed over the years, the most successful
being Porta treatment. This contains a foam modifier that acts as a filtering blanket on the
surface of the water that considerably purifies steam quality.
Boiler safety:
Many steam engines possess boilers that are pressure vessels that contain a great deal of
potential energy. Steam explosions can and have caused great loss of life in the past. While
variations in standards may exist in different countries, stringent legal, testing, training
and certification is applied to try to minimise or prevent such occurrences.
Failure modes include:
overpressurisation of the boiler
insufficient water in the boiler causing overheating and vessel failure
pressure vessel failure of the boiler due to inadequate construction or
maintenance.
Essential boiler fittings:
Safety valve
Pressure measurement
Blowdown Valves
Main steam Stop Valve
Feed check valves
Fusible Plug
Water gauge
Low-Water Alarm
Low Water Fuel Cut-out
Inspector's Test Pressure Gauge Attachment
Name Plate
Registration Plate
Feedwater pump
Steam accessories:
Main steam stop valve
Steam traps
Main steam stop/Check valve used on multiple boiler installations.
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Combustion accessories:
Fuel oil system.
Gas system.
Coal system.
Automatic combustion systems.
Steam turbine:
Introduction:
A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual
change of momentum of the steam. In steam turbine, the force exerted on the blades is due
to the velocity of steam. This is due to the fact that the curved blades by changing the
direction of steam receive a force or impulse. The dynamical pressure of steam rotates the
vanes, buckets or blades directly. The turbine blades curved in such a way that the steam
directed upon them enters without shock, though there is always some loss of energy by
the friction upon the surface of blades. The basic principle of operation of a steam turbine
is the generation of high velocity steam jet by the expansion of high pressure steam and
then conversion of kinetic energy, so obtained into mechanical work on rotor blades.
Classification of steam turbine:
The steam turbines may be classified into the following types:
1. According to the mode steam action
i. Impulse turbine and
ii. Reaction turbine.
2. According to the direction of steam flow
i. Axial flow turbine and
ii. Radial flow turbine.

3. According to the exhaust condition of steam
i. Condensing turbine and
ii. Non-condensing turbine.
4. According to the pressure of turbine
i. High pressure turbine.
ii. Medium pressure turbine and
iii. Low pressure.
5. According to the number of stages
i. Single stage and
ii. Multi-stage turbine.

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Impulse turbine:
An impulse turbine, as the name indicates, is a turbine which runs by the impulse of steam
jet. In this turbine, the steam is first made to flow through a nozzle, then the steam jet
impinges on the turbine blades. The action of the jet of steam, impinging on the blades, is
said to be an impulse and the rotation of the rotor is due to the impulsive forces of the
steam jets. The steam impinges on the buckets with kinetic energy. De-Level turbine is the
simplest type of impulse turbine.
Reaction turbine:
In a reaction turbine, the steam enters the wheel under pressure and flows over the
blades. The steam while gliding, propels the blades and make them to move, as a matter
fact, the turbine runner is rotated by the reactive forces of steam jets. The backward
motion of the blades is similar to the recoil of gun. The steam glides over the moving vanes
with pressure and kinetic energy. The steam flows first through guide mechanism and
then through the moving blades. It may be noted that an absolute reaction turbine is
rarely used in actual practice.















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Impulse Turbine Stage:

As the steam passes through a nozzle from a high pressure pipeline to a lower pressure
region, the velocity of the steam increases as the thermal energy is converted to kinetic
energy. The velocity of the flow depends upon the difference in pressures between the
high pressure and the low pressure regions. The weight rate of flow depends upon the
velocity and the cross sectional area of the nozzle throat. This is illustrated in figure 1-2
below. The decrease in thermal energy as the steam passes through the nozzle equals the
increase in kinetic energy, which is proportional to the square of the velocity.

KE = WV / 2g
Where KE = kinetic energy in ft lb
W = weight of the steam in lb
V = velocity of the steam in ft/sec
g = 32 ft /sec

If an obstruction, such as a turbine blade, is placed in the path of the flowing steam, the
steam will exert a force, or an "impulse" on the blade in an amount equal to the weight
rate of flow and the velocity of the steam. As the blade moves due to this force, work is
performed on the blade in an amount equal to the force times the distance the blade
moves due to this force. If the blade is one of a series of such blades connected to a rotor,
the rotor will spin as the continuous flow of steam impinges on each successive blade.
Such a device would constitute a simple form of a turbine called an impulse turbine. This
action is illustrated in figures 1-2 and 1-3 below.



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In order to obtain the maximum amount of work from the steam, all of its kinetic energy
must be converted to work. In other words, the steam must leave the blade with zero
absolute velocity. Assuming a frictionless blade, the velocity of the steam relative to the
blade must be the same entering as leaving, but reversed in direction. Also, the blade
velocity must be one half of the entering steam velocity. (Refer to figure 1-3). There are
actually two different forces acting on the blade. The first is the force of the steam jet
striking the blade, as described. The second is the reactive force due to the change in
direction of the steam flow between the entrance and exit from the blade. In actual
turbines, it is impractical to utilize the full advantage of complete reversal of the steam. In
a conventional impulse stage, the blades project radially from the wheel and the nozzles
are placed so that the steam flow is at an angle to the plane of rotation. (Shown in figure 1-
4).

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The pressure and velocity changes taking place are shown in figure 1-4. The only pressure
drop occurs in the nozzle. The pressure entering the blades is the same as that leaving the
blades.

Force Vector Diagram for Impulse Stage:

Now consider the force vector diagram of following figure. A mass of steam entering a row
of moving blades with a relative velocity V2 will have a momentum which will exert an
impulse force F1 in the direction V2. The same mass of steam leaving the row of moving
blades with a relative velocity V3 will exert a reactive force F2 on the blade opposite to the
direction of V3. If V2 is equal to V3 in magnitude, assuming no friction between the steam
and the blade, and if the blade entrance angle () is equal to the blade exit angle (), the
components T1 and T2 will be equal and opposite, and the resultant will produce zero axial
thrust on the turbine wheel. In actual design, angle () is made slightly larger than angle
() to account for friction between steam and blade.



T1 F1

R1
R2
T2
F2






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Model Steam Turbine
In this activity we will demonstrate how different energy sources can be used to spin a
turbine. Remember that the sole purpose of spinning a turbine at a power plant is to rotate
an electrical generator. The turbine in this activity is not strong enough to operate an
electrical generator; however, we can still experience how the force of steam is used to
make a turbine spin. We will also be constructing a device that produces steam in a
manner similar to that used at a steam-driven power plant. We will recall from the theory
that the actual steam production technology at a power plant is extremely sophisticated
and produces steam at very high pressures. However, this activity works well enough to
get the point across.

Steam turbines have come very much to the fore during recent years, especially for
marine propulsion. In principle they are far simpler than cylinder engines, steam being
merely directed at a suitable angle on to specially shaped vanes attached to a revolving
drum and shaft. In the Parsons type of turbine the steam expands as it passes through
successive rings of blades, the diameter of which rings, as well as the length and number of
the blades, increases towards the exhaust end of the casing, so that the increasing velocity
of the expanding steam may be taken full advantage of. The De Laval turbine includes but a
single ring of vanes, against which the steam issues through nozzles so shaped as to allow
the steam to expand somewhat and its molecules to be moving at enormous velocity
before reaching the vanes. A De Laval wheel revolves at terrific speeds, the limit being tens
of thousands of turns per minute for the smallest engines. The greatest efficiency is
obtained, theoretically, when the vane velocity is half that of the steam, the latter, after
passing round the curved inside surfaces of the vanes, being robbed of all its energy and
speed. The turbines to be described work on the De-Laval principle, which has been
selected as the easier for the beginner to follow.

A Very Simple Turbine:

We will begin with a very simple contrivance, shown in Figure. As a "power plant" it is
confessedly useless, but the making of it affords amusement and instruction. For the boiler
select a circular pipe, of diameter 4 inches, so as to give plenty of heating surface, and at
least 6 inches deep, to ensure a good steam space and moderately dry steam, welded both
side to make it water tight. A shallow boiler may "prime" badly, if reasonably full, and fling
out a lot of water with the steam. Clean the metal round the joints, and drill three holes on
the upper portion, one for water inlet, one for steam outlet and last one is for mounting
pressure gauze, two half an inch in diameter and one inches in diameter. For the turbine
blades take a piece of thin sheet GI; flatten it out. Then scratch a series of marks on the
sheet and turn it to seven numbers of pieces of equal dimensions and make a slight bend
from the two nearest edges to make them in the form of curved shape. And directly
welded them in equal distance on the circumference of the turbine hub. Turbine hub and
shaft are made up of stainless steel with two numbers of ball bearings and the whole
assembly is supported on stand. A check valve is fitted on steam outlet to control the flows
of steam through the pipelines and turbine. Pipeline is made up of mild steel, half an inch
in diameter. Nozzle is fitted in the pipe line. A rigid frame made up of mild steel is made to
support the whole establishment.
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VANE NOZZLE OUTLET PIPE LINE


P.G.
C.V. W.I.
HUB

SHAFT



HEAT*

SUPPORT

C.V. = Check Valve
W.I. = Water Inlet
P.G. = Pressure Gauge

Fig: Steam Turbine Model

*Note: Heat is supplied with the aid of electric heater of 1000W


BOILER
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Model of steam turbine:
Main components:
Boiler: The boiler is made from a mild steel circular pipe, of diameter 4 inches, so as to
give plenty of heating surface, 6mm thickness and at least 6 inches deep, to ensure a good
steam space and moderately dry steam, welded both sides (upper and lower) to make it
water tight. A shallow boiler may "prime" badly, if reasonably full, and fling out a lot of
water with the steam. Clean the metal round the joints, and drill three holes on the upper
portion, one for water inlet, one for steam outlet and last one is for mounting pressure
gauze, two half an inch in diameter and one inches in diameter. One socket of inches
in diameter is fixed by welding joint, two numbers of half inches socket are also welded
with upper portion of boiler. Boiler is filled with water in such a manner that space for
steam must be there above the water surface. Water is heated by electric heater of 1000W.
Heater is fitted below the boiler and supply heat at a constant rate. Formation of Dry
steam is occurred just above the water surface. Boiler must be sustain heat and steam
pressure due to safety reason. For that precaution must be followed.
Steam outlet pipe: Simple mild steel pipe of half inches in diameter is used as a steam
outlet pipe. It is connected with check valve. Nozzle is fitted with this pipe to increase the
velocity of the steam by decreasing the pressure. Steam outlet pipe must be sustain the
steam pressure.
Check valve: Check valve is fitted between the outlet pipe and the socket. It is used to
check the flow of steam or in other words to control the flow of steam. It is made up of
brass material due to safety reason. It is fitted just above the boiler shell and manually
operated. We can control the flow of steam by revolving the wheel of valve.
Pressure gauge: A Bourdon type pressure gauge is fitted on the boiler to know the
steam pressure inside the boiler. Pressure gauge is one of the important mounting.
Pressure gauge must be fitted on every boiler due to safety reason or in other words to
minimum the risk or hazards. Pressure gauge shows reading in both C.G.S. system and
F.P.S. system (in both kg/cm
2
and psi).
Nozzle: Nozzle is a device which is used to increase the velocity of fluid by decreasing
pressure. Convergent-divergent nozzle is commonly used for this purpose. We construct
this nozzle from a mild steel bar of half inches diameter. Drilled a 3mm hole through the
center. On the outside end, enlarge this hole to 5mm to a depth of 200mm. Nozzle is fitted
with outlet pipe so that the steam may expand and gain velocity as it approaches the
blade.

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Turbine wheel: Turbine wheel consists of shaft, hub and blades. Hub is made up of
stainless steel and blades are welded on the circumference of the hub in equal distance.
Shaft is fitted in the hub and rotates along its axis with the aid of steam force. Shaft is made
up of mild steel material. To decrease the friction between the shaft and inner surface of
the hub two ball bearings are fitted between them.
Components of turbine wheel:
1. Shaft.
2. Hub.
3. Bearings.
4. Blades or vanes.
Blades: Seven numbers of vanes are fitted on the hub of the turbine. Construction
procedures of making blades are to mark out a piece of GI sheet to form seven rectangles,
2.5 inches by 6 inches. Cut very carefully according to the marking line. In the edge of a
piece of hard wood 1 inch thick file a notch 3/8 inch wide and 1/8 inch deep with a 1/2-
inch circular file and procure a metal bar which fits the groove loosely. Each blade is laid in
turn over the groove, and the bar is applied lengthwise on it and driven down with a
mallet, to give the blade the curvature of the groove. When all the blades have been made
and shaped, weld them on the circumference of the hub. True up the long edges of the
blades with a file, and bring them off to a sharp edge, removing the metal from the convex
side.

Frame: A rigid frame is made from 1x1 inch MS angle to support the whole
arrangement. Frame must have enough strength to give proper support.










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Conclusion:
In this activity we will demonstrate how different energy sources can be used to spin a
turbine. Since this activity is a simple demonstration, the full scientific method outline is
not called for here. The turbine in this activity is not strong enough to operate an electrical
generator; however, we can still experience how the force of steam is used to make a
turbine spin. We will also be constructing a device that produces steam in a manner
similar to that used at a steam-driven power plant. We will recall from the theory that the
actual steam production technology at a power plant is extremely sophisticated and
produces steam at very high pressures. However, this activity works well enough to get
the point across. Our main motto is to make a working model of steam turbine which may
be in use for demonstration purpose.


Bibliography:
Steam Turbine and Steam Power Plant
--by R. Yadav
A text book of Thermal Engineering
--by R.S. Khurmi
& J. K. Gupta