The Unipolar Moment 1992 2008: concept and examples

Unipolarity in international politics is the distribution of power in which one state

exercises most of the cultural, economic, and military influence. A hegemon has the
opportunity to shape the international system in according to its political values and
interests, but it also has to manage the system and to tackle international crisis. However,
in time political rivals may rise and challenge the order promoted by the hegemon.
After the fall of the USSR at the end of !!, America was offered a historical
chance to impose itself as the world"s only superpower. #n $rauthammer terms,
%American preeminence is based on the fact that it is the only country with the military,
diplomatic, political and economic assets to be a decisive player in any conflict whatever
part of the world it chooses to involve itself&. #t is the combination of all four that makes
America the only comprehensive global superpower. 'ew enemies were identified, and
new strategies have to be applied. (he new dangers for the American security now, were
the spread of nuclear weapons, the terrorist actions of radical #slamists, and later the rise
of political rivals such as )hina of Russia.
The Clinton presidency 1993-2001
Major orei!n policy principles
*or the +ill )linton Administration the United States was an %indispensable
nation&. (he American foreign policy during )linton"s reign at the ,hite House focused
around two ma-or foreign policy ob-ectives.
(he creation of a more stable and peaceful international system /
(he dissemination of democratic values abroad through the spread of
globalization, believing in the idea that national rivalries could be
appeased through global institutionali0ed cooperation.
"orei!n policy actions

(hrough bilateral negotiations with Russia, the )linton administration

successfully signed in !!1 the S(AR( ## (reaty, followed one year later by the 2utual
3etargeting (reaty. (he US also obtained a Ukrainian commitment to the
'onproliferation (reaty as a nonmember state in return for enhanced economic
assistance.
(he )linton Administration also tried, however unsuccessfully, to persuade 'orth
$orea to give up its nuclear arsenal. #n !!4, America launched the military operation
%3esert *ox& against #ra5, due to the fact that Saddam Hussein was violating the U' S)
resolutions.

#n regards to #ran, another country linked to the development of nuclear

weapons, and also considered a %state sponsor of terrorism& )linton adopted the strategy
of economic sanctions.
)linton was a great supporter of 'A(6 enlargement and also of the 7uropean
Union enlargement. Secretary of state 2adeline Albright was the main artisan of the
'A(6 enlargement. She infused a sharply defined sense of geopolitical direction into the
'S)
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deliberations, with emphasis on 7urope. #n 9uly !!:, after the 2adrid Summit the
Atlantic Alliance expanded first time after the )old ,ar, when ;oland, )0ech Republic
and Hungary have been invited to -oin 'A(6. 3ue to the fact that the US had to had to
find a way to accommodate Russia, two months before the expansion, the 'A(6 <
Russia *ounding Act was signed. However, all states that opted for 'A(6 membership
had to fulfill several criteria related to democrati0ation, market economy, civil control
over the Army, the capability of being a security provider and not a security consumer,
and good relations to their neighbors. Additionally on the 7uropean continent, the
7uropean )ommunity stepped closer towards integration after the signing of the

After the =ulf ,ar of !!, #ra5 was under U' S) resolutions >:4?!!@and >4:?!! thus having to
remove and destroy all its chemical, biological and ballistic missiles. #t then established the United 'ations
Special )ommission relating to inspections and set provisions for it, and asked #ra5 to abide by its
obligations under the 'uclear 'onA;roliferation (reaty, agreeing not to develop nuclear weapons
8
'ational Security )ouncil is the principal forum used by the ;resident of the United States for considering
national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors and )abinet officials
and is part of the 7xecutive 6ffice of the ;resident of the United States.
8
2aastricht treaty in !!8, which created the 7uropean Union. *urthermore, in !!B
Austria, *inland and Sweden -oined the 7U.
A -oint US < 7U effort led to the successful completion in !!C of the Uruguay
Round of the =A((. As a result, on 9anuary !!B the ,orld (rade 6rgani0ation has been
established, which was a ma-or step towards the emergence of a global economic order
and a supranational solidarity.
#n its relation towards )hina, )linton tried to attract +ei-ing in the international
economic structures, especially using the gradual inclusion in the ,(6, and to facilitate
the progressive integration of )hina"s economy into the world system, the US in !!C
extended most favored nation status to )hina. +y doing this )linton hoped that in the
long run a )hina that accepts international rules and it is drawn into greater economical
interdependence would be drawn into greater respect for human rights and democracy.
,ith strong U.S. support, Russia has begun an unprecedented transition to
democracy and free markets, undergoing fundamental changes in its political, economic
and social life. )linton advocated for human rights by encouraging Russia to adhere to
international norms on human rights, promoted legal reform and the rule of law in Russia
through assistance, aimed at developing an independent -udiciary and improving legal
decisionAmaking and respect for the rule of law and strengthened independent media in
Russia by providing training, small grants and technical assistance to independent (D,
radio and print media across Russia. All those things were possible due to the special
relation cultivated between +ill )linton and Russia"s president +oris Eeltsin.
+eing the hegemon of the system, the US had to manage several international
crisis worldwide. #n 7urope, Eugoslavia was torn apart by ethnic conflicts. 3ue to the
lack of military capabilities the 7uropean powers were unable to intervene, and therefore
the US interventions under the 'A(6 umbrella, in !!CA!!B in +osnia and in !!! in
$osovo were decisive for the stabili0ation of the former Eugoslavian space. (he US also
backed a United 'ations humanitarian intervention in Haiti in !!C. 6n the African
continent, America contributed to another U' mission in Somalia, which however ended
1
with heavily fatalities for the Americans, but had an attitude of indifference towards the
Rwanda genocide from !!C < !!B.
#n the 2iddle 7ast, (he )linton Administration played a central role in the peace
process between #sraeli and ;alestinians, supporting and contributing to several peace
plans such as the 6slo ;eace Accords from !!1, and the )amp 3avid ## 'egotiations
from 8@@@.
#oc$ments hi!hli!htin! the Clinton %dministration &orld'ie&
A critical priority for the United States is to stem the proliferation of nuclear
weapons and other weapons of mass destruction and their missile delivery systems.
Countries' weapons programs, and their levels of cooperation with our nonproliferation
efforts, will be among our most important criteria in udging the nature of our bilateral
relations!.
"ever has American leadership been more essential # to navigate the shoals of
the world's new dangers and to capitalize on its opportunities.
$his report, ... elaborates a national security strategy tailored for this new era. %ocusing
on new threats and new opportunities, its central goals are& $o sustain our security with
military forces that are ready to fight' $o bolster America's economic revitalization' $o
promote democracy abroad.!
(democratic states are less li)ely to threaten our interests and more li)ely to cooperate
with the U.S. to meet security threats(!.
extract from . ,hite House, "ational Security Strategy of *ngagement and *nlargement.
*ebruary !!B, http.??www.au.af.mil?au?awc?awcgate?nss?nssA!B.pdf
The (eor!e )* +$sh ,residency 2001-2009
Major orei!n policy principles
After the !? terrorist attacks the American decision makers identified new
threats and new foreign policy ob-ectives for the US, highlighting a dogmatic view about
C
the world, which was the product of its decision making apparatus which was formed
mainly by neoconservatives
1
, a branch from the Republican ;arty.
(he American foreign policy during =eorge ,. +ush"s reign at the ,hite House
focused around ma-or foreign policy concepts such as.
After !? new dangers were identified. terrorist actions promoted by
radical #slamist, the spread of nuclear weapons with the possibility that
such weapons might fall in the hands of the terrorists,
America has a global mission/ it is a %benevolent hegemony& and the
ma-ority of the world powers will accept the US global domination instead
of other alternatives/
Rogue states such as #ra5, #ran, 'orth $orea represent a source of
instability for the international system and a potential threat for the
American security due to their antagonistic political regimes. (hus,
democrati0ation through regime change should be an option in dealing
with them.
#n 8@@8 the +ush Administration adopted a new security strategy which
focused around principles such as %unilateralism&, %preemptive strike& and
%regime change&.
"orei!n policy actions
#n reaction to the terrorist attacks on ,orld (rade )enter and ;entagon, the US
led a 'A(6 invasion of Afghanistan, in 6ctober 8@@, instigating the F=lobal ,ar on
(errorF. (he campaignGs official purpose was to eliminate alAHaeda and other militant
organi0ations. 2oreover, in 2arch 8@@1 the United States invaded Saddam Hussein"s
#ra5, under the pretext that the baathist
C
regime from +aghdad has strong links with Al
Haeda and has secret program of ,eapons of 2ass 3estruction. (he situation was
different from the previous war in Afghanistan, due to the fact that there was no U' S)
1
(he neoconservatives from =. ,. +ush Administration were Richard )heney , Dice president, 3onald
Rumsfeld Secretary of 3efense, ;aul ,olfowit0, Secretary 3eputy of 3efence and Iewis Iibby, vice
president"s chief of staff
C
+a"ath ;arty was a socialist and single party state which covered the history of the Republic of #ra5 from
!>4 to 8@@1.
B
resolution allowing the invasion and the war was waged by the US and a coalition of
willing. (he 8@@1 invasion of #ra5 raised several controversies both in US and
worldwide. 3ue to the fact that there was no U' Security )ouncil resolution to allow a
war against #ra5, the US lost its credibility even among its allies. +esides those aspects,
severe critiques addressed to the Bush Administration are related also
to the post war situation from Iraq and the nation building process
started there.
3uring the =eorge ,. +ush reign at the ,hite House 'A(6 expanded over the
former soviet sphere of influence, in 8@@8 after the ;rague Summit when +ulgaria,
7stonia, Iatvia, Iithuania, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia were invited to -oin the
Alliance, and after 8@@4 +ucharest Summit when Albania and )roatia were invited to be
part of the Atlantic Alliance.
As an effort to stop the spreading of nuclear weapons proliferation, on the other
hand, Russia and the US have cooperated on the 'orth $orean nuclear program issue.
(he SixA ;arty (alks, which formally commenced in 8@@C, involving the US, ;R of
)hina, 9apan, Russia, South $orea and 'orth $orea, this being, a far reaching
acknowledgement that security of the *ar 7ast re5uired some form of international
architecture. Also, =eorge ,. +ush has made clear that an #ranian enrichment program is
unacceptable, consistently stating that the United States will not allow #ran to possess a
nuclear weapon or the means to create a nuclear weapon. Subse5uently, the US officials
worked within the United 'ations to pass several resolutions calling on #ran to stop
enriching uranium, and also opted for the imposing of economic sanctions on #ran for
continuing to enrich uranium.
#n the 2iddle 7ast peace process between #srael and ;alestine, +ush came with a
%two states solution& in 8@@8, but later the plan was abandoned. #n the policy towards
Africa, ;resident +ush has done work to reduce the H#D?A#3S epidemics in Africa, stop
the spread of 2alaria, and rebuild broken nations from their genocidal pasts. And also,
6n 6ctober C, 8@@> +ush signed a law imposing sanctions against people responsible
for genocide and war crimes in Sudan.
>
(he unilateral style of foreign policy was also visible not only in areas related to
security issues. 3uring the +ush presidency, negotiations in the 8@@B continuing 3oha
Round of the ,(6 were stalemated by contending American and 7uropean views
regarding agricultural subsidies. #n the same year, the $yoto ;rotocol came into effect but
without the commitment of the United States .
3ue to Dladimir ;utin"s new vision, Russia started to emerge as a geopolitical
rival. #n 8@@8, +ush withdrew the United States from the AntiA+allistic 2issile (reaty in
order to move forward with plans for a missile defense system. ;utin called the decision a
mistake. Russia strongly opposed the 8@@1 U.S. invasion of #ra5, though without
exercising its veto in the United 'ations Security )ouncil. *rom $remlin"s standpoint,
the expansion of 'A(6 into the old 7astern +loc, and U.S. efforts to gain access to
)entral Asian oil and natural was seen as a potentially hostile encroachment on RussiaGs
sphere of influence. *urthermore, US < Russia relations were strained by 8@@: US
announcement to build an antiAballistic missile defense installation in ;oland and )0ech
Republic, by the 8@@4 Russian military intervention in =eorgia and by a Russian <
Dene0uelan -oint naval exercises in the seas of Dene0uela, which the US saw it as a
reaction to the American announcement of the anti ballistic missile shield. Russia and the
US also disagree on the independence of $osovo issue, which followed in *ebruary
8@@4. ,hile the US recogni0ed the new states, $remlin strongly opposed considering
that the recognition of $osovo"s unilaterally declared independence as a Fa terrible
precedent, which will de facto blow apart the whole system of international relations,
developed not over decades, but over centuriesF.
3espite the fact that during his speeches president +ush has critici0ed +ei-ing
several times for its human rights abuses, the US has supported )hina"s inclusion in the
,(6 in 8@@ and worked together on regional issues, including those pertaining to 'orth
$orea and its nuclear weapons program.
:
#oc$ments hi!hli!htin! the +$sh %dministration &orld'ie&
States li)e these +,ra-, ,ran, "orth .orea/
0
, and their terrorist allies, constitute an a1is
of evil, arming to threaten the peace of the world. 2y see)ing weapons of mass
destruction, these regimes pose a grave and growing danger. $hey could provide these
arms to terrorists, giving them the means to match their hatred. $hey could attac) our
allies or attempt to blac)mail the United States!.
,resident (eor!e )* +$sh -tate o the Union %ddress. 2002
$he U.S. national security strategy will be based on a distinctly American
internationalism that reflects the union of our values and our national interests.
3hile the United States will constantly strive to enlist the support of the international
community, we will not hesitate to act alone, if necessary, to e1ercise our right of self
defense by acting preemptively against such terrorists, to prevent them from doing harm
against our people and our country'
3e must be prepared to stop rogue states and their terrorist clients before they are able to
threaten or use weapons of mass destruction against the United States and our allies and
friends.
$raditional concepts of deterrence will not wor) against a terrorist enemy whose avowed
tactics are wanton destruction and the targeting of innocents' whose so4called soldiers
see) martyrdom in death and whose most potent protection is statelessness. $he overlap
between states that sponsor terror and those that pursue 356 compels us to action.
%or centuries, international law recognized that nations need not suffer an attac) before
they can lawfully ta)e action to defend themselves against forces that present an
imminent danger of attac). 7egal scholars and international urists often conditioned the
legitimacy of preemption on the e1istence of an imminent threat#most often a visible
mobilization of armies, navies, and air
forces preparing to attac).
$he United States has long maintained the option of preemptive actions to counter a
sufficient threat to our national security. $he greater the threat, the greater is the ris) of
inaction# and the more compelling the case for ta)ing anticipatory action to defend
ourselves, even if uncertainty remains as to the time and place of the enemy8s attac).
$he United States will not use force in all cases to preempt emerging threats, nor should
nations use preemption as a prete1t for aggression. 9et in an age where the enemies of
civilization openly and actively see) the world8s most destructive technologies, the United
States cannot remain idle while dangers gather!
B
Author"s emphasis
4
The /ational -ec$rity -trate!y o the United -tates, September 8@@8,
0ecommended 1i1lio!raphy
)harles $rauthammer, %(he Unipolar 2oment&, %oreign Affairs, :ol. ;<. "o.=, !!, pp.
81A11
9oseph 'ye 9r. %(he *uture of American ;ower. 3ominance and 3ecline in ;erspective&,
%oreign Affairs, "ovember46ecember, 8@@
9ohn Iewis =addis, Surprise, security and the American e1perience, )ambridge,
2assachusetts, and Iondon, 8@@C
Jbigniew +r0e0inski, Second chance& three presidents and the crisis of American
Superpower, +asic +ooks, 'ew Eork, 8@@: KRomanian edition. A doua >ans?. $rei
pre>edin@i >i criza superputerii americane, Antet, ;rahova, 8@@!L
=. 9ohn #kenberry, %Iiberal 6rder +uilding&, in 2elvin Ieffler and 9effrey Iegro
MeditorsN, $o lead the 3orld& American Strategy after the 2ush 6octrine, 6xford
University ;ress, 8@@4
Robert $agan, %7nd of 3reams, Return of History&, in $o lead the 3orld& American
Strategy after the 2ush 6octrine, 6xford University ;ress, 8@@4
*rancis *ukuyama, %(he 'eoconservative 2oment&, in =ary Rosen MeditorN, $he Aight
3arB $he Conservative 6ebate on ,ra-, )ambridge University ;ress 8@@B
!